PGDBA Semester II MB0044 Production & Operations Management Q1. Explain in brief the origins of Just In Time.

. Explain the different types of wastes that can be eliminated using JIT Ans. Just in Time (JIT) is a management philosophy aimed at eliminating waste and continuously improving quality. Credit for developing JIT as a management strategy goes to Toyota. Toyota JIT manufacturing started in the aftermath of World War II. Although the history of JIT traces back to Henry Ford who applied Just in Time principles to manage inventory in the Ford Automobile Company during the early part of the 20th Century, the origins of the JIT as a management strategy traces to Taiichi Onho of the Toyota Manufacturing Company. He developed Just in Time strategy as a means of competitive advantage during the post World War II period in Japan. The post-World War II Japanese automobile industry faced a crisis of existence, and companies such as Toyota looked to benchmark their thriving American counterparts. The productivity of an American car worker was nine times that of a Japanese car worker at that time, and Taiichi Onho sought ways to reach such levels. Two pressing challenges however prevented Toyota from adopting the American way:

1.

American car manufacturers made lots or a batch of a model or a

component before switching over to a new model or component. This system was not suited to the Japanese conditions where a small market required manufacturing in small quantities. 2. The car pricing policy of US manufacturers was to charge a mark-up on the cost price. The low demand in Japan led to price resistance. The need of the hour was thus to reduce manufacturing costs to increase profits. To overcome these two challenges, Taiichi Onho identified waste as the primary evil. The categories of waste identified included
overproduction inventory or waste associated with keeping dead stock time spent by workers waiting for materials to appear in the assembly line time spend on transportation or movement workers spending more time than necessary processing an item

 waste associated with defective items

Taiichi Onho then sought to eliminate waste through the just-in-timephilosophy, where items moved through the production system only as and when needed.

Q2. What is Value Engineering or Value Analysis? Elucidate five companies which have incorporated VE with brief explanation. Ans. Value Engineering(VE), also known as Value Analysis, is a systematic and function-based approach to improving the value of products, projects, or processes.VE involves a team of people following a structured process. The process helps team members communicate across boundaries, understand different perspectives, innovate, and analyze. When to use it Use Value Analysis to analyze and understand the detail of specific situations. Use it to find a focus on key areas for innovation. Use it in reverse (called Value Engineering) to identify specific solutions to detail problems. It is particularly suited to physical and mechanical problems, but can also be used in other areas. Quick Logical Individu al X X X Long Psychologic al Group

How it works Value Analysis (and its design partner, Value Engineering) is used to increase the value of products or services to all concerned by considering the function of individual items and the benefit of this function and balancing this against the costs incurred in delivering it. The task then becomes to increase the value or decrease the cost.

Q3. Explain different types of Quantitative models. Differentiate between work study and motion study.
Ans. Quantitative models are needed for a variety of management tasks, including (a) identication of critical variables to use for health monitoring,

(b) antici- pating service level violations by using predictive models, and (c) on-going op- timization of congurations. Unfortunately, constructing quantitative models requires specialized skills that are in short supply. Even worse, rapid changes in provider congurations and the evolution of business demands mean that quantitative models must be updated on an on-going basis. This paper de-scribes an architecture and algorithms for on-line discovery of quantitativemodels without prior knowledge of the managed elements. The architecture makes use of an element schema that describes managed elements using the common information model (CIM). Algorithms are presented for selecting a subset of the element metrics to use as explanatory variables in a quantitative model and for constructing the quantitative model itself. We further describe a prototype system based on this architecture that incorporates these algo-rithms. We apply the prototype to on-line estimation of response times for DB2 Universal Database under a TPC-W workload. Of the approximately 500 metrics available from the DB2 performance monitor, our system chooses 3 to construct a model that explains 72% of the variability of response time.

In production and operations management, models refer to any simple representation of reality in different forms such as mathematical equations, graphical representation, pictorial representation, and physical models. Thus a model could be the well known economic order quantity (EOQ) formula, a PERT network chart, a motion picture of an operation, or pieces of strings stretched on a drawing of a plant layout to study the movement of material. The models help us to analyze and understand the reality. These also help us to work determine optimal conditions to for decision making. For example, the EOQ formula helps us to determine the optimum replenishment quantities that minimize the cost of storing plus replenishing.The number of different models we use in production and operations management run into hundreds, or even more than a thousand. These are really too many to enumerate in a place like these. I am listing below a random list of broad categories of models used in production and operations model. Operations research models. This is actually a very broad classification and covers many of the other categories in the list given here. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o Inventory models Forecasting models Network models Linear programming models Queuing models Production planning and control models Engineering drawings Photographs and motion pictures used in time and motion studies. Material movement charts Process flow diagrams Systems charts Statistical process control charts. Variance analysis Regression analysis Organization chart Fishbone chart

PGDBA- Semester II MB0044 Production & Operations Management Q1. Explain Logical process and Physical process modeling. What are the ingredients of Business Process? Ans Business Process Modeling A process is a coordinated set of activities designed to produce a specific outcome. There are processes for saving a file, constructing a building, and cooking a meal. In fact, there is a process for almost everything we do. A business process is a type of process designed to achieve a particular business objective. Business processes consist of many components, including:
The data needed to accomplish the desired business objective Individual work tasks that manipulate, review, or act upon the data in some way Decisions that affect the data in the process or the manner in which the process

is conducted
The movement of data between tasks in the process Individuals and groups which perform tasks

Processes can be manual or automated, fully documented or simply knowledge in the minds of one or more people. They can be simple or complex. They can be formal, requiring exact adherence to all details; or flexible, provided the desired outcome is achieved. Logical Process Modeling Logical Process Modeling is the representation of a business process, detailing all the activities in the process from gathering the initial data to reaching the desired outcome. These are the kinds of activities described in a logical process model:
Gathering the data to be acted upon Controlling access to the data during the process execution Determining which work task in the process should be accomplished next Delivering the appropriate subset of the data to the corresponding work task

 Assuring that all necessary data exists and all required actions have been

performed at each task

Providing a mechanism to indicate acceptance of the results of the process, such

as, electronic signatures All business processes are made up of these actions. The most complex of processes can be broken down into these concepts. The complexity comes in the manner in which the process activities are connected together. Some activities may occur in sequential order, while some may be performed in parallel. There may be circular paths in the process (a re-work loop, for example). It is likely there will be some combination of these. The movement of data and the decisions made determining the paths the data follow during the process comprise the process model. The contains only business activities, uses business terminology (not software acronyms, technical jargon, etc.), completely describes the activities of the business area being modeled, and is independent of any individual or position working in the organization. Like its sibling, Logical Data Modeling, Logical Process Modeling does not include redundant activities, technology dependent activities, physical limitations or requirements or current systems limitations or requirements. The process model is a representation of the business view of the set of activities under analysis. Heretofore, many applications and systems were built without a logical process model or a rigorous examination of the processes needed to accomplish the business goals. This resulted in applications that did not meet the needs of the users and / or were difficult to maintain and enhance. Problems with an unmodeled system include the following:
Not knowing who is in possession of the data at any point in time Lack of control over access to the data at any point in the process Inability to determine quickly where in the process the data resides and how long

it has been there

Difficulties in making adjustments to a specific execution of a business process Inconsistent process execution

. Ingredients of Business Process

1) Time: You must understand that time is money. In business, our objective is to make money. Period. But the question is how productively you convert your time into money. Are you making full use of your time or you just let the time pass by you? How much you make depends on how good you are at converting time to money. If you are already productive, then you may want to ask what are the things you can do to improve further the ratio of dollar/second? If you are making $0.01/second, what you can do to make it $0.02/second? Or even more. Remember time is the most valuable asset and once its gone, its gone. Also time is also the fairest distribution of resources every human being receives. 2) People: To be successful in business, you must have people connections. I mean the right people. People consist of customers, suppliers, partners, staff, and associates. One thing that you must not leave out is your mentor or coach. Having genuine mentors or coaches is very important and it can make a very big difference in your business. To make sure that you have more profits, you must serve people well. Organize your database of people connections. By simply knowing who does what, who supplies what, who needs what, where to get what make you miles ahead of other people. To organize your connections, you can either use a paper folder or computer spreadsheet. 3) Knowledge and Skills: When I talk about knowledge and skills, I am not referring to academic knowledge that you find in schools or colleges. Whats more important to you is knowledge and skills that can bring you results you want. How many MBA holders that you know of have become business owners and have made tones of money? That shows getting the right knowledge and skills is important. Dont blindly go after knowledge that could drown you. Go for knowledge and skills that are universally tested and proven. Examples of right knowledge and skills are where to get what from who, money making trends, marketing strategies, art of dealing with people, negotiation skills, selling skills, skills of managing and growing money, investment skills, universal laws of success, and more. Dont waste time on unnecessary knowledge as I went through that before.

Theres only so much that you need to know and learn. Be sharp and focus when you acquire knowledge and skills. Dont follow what normal people do. 4) Personal Health: In fact, this is the most important ingredient of all. How can you run a business without a healthy body? In order to maintain an optimum health, you have to provide your body with proper nutrients and sufficient exercise. And also dont forget about emotional well being. Dont let anger and other negative emotions control you. This is where positive and empowering attitudes come into play. Maintaining your body is just like maintaining your car. If you send your car to workshop for regular service and pump petrol regularly, why dont you do the same for your body? Its something for you to think about. Dont be stingy over spending money for your own health because physical and mental health can cause you a lot of money in the long run if your body is not taken care of properly. 5) Money: Lets face it. It does take money to make money even you need a little. But you might not need a lot of money to start a business because there are many ways to start one with low capital. I meet a lot of people who want to be rich but are not willing to invest the money. You must invest in something in order to for you to get something. The law of sowing and reaping is at work. Dont expect something without investing anything. Money is one of the investments you need to make. Even though you dont need to have a capital for your business, but at least you must be able to cover your expenses while building your business. You also need money to buy products to stock up and other stuff. So, you must at least come up with whatever amount that you have to start a business. These are the five basic ingredients of business success. Do your best to acquire or grow or invest in these ingredients. But the good thing is you dont need to have a perfect combination of ingredients to get started. You can still perfect the ingredients along the way. Somehow, get it started with what youve got. Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/24925

Q2. Explain Project Management knowledge areas. With an example explain work Breakdown Structure. Ans. The Project management knowledge areas are described in the following. Project integration management describes the processes and activities needed to identify, define, combine, unify and coordinate the various project management elements within the project management process groups. The project management processes are develop project charter, develop preliminary project scope statement, develop project management plan, direct and manage project execution, monitor and control project work, integrated change control and close project. Project scope management describes the processes needed to ensure that the project includes all the work required and only the work required to complete the project successfully. The project management processes are plan scope, define scope, create work breakdown structure, verify scope and control scope. Project time management describes the processes required to ensure on-time project completion. The project management processes are define project activities, sequence activities, estimate activity resources, estimate activity duration and develop and control project schedule. Project cost management describes the processes involved in planning, estimating, budgeting and controlling costs to ensure that the project is completed within the approved budget. The project management processes are cost estimating, cost budgeting and cost control. Project quality management describes the processes involved in assuring that the project will satisfy the objectives for which it was undertaken. The project management processes are quality planning, perform quality assurance and perform quality control. Project human resource management describes the processes that organise and manage the project team. The project management processes are human resource planning, acquire project team, develop project team and manage project team. Project communications management describes the processes concerning the timely and appropriate generation, collection, dissemination, storage and ultimate disposition of project information. The project management processes are communications planning, information distribution, performance reporting and manage stakeholders. Project risk management describes the processes concerned with conducting risk management on a project. The project management processes are risk management

planning, risk identification, qualitative risk analysis, quantitative risk analysis, risk response planning and risk monitoring and control. Project procurement management describes the processes that purchase or acquire products, services or results as well as contract management processes. The project management processes are plan purchases and acquisitions, plan contracting, request seller responses, select sellers, contract administration and contract closure. Work Breakdown Structure A work breakdown structure (WBS) in project management and systems engineering, is a tool used to define and group a projects discrete work elements in a way that helps organize and define the total work scope of the project.[1] A work breakdown structure element may be a product, data, a service, or any combination. A WBS also provides the necessary framework for detailed cost estimating and control along with providing guidance for schedule development and control. Additionally the WBS is a dynamic tool and can be revised and updated as needed by the project manager. Example of a product oriented work breakdown structure of anaircraft system Q3.Take an example of any product or project and explain Project Management Life Cycle. In industry, product lifecycle management (PLM) is the process of managing the entire lifecycle of a product from its conception, through design and manufacture, to service and disposal.[1] PLM integrates people, data, processes and business systems and provides a product information backbone for companies and their extended enterprise.[2] Product lifecycle management (PLM) should be distinguished from Product life cycle management (marketing) (PLCM). PLM describes the engineering aspect of a product, from managing descriptions and properties of a product through its development and useful life; whereas, PLCM refers to the commercial management of life of a product in the business market with respect to costs and sales measures. Product lifecycle management is one of the four cornerstones of a corporationsinformation technology structure.[3] All companies need to manage communications and information with their customers (CRM-Customer Relationship Management), their suppliers (SCM-Supply Chain Management), their resources within the enterprise (ERP-Enterprise Resource Planning) and their planning (SDLC-Systems Development Life Cycle). In addition, manufacturing engineering companies must also develop, describe, manage and communicate information about their products.

One form of PLM is called people-centric PLM. While traditional PLM tools have been deployed only on release or during the release phase, people-centric PLM targets the design phase. Example Recent (as of 2009) ICT development (EU funded PROMISE project 2004-2008) has allowed PLM to extend beyond traditional PLM and integrate sensor data and real time lifecycle event data into PLM, as well as allowing this information to be made available to different players in the total lifecycle of an individual product (closing the information loop). This has resulted in the extension of PLM into Closed Loop Lifecycle Management

Benefits
Documented benefits of product lifecycle management include:[4][5]
Reduced time to market Improved product quality Reduced prototyping costs More accurate and timely Request For Quote generation Ability to quickly identify potential sales opportunities and revenue contributions Savings through the re-use of original data A framework for product optimization Reduced waste Savings through the complete integration of engineering workflows Documentation that can assist in proving Compliance for RoHS or Title 21 CFR

Part 11
Ability to provide Contract Manufacturers with access to a centralized product

record Q4. Explain PIMS. What is the difference between key Success Factor (KSF) and Knowledge (K) Factor? Explain with example. Ans. Project Management Information System (PMIS) are system tools and techniques used in project management to deliver information. Project managers use the techniques and tools to collect, combine and distribute information through electronic and manual means. Project Management Information System (PMIS) is used by upper and lower management to communicate with each other. Project Management Information System (PMIS) help plan, execute and close project management goals. During the planning process, project managers use PMIS

for budget framework such as estimating costs. The Project Management Information System is also used to create a specific schedule and define the scope baseline. At the execution of the project management goals, the project management team collects information into one database. The PMIS is used to compare the baseline with the actual accomplishment of each activity, manage materials, collect financial data, and keep a record for reporting purposes. During the close of the project, the Project Management Information System is used to review the goals to check if the tasks were accomplished. Then, it is used to create a final report of the project close. To conclude, the project management information system (PMIS) is used to plan schedules, budget and execute work to be accomplished in project management

Key Success Factors

Definition: The factors that are a necessary condition for success in a given market.
When writing a business plan, its crucial to identify what will make your business

a success. Think of key success factors as the small towns you must pass through to reach your destination. If you dont consult a map to found out where those towns are, you may miss a turnoff and your destination. Key success factors, also known as critical success factors, keep you and your employees on track to make your business a success.
Increasing the sales of a product or service is a common key success factor, but

it should be linked to a measurable goal, such as sales of product X will increase by 30 percent in the fourth quarter. Measuring the outcome of the goals related to your key success factors is essential to keeping your business on target.
Almost all businesses can benefit from having the key success factor attract

new customers. Decide how many new customers your business needs to succeed, and set a related goal, such as increase walk-in traffic by 25 percent by offering samples at the door. Other examples of common key success factors are, retain quality employees, increase profit margin and increase customer satisfaction.
Some businesses are subject to more regulation than others. Manufacturing

facilities must comply with OSHA regulations, and they may want to develop a key success factor that addresses the companys compliance. For example, Provide all employees with hazardous material training.
Key success factors should always be relevant to the business you are in. An

example of an industry specific key success factor is increase load factor relative to the industry average. This key success factor is specific to the airline industry,

as referenced in Airline Industry Key Success Factors in the Graziadio Business Report. Fleet management is essential to airlines, limousine companies and taxi services, but its not relevant to the development of computer games.
The key success factor Build a manufacturing facility to produce 80 percent of

inventory is an example of what RapidBi.com calls temporal factors. According to the web site, temporal factors relate to short-term situations, often crises. These CSFs may be important, but are usually short-lived. In this example, once the manufacturing facility is constructed and operational, the key success factor is no longer needed and can be replaced by a currently relevant one.

Measurable Key Success Factors General Key Success Factors Regulatory Key Success Factors Industry Specific Key Success Factors Temporal Key Success Factors Knowledge factor
India may be a brain bank to the world. but it doesnt help if other countries cash in on this more frequently than india itself. The state of Indian higher education is the weak link in this chain its the reason why Indians spend $3 billion annually seeking education abroad. Those who study abroad tend to stay on abroad, while according to a NASSCOMMckinsey estimate only 10-25 per cent of those earning a college degree in India are employable. Now the National Knowledge Commission (NKC) has written to the prime minister stating that raising the number of indian universities from 350 to 1,500 is critical if Indias growth is to be sustained. As NKC Chairman Sam Pitroda notes, only 7 per cent of Indias population aged 18-24 enters higher education, which is half the Asian average. China has created 1,250 new universities within just the last three years.

Indias percentage of youth enrolled in college has to be brought up to at least asian levels while at the same time enhancing academic standards. The only way such a sweeping revamp can be carried out is if todays centrally managed education mono-polies are dismantled, and education is depoliticised and debureaucratised.

Q5. Explain the seven principles of supply chain management. Take an example of any product in the market and explain the scenario of Bullwhip effect. Ans. There is many steps which involved in SCM implementation are- Business Process, sales and marketing. Logistics, costing, demand planning, trade- off analysis, environmental requirement, process stability, integrated supply, supplier management, product design, suppiers, customers, material specifications, etc. Some important aspect of SCMThe level of competition existing in the market and the impact of competitive forces on the product development. Designing and working on a strategic logic for better growth through value invention. Working out new value curve in the product development along with necessary break point. Using it to analyses markets and the economies in product design. Tine, customer, quality of product and the concept of survival of fittest. Steps of SCM principals: Group customer by need: Effective SCM groups, customer by tietinct service meeds those particular segment. Customize the logistics networks: In designing their logistics network, companies need to focus on the service requirement and profit potential of the customer segments identified. Listen to signals of market demand and plan accordingly- sales and operations planners must monitor the entire supply chain to detect early warning signals of changing customer demand and needs. Differentiate the product closer to the customer-companies today no longer can afford

to stock pile inventory to compensate for possible forecasting errors, instead, they need to postpone product differentiation in the manufacturing. Process closer to actual customer demand. Strategically manage the source of supply-by working closely with their key suppliers to reduce the overall casts of owning materials and services; SCM maximizes profit margins both for themselves, and their supplies. Develop a supply chain wide technology strategy- as one of the cornerstones of successful SCM information technology must be able to support multiple levels of decision making. Adopt channel spanning performance measures- Excellent supply performance measurement systems do more than just monitor internal functions. They apply performance criteria that embrace bathe service and financial metrics, including as such as each accounts true profitability.

PGDBA- Semester II MB0045 Financial Management Q1. Discuss the objective of Profit maximization Vs Wealth maximization. Ans. The financial management come a long way by shifting its focus from traditional approach to modern approach. The modern approach focuses on wealth maximization rather than profit maximization. This gives a longer term horizon for assessment, making way for sustainable performance by businesses. A myopic person or business is mostly concerned about short term benefits. A short term horizon can fulfill objective of earning profit but may not help in creating wealth. It is because wealth creation needs a longer term horizon Therefore, Finance Management or Financial Management emphasizes on wealth maximization rather than profit maximization. For a business, it is not necessary that profit should be the only objective; it may concentrate on various other aspects like increasing sales, capturing more market share etc, which will take care of profitability. So, we can say that profit maximization is a subset of wealth and being a subset, it will facilitate wealth creation. Giving priority to value creation, managers have now shifted from traditional approach to modern approach of financial management that focuses on wealth maximization. This leads to better and true evaluation of business. For e.g., under wealth maximization, more importance is given to cash flows rather than profitability. As it is said that profit is a relative term, it can be a figure in some currency, it can be in percentage etc. For e.g.

a profit of say $10,000 cannot be judged as good or bad for a business, till it is compared with investment, sales etc. Similarly, duration of earning the profit is also important i.e. whether it is earned in short term or long term. In wealth maximization, major emphasizes is on cash flows rather than profit. So, to evaluate various alternatives for decision making, cash flows are taken under consideration. For e.g. to measure the worth of a project, criteria like: present value of its cash inflow present value of cash outflows (net present value) is taken. This approach considers cash flows rather than profits into consideration and also use discounting technique to find out worth of a project. Thus, maximization of wealth approach believes that money has time value. An obvious question that arises now is that how can we measure wealth. Well, a basic principle is that ultimately wealth maximization should be discovered in increased net worth or value of business. So, to measure the same, value of business is said to be a function of two factors earnings per share and capitalization rate. And it can be measured by adopting following relation: Value of business = EPS / Capitalization rate At times, wealth maximization may create conflict, known as agency problem. This describes conflict between the owners and managers of firm. As, managers are the agents appointed by owners, a strategic investor or the owner of the firm would be majorly concerned about the longer term performance of the business that can lead to maximization of shareholders wealth. Whereas, a manager might focus on taking such decisions that can bring quick result, so that he/she can get credit for good performance. However, in course of fulfilling the same, a manager might opt for risky decisions which can put on stake the owners objectives. Hence, a manager should align his/her objective to broad objective of organization and achieve a tradeoff between risk and return while making decision; keeping in mind the ultimate goal of financial management i.e. to maximize the wealth of its current shareholders.

Q2. Explain the Net operating approach to capital structure.

Ans. net operating income approach examines the effects of changes in capital structure in terms of net operating income. In the net income approach discussed above net income available to shareholders is obtained by deducting interest on debentures form net operating income. Then overall value of the firm is calculated through capitalization rate of equities obtained on the basis of net operating income, it is called net income approach. In the second approach, on the other hand overall value of the firm is assessed on the basis of net operating income not on the basis of net income. Hence this second approach is known as net operating income approach. The NOI approach implies that (i) whatever may be the change in capital structure the overall value of the firm is not affected. Thus the overall value of the firm is independent of the degree of leverage in capital structure. (ii) Similarly the overall cost of capital is not affected by any change in the degree of leverage in capital structure. The overall cost of capital is independent of leverage. If the cost of debt is less than that of equity capital the overall cost of capital must decrease with the increase in debts whereas it is assumed under this method that overall cost of capital is unaffected and hence it remains constant irrespective of the change in the ratio of debts to equity capital. How can this assumption be justified? The advocates of this method are of the opinion that the degree of risk of business increases with the increase in the amount of debts. Consequently the rate of equity over investment in equity shares thus on the one hand cost of capital decreases with the increase in the volume of debts; on the other hand cost of equity capital increases to the same extent. Hence the benefit of leverage is wiped out and overall cost of capital remains at the same level as before. Let us illustrate this point. If follows that with the increase in debts rate of equity capitalization also increases and consequently the overall cost of capital remains constant; it does not decline. To put the same in other words there are two parts of the cost of capital. One is the explicit cost which is expressed in terms of interest charges on debentures. The other is implicit cost which refers to the increase in the rate of equity capitalization resulting from the increase in risk of business due to higher level of debts. Optimum capital structure This approach suggests that whatever may be the degree of leverage the market value of the firm remains constant. In spite of the change in the ratio of debts to equity the market value of its equity shares remains constant. This means there does not exist a

optimum capital structure. Every capital structure is optimum according to net operating income approach. Q.3 What do you understand by operating cycle. Ans. An operating cycle is the length of time between the acquisition ofinventory and the sale of that inventory and subsequent generation of a profit. The shorter the operating cycle, the faster a business gets a return on investment (ROI) for the inventory it stocks. As a general rule, companies want to keep their operating cycles short for a number of reasons, but in certain industries, a long operating cycle is actually the norm. Operating cycles are not tied to accounting periods, but are rather calculated in terms of how long goods sit in inventory before sale. When a business buys inventory, it ties up money in the inventory until it can be sold. This money may be borrowed or paid up front, but in either case, once the business has purchased inventory, those funds are not available for other uses. The business views this as an acceptable tradeoff because the inventory is an investment that will hopefully generate returns, but keeping the operating cycle short is still a goal for most businesses so they can keep their liquidity high. Keeping inventory during a long operating cycle does not just tie up funds. Inventory must be stored and this can become costly, especially with items that require special handling, such as humidity controls or security. Furthermore, inventory can depreciate if it is kept in a store too long. In the case of perishable goods, it can even be rendered unsalable. Inventory must also be insured and managed by staff members who need to be paid, and this adds to overalloperating expenses. There are cases where a long operating cycle in unavoidable. Wineries and distilleries, for example, keep inventory on hand for years before it is sold, because of the nature of the business. In these industries, the return on investment happens in the long term, rather than the short term. Such companies are usually structured in a way that allows them to borrow against existing inventory or land if funds are needed to finance shortterm operations. Operating cycles can fluctuate. During periods of economic stagnation, inventory tends to sit around longer, while periods of growth may be marked by more rapid turnover. Certain products can be consistent sellers that move in and out of inventory quickly. Others, like big ticket items, may be purchased less frequently. All of these issues must be accounted for when making decisions about ordering and pricing items for inventory.

Q.4 What is the implication of operating leverage for a firm. Ans. Operating leverage: Operating leverage is the extent to which a firm uses fixed costs in producing its goods or offering its services. Fixed costs includeadvertising expenses, administrative costs, equipment and technology, depreciation, and taxes, but not interest on debt, which is part of financial leverage. By using fixed production costs, a company can increase its profits. If a company has a large percentage of fixed costs, it has a high degree of operating leverage. Automated and high-tech companies, utility companies, and airlines generally have high degrees of operating leverage. As an illustration of operating leverage, assume two firms, A and B, produce and sell widgets. Firm A uses a highly automated production process with robotic machines, whereas firm B assembles the widgets using primarily semiskilled labor. Table 1 shows both firms operating cost structures. Highly automated firm A has fixed costs of $35,000 per year and variable costs of only $1.00 per unit, whereas labor-intensive firm B has fixed costs of only $15,000 per year, but its variable cost per unit is much higher at $3.00 per unit. Both firms produce and sell 10,000 widgets per year at a price of $5.00 per widget. Firm A has a higher amount of operating leverage because of its higher fixed costs, but firm A also has a higher breakeven pointthe point at which total costs equal total sales. Nevertheless, a change of I percent in sales causes more than a I percent change in operating profits for firm A, but not for firm B. The degree of operating leverage measures this effect. The following simplified equation demonstrates the type of equation used to compute the degree of operating leverage, although to calculate this figure the equation would require several additional factors such as the quantity produced, variable cost per unit, and the price per unit, which are used to determine changes in profits and sales: Operating leverage is a double-edged sword, however. If firm As sales decrease by I percent, its profits will decrease by more than I percent, too. Hence, the degree of operating leverage shows the responsiveness of profits to a given change in sales. Implications: Total risk can be divided into two parts: business risk and financial risk. Business risk refers to the stability of a companys assets if it uses no debt or preferred stock financing. Business risk stems from the unpredictable nature of doing business,

i.e., the unpredictability of consumer demand for products and services. As a result, it also involves the uncertainty of long-term profitability. When a company uses debt or preferred stock financing, additional riskfinancial riskis placed on the companys common shareholders. They demand a higher expected return for assuming this additional risk, which in turn, raises a companys costs. Consequently, companies with high degrees of business risk tend to be financed with relatively low amounts of debt. The opposite also holds: companies with low amounts of business risk can afford to use more debt financing while keeping total risk at tolerable levels. Moreover, using debt as leverage is a successful tool during periods of inflation. Debt fails, however, to provide leverage during periods of deflation, such as the period during the late 1990s brought on by the Asian financial crisis. PGDBA-Semester II MB0046 Marketing Management Q.1 What is product mix? What are the strategies involved in product mix and product line? Ans. The product mix of a business includes product lines and individual products. A product line is a set of products in the product mix that are closely interrelated either because they serve in a similar way, sold to the similar client groups or have same price range. A product is a unique component in the product line that is different in size, cost, look, or some other attribute. Product choices at these levels are normally of 2 sorts: Those that have variety and range of the product line and those that are modified in the product mix occur over time. Product Mix is the total number of product choices a company offers their customer. If you make muffins, and you offer Blueberry and Cranberry, your product mix has 2 choices. The product mix grows as the number of features on the product grows. A true evaluation of the mix can ONLY be done with a feature/option level analysis. That is because customers buy features and options. The strength of the mix is based on how well the feature choices are capturing sales and market demand. Strategies involved in Product Mix and Product Line When the product is a part of product-mix, there are five kinds of strategies involved: I. Product Line Pricing In product line pricing, management must decide on the price steps to set between various products in a line. This should take into account the differences in products features, customer evaluations, competitors prices etc.

II. Optional-Product Pricing The pricing of optional or accessory products along with the main product. For example, a car buyer may choose to order a CD changer as an optional product. III. Captive-Product Pricing Setting a price for products which must be used along with the main product. For example, HP makes printers and cartridges. It makes very low margins on its printer (the main product) but very high margins on cartridges . IV. By-Product Pricing Setting a price for the by-products. Like in processing meats, petroleum products, chemicals etc. Using by-product pricing, the manufacturer will find a market for the by-products and should accept any price that covers more than the cost of storing and delivering them. For example, at Alba, water is obtained as a byproduct while manufacturing aluminum. This water can now be sold to the market. V. Product Bundle Pricing Combining several products and offering the bundle at a reduced price. For example, fast food restaurants bundle a burger, French fires and soft drink at a combo price. Q.2 What is a distribution channel? Explain the factors to be considered while setting up a distribution channel

Ans. Distribution channel

Definition: Path or pipeline through which goods and services flow in onedirection (from vendor to the consumer), and the payments generated by them flow in the opposite direction (from consumer to the vendor). A distributionchannel can be as short as being direct from the vendor to the consumer or mayinclude several interconnected (usually independent but mutually dependent)intermediaries such as wholesalers, distributors, agents, retailers. Each intermediary receives the item at one pricing point and moves it to the next higher pricing point until it reaches the final buyer. Also called channel of distribution or marketing channel. Channel of Distributions A channel of distribution or trade channel is defined as the path or route along which goods move from producers or manufacturers to ultimate consumers or industrial users. In other words, it is a distribution network through which producer puts his products in the market and passes it to the actual users. This channel consists of :- producers, consumers or users and the various middlemen like wholesalers, selling agents and retailers(dealers) who intervene between the producers and consumers. Therefore, the channel serves to bridge the gap between the point of production and the point of consumption thereby creating time, place and possession utilities.

A channel of distribution consists of three types of flows: Downward flow of goods from producers to consumers Upward flow of cash payments for goods from consumers to producers Flow of marketing information in both downward and upward direction i.e. Flow

of information on new products, new uses of existing products,etc from producers to consumers. And flow of information in the form of feedback on the wants,suggestions,complaints,etc from consumers/users to producers. An entrepreneur has a number of alternative channels available to him for distributing his products. These channels vary in the number and types of middlemen involved. Some channels are short and directly link producers with customers. Whereas other channels are long and indirectly link the two through one or more middlemen. These channels of distribution are broadly divided into four types: Producer-Customer:- This is the simplest and shortest channel in which no

middlemen is involved and producers directly sell their products to the consumers. It is fast and economical channel of distribution. Under it, the producer or entrepreneur performs all the marketing activities himself and has full control over distribution. A producer may sell directly to consumers through door-to-door salesmen, direct mail or through his own retail stores. Big firms adopt this channel to cut distribution costs and to sell industrial products of high value. Small producers and producers of perishable commodities also sell directly to local consumers.
Producer-Retailer-Customer:- This channel of distribution involves only one

middlemen called retailer. Under it, the producer sells his product to big retailers (or retailers who buy goods in large quantities) who in turn sell to the ultimate consumers.This channel relieves the manufacturer from burden of selling the goods himself and at the same time gives him control over the process of distribution. This is often suited for distribution of consumer durables and products of high value.
Producer-Wholesaler-Retailer-Customer:- This is the most common and

traditional channel of distribution. Under it, two middlemen i.e. wholesalers and retailers are involved. Here, the producer sells his product to wholesalers, who in turn sell it to retailers. And retailers finally sell the product to the ultimate consumers. This channel is suitable for the producers having limited finance, narrow product line and who needed expert services and promotional support of wholesalers. This is mostly used for the products with widely scattered market.

 Producer-Agent-Wholesaler-Retailer-Customer:- This is the longest channel

of distribution in which three middlemen are involved. This is used when the producer wants to be fully relieved of the problem of distribution and thus hands over his entire output to the selling agents. The agents distribute the product among a few wholesalers. Each wholesaler distribute the product among a number of retailers who finally sell it to the ultimate consumers. This channel is suitable for wider distribution of various industrial products. An entrepreneur has to choose a suitable channel of distribution for his product such that the channel chosen is flexible, effective and consistent with the declared marketing policies and programmes of the firm. While selecting a distribution channel, the entrepreneur should compare the costs, sales volume and profits expected from alternative channels of distribution and take into account the following factors: Product Consideration:- The type and the nature of products manufactured is

one of the important elements in choosing the distribution channel. The major product related factors are: Products of low unit value and of common use are generally sold through

middlemen. Whereas, expensive consumer goods and industrial products are sold directly by the producer himself.
Perishable products; products subjected to frequent changes in fashion or

style as well as heavy and bulky products follow relatively shorter routes and are generally distributed directly to minimize costs.
Industrial products requiring demonstration, installation and after sale

service are often sold directly to the consumers. While the consumer products of technical nature are generally sold through retailers.
An entrepreneur producing a wide range of products may find it

economical to set up his own retail outlets and sell directly to the consumers. On the other hand, firms producing a narrow range of products may their products distribute through wholesalers and retailers.
A new product needs greater promotional efforts in the initial stages and

hence few middlemen may be required.

Market Consideration:- Another important factor influencing the choice of

distribution channel is the nature of the target market. Some of the important features in this respect are: If the market for the product is meant for industrial users, the channel of

distribution will not need any middlemen because they buy the product in large quantities. short one and may as they buy in a large quantity. While in

the case of the goods meant for domestic consumers, middlemen may have to be involved.
If the number of prospective customers is small or the market for the

product is geographically located in a limited area, direct selling is more suitable. While in case of a large number of potential customers, use of middlemen becomes necessary.
If the customers place order for the product in big lots, direct selling is

preferred. But, if the product is sold in small quantities, middlemen are used to distribute such products.
Other Considerations:- There are several other factors that an entrepreneur

must take into account while choosing a distribution channel. Some of these are as follows: A new business firm may need to involve one or more middlemen in order

to promote its product, while a well established firm with a good market standing may sell its product directly to the consumers.
A small firm which cannot invest in setting up its own distribution network

has to depend on middlemen for selling its product. On the other hand, a large firm can establish its own retail outlets.
The distribution costs of each channel is also an important factor because

it affects the price of the final product. Generally, a less expensive channel is preferred. But sometimes, a channel which is more convenient to the customers is preferred even if it is more expensive.
If the demand for the product is high, more number of channels may be

used to profitably distribute the product to maximum number of customers. But, if the demand is low only a few channels would be sufficient.
The nature and the type of the middlemen required by the firm and its

availability also affects the choice of the distribution channel. A company prefers a middlemen who can maximize the volume of sales of their product and also offers other services like storage, promotion as well as after sale services. When the desired type of middlemen are not available, the manufacturer will have to establish his own distribution network. All these factors or considerations affecting the choice of a distribution channel are inter-related and interdependent. Hence, an entrepreneur must choose the most efficient and cost effective channel of distribution by taking into account all these factors as a whole in the light of the prevailing economic conditions. Such a decision is very important for a business to sustain long term profitability.

Q.3 Discuss the communication development process with examples. Ans. Everyone communicates. Some better than others. Understanding the communication process can help improve communication at home, at work and with friends. Communication seems so natural and one generally assumes that there is no need of working on it. It is so untrue. Most fights or arguments with spouses, children or friends are the result of bad communication. How much of an argument is caused by ineffective communication? How much of what is said is taken in the wrong context? How much of the meaning was changed or lost? How much was totally misunderstood or came out wrong? All of those are examples of broken communication. Development Communication designs communication strategies for development projects and reform programs, economic and sector work, Country Assistance Strategies and Poverty Reduction Strategies. Building on the communication audit, which provides an understanding of the social, cultural and political nuances and assessment of local communication capacity, theDevelopment Communication division works with task teams and government counterparts to prepare communication strategies with the objective of promoting constituencies for support and putting in place a transparent and inclusive development process. This involves:
segmenting audiences based on their positions, framing the issues, preparing appropriate messages to mobilize support and address the right

concerns,
finding the most effective mix of channels to reach audiences, creating communication capacity on the ground to implement the process, building consensus, and designing mechanisms for supervision and evaluation.

Development Communication is creating a repository of knowledge based on its own experience and international best practices in development communications. This intellectual base of Development Communicationoperational and capacity building work is continually updated and customized to meet country-specific needs. The division also maintains a database of communication professionals around the world and their market costs so their expertise can be harnessed when needed. Q.4. Select any mobile handset and mobile company and then evaluate its positioning strengths or weakness in terms of attributes, benefits, values, brand name and brand equity.

Ans.

Strength or Weakness of HTC Mobile Handset

INTRODUCTION
HTC is one of the leading manufacturers of PDAs and smart phones around the world. It is one of the fastest growing companies in the world and maximizing its market share rapidly.

SWOT ANALYSIS
SWOT is the tool to see that where organization stands, which areas required improvement, which areas required serious consideration, which would be the source of growth, which things need avoidance and so on. The SWOT of HTC will help to understand the position of HTC in the market.

STRENGTHS
It is the leading maker of PDAs smart phones in the world. It is establishing in the world rapidly and attracting more and more customers from all around the world. It has successfully recognized its brand name and has got the good image about the product quality. Its products are considered as reliable products and its gaining more and more success rapidly. The research and development in HTC has been given more importance as it is the way to know what customers want. There is the strong set up of research and development in HTC. The portfolio of HTC is quite wide it has made 42 smart phones product up till now. The customer base of HTC is also very wide as it caters the customer national and international both and the no. of customers also increasing as the time passes.

WEAKNESSES

As its weakness, HTC is not a very much recognized brand in the market. Its competitors, which are Nokia, Blackberry, Apple etc. are way much popular and have acquired a big share of market. Another weakness is that, they got a very small range of cell phones models as compared to their competitor, Nokia, which has got a huge variety of smart phones, from cheapest to most expensive one.

OPPORTUNITIES
HTC is providing Touch Screen Cell Phones, which are very much in demand these days, most of the people, who use expensive cell phones, goes for Touch Screen. On the other side, Since HTC collaborated with Google and launched their cell phones with Google Android OS install in it, their market also got increased. It is also said that, because of the name of Google, HTC got popularity. Google popularity plays a huge role in the success of HTC. 3G technology has been launched all over the world, and is getting launched in other countries as well. Since HTC cell phones have got 3G technology support, so it is an opportunity for HTC company that where ever the 3G technology launches, HTCs cell phones demands would raise their.

THREATS
The major threat to HTC, or any other Smartphone company, is a very much popular and highly in-demand brand, Apple iPhone. It is a big hindrance in the demand of HTC cell phones. Apart from that, the financial crunch could also be the threat for the company. Thats because HTC smart phones are expensive and are not affordable for many of the smart phones users. On the other side Nokias smart phones are way cheaper, and are providing the same characteristics, which a Smartphone should have. So lot of people prefers Nokia on HTC. Q. 5 What is retailing? Explain the functions and different types of retailing with its key features. Ans.

Retailing involves selling products and services to consumers for their personal or family use. Department stores, like Burdines and Macys, discount stores like Wal-Mart and K-Mart, and specialty stores like The Gap, Zales Jewelers and Toys R Us, are all examples of retail stores. Service providers, like dentists, hotels and hair salons, and on-line stores, like Amazon.com, are also retailers. Retailers play a significant role as a conduit between manufacturers, wholesalers, suppliers and consumers. In this context, they perform various functions like sorting, breaking bulk, holding stock, as a channel of communication, storage, advertising and certain additional services. Sorting Manufacturers usually make one or a variety of products and would like to sell their entire inventory to a few buyers to redu7ce costs. Final consumers, in contrast, prefer a large variety of goods and services to choose from and usually buy them in small quantities. Retailers are able to balance the demands of both sides, by collection an assortment of goods from different sources, buying them in sufficiently large quantities and selling them to consumers in small units. The above process is referred to as the sorting process. Through this process, retailers undertake activities and perform functions that add to the value of the products and services sold to the consumer. Supermarkets in the US offer, on and average, 15,000 different items from 500 companies. Customers are able to choose from a wide range of designs, sizes and brands from just one location. If each manufacturer had a separate store for its own products, customers would have to visit several stores to complete their shopping. While all retailers offer an assortment, they specialize in types of assortment offered and the market to which the offering is made. Westside provides clothing and accessories, while a chain like Nilgiris specializes in food and bakery items. Shoppers Stop targets the elite urban class, while Pantaloons is targeted at the middle class. Breaking Bulk Breaking bulk is another function performed by retailing. The word retailing is derived from the French word retailer, meaning to cut a piece off. To reduce transportation costs, manufacturers and wholesalers typically ship large cartons of the product, which are then tailored by the retailers into smaller quantities to meet individual consumption needs.

Holding Stock Retailers also offer the service of holding stock for the manufacturers. Retailers maintain an inventory that allows for instant availability of the product to the consumers. It helps to keep prices stable and enables the manufacturer to regulate production. Consumers can keep a small stock of products at home as they know that this can be replenished by the retailer and can save on inventory carrying costs. Additional Services Retailers ease the change in ownership of merchandise by providing services that make it convenient to buy and use products. Providing product guarantees, after-sales service and dealing with consumer complaints are some of the services that add value to the actual product at the retailers end. Retailers also offer credit and hire-purchase facilities to the customers to enable them to buy a product now and pay for it later. Retailers fill orders, promptly process, deliver and install products. Salespeople are also employed by retailers to answer queries and provide additional information about the displayed products. The display itself allows the consumer to see and test products before actual purchase. Retail essentially completes transactions with customers. Channel of Communication Retailers also act as the channel of communication and information between the wholesalers or suppliers and the consumers. From advertisements, salespeople and display, shoppers learn about the characteristics and features of a product or services offered. Manufacturers, in their turn, learn of sales forecasts, delivery delays, and customer complaints. The manufacturer can then modify defective or unsatisfactory merchandise and services. Transport and Advertising Functions Small manufacturers can use retailers to provide assistance with transport, storage, advertising and pre-payment of merchandise. This also works the other way round in case the number of retailers is small. The number of functions performed by a particular retailer has a direct relation to the percentage and volume of sales needed to cover both their costs and profits. Q. 6 a. What is CRM? What are its objectives? (2 marks) b. Write a short note on Brand development. (8 marks)

Ans. CRM stands for Customer Relationship Management. It is a process or methodology used to learn more about customers needs and behaviors in order to develop stronger relationships with them. There are many technological components to CRM, but thinking about CRM in primarily technological terms is a mistake. The more useful way to think about CRM is as a process that will help bring together lots of pieces of information about customers, sales, marketing effectiveness, responsiveness and market trends. CRM helps businesses use technology and human resources to gain insight into the behavior of customers and the value of those customers. Objectives of CRM CRM, the technology, along with human resources of the company, enables the company to analyze the behavior of customers and their value. The main areas of focus are as the name suggests: customer , relationship , and the management of relationship and the main objectives to implement CRM in the business strategy are:
To simplify marketing and sales process To make call centers more efficient To provide better customer service To discover new customers and increase customer revenue To cross sell products more effectively

The CRM processes should fully support the basic steps of customer life cycle . The basic steps are:
Attracting present and new customers Acquiring new customers Serving the customers Finally, retaining the customers

Brand development A plan to improve the performance of a particular product or service. For example, as part of brand development a firm may initiate a new advertising campaign that includes free samples.

PGDBA Semester II MB0047 Management Information Systems Q1. How hardware & software support in various MIS activities of the organization? Explain the transaction stages from manual system to automated systems? Ans. Generally hardware in the form of personal computers and peripherals like printers, fax, machines, copier, scanners etc are used in organization to support various MIS activities of the organization. Computers are widely used to support in MIS activities. Some of the types commonly used in business are desktop computer, notebook computer, PDA etc.

Advantage of PC in Organization for MIS activities Speed: A PC can process data at a very high speed. It can process millions of instructions within fractions of seconds. Storage: A PC can store large amount of data in a small space. Information can easily transform from one place to another place. Communication: PC with internet is used as a powerful tool of communication for every business activity. Accuracy: A PC is highly reliable in the sense that it could be used to perform calculations continuously for hours with a great degree of accuracy. Conferencing: A PC with internet offers facility of video conferencing worldwide. Business people across the globe travel a lot to meet their business partner, colleague and customer etc to discuss about business activities. Software support in MIS activities

MS-Windows: Windows is an operating system. It supports various applications like MS-Office, Lotus Smart Suite, Outlook etc. MS-Excel: It is used to make charts, graphs, pivot tables and MIS reports etc. MS-WORD: It is used for letter drafting. MS-Power Point: Power point is used for presentation

Q2. Explain the various behavioral factors of management organization? As per Porter, how can performance of individual corporations be determined? Ans. The value of Information is not present day discovery. We have always observed that the Information is the asset of any organization. The existence of information is since the Big bang happened and then on it went on. But the value of information is being used only after the industrial revolution. Before, it was only in the record which we are using now in an efficient way. The first information was binary. Information is generated by interactions; information is by interaction, as without comparison, without a context, without interaction, there is nothing. Traditional information systems are said to contain data, which is then processed. The processed data is called information. The processing of data takes place by selecting the required fact and organizing it in a way to form meaningful information which is used for some organizational needs. In Manual systems, a series of action takes which may be similar as well as different to processing in traditional systems. For instance, in hospital information systems the patient details can be viewed by the administrator as well as patient. But the views perceived by these are different. One may view it as a record to take print and other may be the source of his ailment description. What is common to the two systems is the idea of transformation. Transformation occurs when systems participants are faced with cues from their environment, which may be data or situations, and the participants then define and redefine what to do next, either processing data or developing a situation, altering the system each time to transform it to a state closer

to the participants goal or objective. When a fact from either type of system is presented for manipulation, a transformation can occur. Thus, transformation is common to both types of systems. A transformation had to necessarily go through the following stages a) appraisal of the procedures b) types of documents c) storage systems d) formulations and coding e) verification and validation f) review g) documentation After the industrial revolution slowly manual systems were transformed into digital form by means of computer and related instrument Q2. Explain the various behavioral factors of management organization? As per Porter, how can performance of individual corporations be determined? Ans: Behavioral factors The implementation of computer based information systems in general and MSS in particular is affected by the way people perceive these systems and by how they behave in accepting them. User resistance is a major behavioral factor associated with the adoption of new systems. The following are compiled by Jiang et al. (2000); reasons that employees resist new systems: Change in job content Loss of status Change in interpersonal relationships Loss of power, Change in decision making approach Uncertainty or unfamiliarity or misinformation Job security The major behavioral factors are a) Decision styles symbolic processing of AI is heuristic; DSS and ANN are analytic

b) Need for explanation ES provides explanation, ANN does not, DSS may provide partial explanation. Explanation can reduce resistance to change c) Organizational climate some organizations lead and support innovations and new technologies whereas others wait and lag behind in making changes d) Organizational expectations over expectation can result in disappointments and termination of innovation. Over expectation was observed in most early intelligent systems. e) Resistance to change can be strong in MSS because the impacts may be significant. Performance Out of many possible interpretations of a strategy an organization adopts in business, it is found that a majority is concerned with competition between corporations. Competition means cultivating unique strengths and capabilities, and defending them against imitation by other firms. Another alternative sees competition as a process linked to innovation in product, market, or technology. Strategic information systems theory is concerned with the use of information technology to support or sharpen an enterprises competitive strategy. Competitive strategy is an enterprises plan for achieving sustainable competitive advantage over, or reducing the edge of, its adversaries. The performance of individual corporations is determined by the extent to which they manage the following (as given by Porter) a) the bargaining power of suppliers b) the bargaining power of buyer c) the threat of new entrants; d) the threat of substitute products; and e) Rivalry among existing firms. Porters Forces Driving Industry Competition (Porter 1980)

There are two basic factors which may be considered to be adopted by organization in their strategies: a) low cost b) product differentiation Enterprise can succeed relative to their competitors if they possess sustainable competitive advantage in either of these two. Another important consideration in positioning is competitive scope, or the breadth of the enterprises target markets within its industry, i.e. the range of product varieties it offers, the distribution channels it employs, the types of buyers it serves, the geographic areas in which it sells, and the array of related industries in which it competes. Under Porters framework, enterprises have four generic strategies available to them whereby they can attain above-average performance. They are: a) cost leadership differentiation. Q 3. Compare various types of development aspect of Information System? Explain the various stages of SDLC? Ans: Development of Information Systems a) Development and Implementation of the MIS Once the plan for MIS is made, the development of the MIS, calls for determining the strategy of development. As discussed earlier, the plan consists of various systems and subsystems. The development strategy determines where to begin and in what sequence the development can take place with the sole objective of assuring the information support. b) differentiation c) cost focus d) focused

The choice of the system or the sub-system depends on its position in the total MIS plan, the size of the system, the users understanding of the systems and the complexity and its interface with other systems. The designer first develops systems independently and starts integrating them with other systems, enlarging the system scope and meeting the varying information needs. Determining the position of the system in the MIS is easy. The real problem is the degree of structure, and formalisation in the system and procedures which determine the timing and duration of development of the system. Higher the degree of structured-ness and formalisation, greater is the stabilization of the rules, the procedures, decision-making and the understanding of the overall business activity. Here, it is observed that the users and the designers interaction is smooth, and their needs are clearly understood and respected mutually. The development becomes a method of approach with certainty in input process and outputs.

b) Prototype Approach When the system is complex, the development strategy is Prototyping of the System. Prototyping is a process of progressively ascertaining the information needs, developing methodology, trying it out on a smaller scale with respect to the data and the complexity, ensuring that it satisfies the needs of the users, and assess the problems of development and implementation. This process, therefore, identifies the problem areas, inadequacies in the prototype vis-vis fulfillment of the information needs. The designer then takes steps to remove the inadequacies. This may call upon changing the prototype of the system, questioning the information needs, streamlining the operational systems and procedures and move user interaction.

In the prototyping approach, the designers task becomes difficult, when there are multiple users of the same system and the inputs they use are used by some other users as well. For example, a lot of input data comes from the purchase department, which is used in accounts and inventory management. The attitudes of various users and their role as the originators of the data need to be developed with a high degree of positivism. It requires, of all personnel, to appreciate that the information is a corporate resource, and all have to contribute as per the designated role by the designer to fulfil the corporate information needs. When it comes to information the functional, the departmental, the personal boundaries do not exist. This call upon each individual to comply with the design needs and provide without fail the necessary data inputs whenever required as per the specification discussed and finalised by the designer. Bringing the multiple users on the same platform and changing their attitudes toward information, as a corporate resource, is the managerial task of the system designer. The qualification, experience, knowledge, of the state of art, and an understanding of the corporate business, helps considerably, in overcoming the problem of changing the attitudes of the multiple users and the originators of the data.

Stages of SDLC System development cycle stages are sometimes known as system study. System concepts which are important in developing business information systems expedite problem solving and improve the quality of decision-making. The system analyst has to do a lot in this connection. They are confronted with the challenging task of creating

new systems an planning major changes in the organization. The system analyst gives a system development project, meaning and direction. The typical breakdown of an information systems life cycle includes a feasibility study, requirements, collection and analysis, design, prototyping, implementation, validation, testing and operation. It may be represented in the form of a block diagram as shown below: a)Feasibility study: It is concerned with determining the cost effectiveness of various alternatives in the designs of the information system and the priorities among the various system components. b) Requirements, collection and analysis: It is concerned with understanding the mission of the information systems, that is, the application areas of the system within the enterprise and the problems that the system should solve. c) Design: It is concerned with the specification of the information systems structure. There are two types of design: database design and application design. The database design is the design of the database design and the application design is the design of the application programs. d) Prototyping: A prototype is a simplified implementation that is produced in order to verify in practice that the previous phases of the design were well conducted. e) Implementation : It is concerned with the programming of the final operational version of the information system. Implementation alternatives are carefully verifies and compared. f) Validation and testing: It is the process of assuring that each phase of the development process is of acceptable quality and is an accurate transformation from the previous phase. Q4. Compare & Contrast E-enterprise business model with traditional business organization model? Explain how in E-enterprise manager role & responsibilities are changed? Explain how manager is a knowledge worker in E-enterprise? Ans: Managing the E-enterprise Due to Internet capabilities and web technology, traditional business organisation definition has undergone a change where scope of the enterprise now includes other company

locations, business partners, customers and vendors. It has no geographic boundaries as it can extend its operations where Internet works. All this is possible due to Internet and web moving traditional paper driven organisation to information driven Internet enabled E-business enterprise. Ebusiness enterprise is open twenty-four hours, and being independent, managers, vendors, customers transact business anytime from anywhere. Internet capabilities have given E-business enterprise a cutting edge capability advantage to increase the business value. It has opened new channels of business as buying and selling can be done on Internet. It enables to reach new markets across the world anywhere due to communication capabilities. It has empowered customers and vendors / suppliers through secured access to information to act, wherever necessary. The cost of business operations has come down significantly due to the elimination of paper-driven processes, faster communication and effective collaborative working. The effect of these radical changes is the reduction in administrative and management overheads, reduction in inventory, faster delivery of goods and services to the customers. In E-business enterprise traditional people organisation based on Command Control principle is absent. It is replaced by people organisations that are empowered by information and knowledge to perform their role. They are supported by information systems, application packages, and decision-support systems. It is no longer functional, product, and project or matrix organisation of people but E-organisation where people work in network environment as a team or work group in virtual mode.

E-business enterprise is more process-driven, technology-enabled and uses its own information and knowledge to perform. It is lean in number, flat in structure, broad in scope and a learning organisation. In E-business enterprise, most of the things are electronic, use digital technologies and work on databases, knowledge bases, directories and document repositories. The business processes are conducted through enterprise software like ERP, SCM, and CRM supported by data warehouse, decision support, and knowledge management systems. Today most of the business organisations are using Internet technology, network, and wireless technology for improving the business performance measured in terms of cost, efficiency, competitiveness and profitability. They are using E-business, E-commerce solutions to reach faraway locations to deliver product and services. The enterprise solutions like ERP, SCM, and CRM run on Internet (Internet / Extranet) & Wide Area Network (WAN). The business processes across the organisation and outside run on E-technology platform using digital technology. Hence todays business firm is also called Eenterprise or Digital firm. The paradigm shift to E-enterprise has brought four transformations, namely: a) Domestic business to global business. b) Industrial manufacturing economy to knowledge-based service economy. c) Enterprise Resource Management to Enterprise Network Management d) Manual document driven business process to paperless, automated, electronically transacted business process. These transformations have made conventional organisation design obsolete. The basis of conventional organisation design is command & control which is nowcol l aborat es& cont rol . This change has affected the organisation structure, scope of operations, reporting mechanisms, work practices, workflows, and business processes at large. In E-enterprise, business is conducted electronically. Buyers and sellers through Internet drive

the market and Internet-based web systems. Buying and selling is possible on Internet. Books, CDs, computer, white goods and many such goods are bought and sold on Internet. The new channel of business is well-known as E-commerce. On the same lines, banking, insurance, healthcare are being managed through Internet E-banking, E-billing, E-audit, & use of Credit cards, Smart card, ATM, E-money are the examples of the Ecommerce application. The digital firm, which uses Internet and web technology and uses E-business and Ecommerce solutions, is a reality and is going to increase in number. MIS for E-business is different compared to conventional MIS design of an organisation. The role of MIS in E-business organization is to deal with changes in global market and enterprises. MIS produces more knowledge-based products. Knowledge management system is formally recognized as a part of MIS. It is effectively used for strategic planning for survival and growth, increase in profit and productivity and so on. To achieve the said benefits of E-business organisation, it is necessary to redesign the organisa- tion to realize the benefits of digital firm. The organisation structure should be lean and flat. Get rid of rigid established infrastructure such as branch office or zonal office. Allow people to work from anywhere. Automate processes after re-engineering the process to cut down process cycle time. Make use of groupware technology on Internet platform for faster response processing. Another challenge is to convert domestic process design to work for international process, where integration of multinational information systems using different communication standards, country-specific accounting practices, and laws of security are to be adhered strictly.

Internet and networking technology has thrown another challenge to enlarge the scope of organisation where customers and vendors become part of the organisation. This technology offers a solution to communicate, co-ordinate, and collaborate with customers, vendors and business partners. This is just not a technical change in business operations but a cultural change in the mindset of managers and workers to look beyond the conventional organisation. It means changing the organisation behaviour to take competitive advantage of the E-business technology. The last but not the least important is the challenge to organise and implement information architecture and information technology platforms, considering multiple locations and multiple information needs arising due to global operations of the business into a comprehensive MIS. Q5. What do you understand by service level Agreements (SLAs)? Why are they needed? What is the role of CIO in drafting these? Explain the various security hazards faced by an IS? Ans. A service level agreement (frequently abbreviated as SLA) is a part of a service contractw here the level of service is formally defined. In practice, the term SLA is sometimes used to refer to the contracted delivery time (of the service) or performance. As an example, internet service providers will commonly include service level agreements within the terms of their contracts with customers to define the level(s) of service being sold in plain language terms (typically the (SLA) will in this case have a technical definition in terms ofM TTF,M TT R, various data rates, etc.) A service level agreement (SLA) is a negotiated agreement between two parties where one is the customer and the other is the service provider. This can be a legally binding formal or informal contract (see internal department relationships).Contracts between the service provider and other third parties are often (incorrectly) called SLAs as the level of service has been set by the (principal) customer, there can be no agreement between third parties

(these agreements are simply a contract). Operating LevelAgreements or OLA(s), however, may be used by internal groups to support SLA(s). Role of CIO in drafting SLA S One of the major responsibilities of the CIO is to establish the credibility of the systems organization. The systems department should not only focus on providing better service to the various lines of business but also help businesses operate better. If the CIO wants to be taken seriously, he needs to do what other executives do and have his own business metrics and performance measurements, so that he can effectively measure his internal business performance. Other business departments have them, but CIOs generally do not because IT has always been viewed as a cost center. Measurements in IT tend to be vague and lacking in context. For example, I had 14 projects last year, and I did them well. But there is no real business measurement there. How many projects should the manager have had? Did he really have the capacity to handle 14 projects? ACIO should explore running their area more like a service operation rather than a cost center, and develop metrics that track the performance of the information systems staff, as well as the equipment comprising the applications, infrastructure, and networks under the CIOs control. The first step, they say, is to implement service level agreements (SLAs) with business units. It sets the expectation on the technical areas of theCIOs operations.At a minimum, they should set up what is expected and what levels of service the equipment will provide. The underlying SLAs should be some sort of a chargeback system with business units, particularly when it comes to apportioning staff time. If information systems are now providing a service, the staff needs to understand where the service is being used to be properly remunerated or to demonstrate where the value is. The second part of the IT operations equation is computer equipment, and CIOs must have a firm handle on how that equipment is being used. There are softwares to help with the people picture, and there are other products that can monitor hardware performance, such as network and server uptime. One of the major roles of the CIO is to make the organization information systems savvy and increase the technological maturity of the information systems organization.A major part of the CIOs job is to make the users aware of the opportunities arising as a result of technical innovations, how this can help them perform better, and familiarizing them with computers and information systems applications. The information systems management also has the job of helping the end

users adapt to the changes caused by information systems, and to encourage their use. Finally, CIOs need to institute life cycle management with their applications and computer equipment. Most IT organizations do not have any idea of the life cycle of an application how long they want it to last, and when it needs to be refurbished, replaced, or disposed of. Lacking this knowledge, it is easy for applications to linger long after they should be gone, and for companies to spend far too much money on maintaining ailing applications. Security Hazards faced by an Information system: Security of the information system can be broken because of the following reasons: i)Malfunctions: In this type of security hazard, all the components of a system are involved. People, software and hardware errors course the biggest problem. More dangerous are the problems which are created by human beings due to the omission, neglect and incompetence. ii) Fraud and unauthorized access: This hazard is due to dishonesty, cheating or deceit. This can be done through a) Infiltration and industrial espionage b) Tapping data from communication lines c) Unauthorized browsing through lines by online terminals, etc. iii) Power and communication failure: In some locations they are the most frequent hazards than any other else because availability of both of them depends upon the location. Sometimes communication channel are busy or noisy. There are power cuts and sometimes high voltage serge destroys a sensitive component of the computer.

Q6. Case Study: Information system in a restaurant. Ans. CASE SUMMARY A waiter takes an order at a table, and then enters it online via one of the six terminals located in the restaurant dining room. The order is routed to a printer in the appropriate preparation area: the cold item printer if it is a salad, the hot-item printer if it is a hot sandwich or the bar printer if it is a drink. A customers meal check-listing (bill) the items

ordered and the respective prices are automatically generated. This ordering system eliminates the old three-carbon-copy guest check system as well as any problems caused by a waiters handwriting. When the kitchen runs out of a food item, the cooks send out an out of stock message, which will be displayed on the dining room terminals when waiters try to order that item. This gives the waiters faster feedback, enabling them to give better service to the customers. Other system features aid management in the planning and control of their restaurant business. The system provides up-to-the-minute information on the food items ordered and breaks out percentages showing sales of each item versus total sales. This helps management plan menus according to customers tastes. The system also compares the weekly sales totals versus food costs, allowing planning for tighter cost controls. In addition, whenever an order is voided, the reasons for the void are keyed in. This may help later in management decisions, especially if the voids consistently related to food or service. Acceptance of the system by the users is exceptionally high since the waiters and waitresses were involved in the selection and design process. All potential users were asked to give their impressions and ideas about the various systems available before one was chosen

PGDBA- Semester II MB0048 Operation Research

Q1. What are the essential characteristics of Operation Research? Mention different phases in an Operation Research study. Point out some limitations of O.R?

Ans. Operations Research

Characteristics of

Operations research, an interdisciplinary division of mathematics and science, uses statistics, algorithms and mathematical modeling techniques to solve complex problems for the best possible solutions. This science is basically concerned with optimizing maxima and minima of the objective functions involved. Examples of maxima could be profit, performance and yield. Minima could be loss and risk. The management of various companies has benefited immensely from operations research. Operations research is also known as OR. It has basic characteristics such as systems orientation, using interdisciplinary groups, applying scientific methodology, providing quantitative answers, revelation of newer problems and the consideration of human factors in relation to the state under which research is being conducted.

Systems Orientation
o This approach recognizes the fact that the behavior of any part of the system has an effect on the system as a whole. This stresses the idea that the interaction between parts of the system is what determines the functioning of the system. No single part of the system can have a bearing effect on the whole. OR attempts appraise the effect the changes of any single part would have on the performance of the system as a whole. It then searches for the causes of the problem that has arisen either in one part of the system or in the interrelation parts.

Interdisciplinary groups
o The team performing the operational research is drawn from different disciplines. The disciplines could include mathematics, psychology, statistics, physics, economics and engineering. The knowledge of all the people involved aids the research and preparation of the scientific model.

Application of Scientific Methodology

OR extensively uses scientific means and methods to solve problems. Most OR

studies cannot be conducted in laboratories, and the findings cannot be applied to natural environments. Therefore, scientific and mathematical models are used for studies. Simulation of these models is carried out, and the findings are then studied with respect to the real environment.

New Problems Revealed

o Finding a solution to a problem in OR uncovers additional problems. To obtain maximum benefits from the study, ongoing and continuous research is necessary. New problems must be pursued immediately to be resolved. A company looking to reduce costs in manufacturing might discover in the process that it needs to buy one more component to manufacture the end product. Such a scenario would result in unexpected costs and budget overruns. Ensuring flexibility for such contingencies is a key characteristic of OR.

Provides Quantitative Answers

o The solutions found by using operations research are always quantitative. OR considers two or more options and emphasizes the best one. The company must decide which option is the best alternative for it.

Human Factors
o In other forms of quantitative research, human factors are not considered, but in OR, human factors are a prime consideration. People involved in the process may become sick, which would affect the companys output. PHASES OPERATIONS RESEARCH Formulate the problem: This is the most important process, it is generally lengthy and time consuming. The activities that constitute this step are visits, observations, research, etc. With the help of such activities, the O.R. scientist gets sufficient information and support to proceed and is better prepared to formulate the problem. This process starts with understanding of the organizational climate, its objectives and expectations. Further, the alternative courses of action are discovered in this step.
Develop a model: Once a problem is formulated, the next step is to express the

problem into a mathematical model that represents systems, processes or

environment in the form of equations, relationships or formulas. We have to identify both the static and dynamic structural elements, and device mathematical formulas to represent the interrelationships among elements. The proposed model may be field tested and modified in order to work under stated environmental constraints. A model may also be modified if the management is not satisfied with the answer that it gives.
Select appropriate data input: Garbage in and garbage out is a famous

saying. No model will work appropriately if data input is not appropriate. The purpose of this step is to have sufficient input to operate and test the model.
Solution of the model: After selecting the appropriate data input, the next step

is to find a solution. If the model is not behaving properly, then updating and modification is considered at this stage.
Validation of the model: A model is said to be valid if it can provide a reliable

prediction of the systems performance. A model must be applicable for a longer time and can be updated from time to time taking into consideration the past, present and future aspects of the problem.
Implement the solution: The implementation of the solution involves so many

behavioural issues and the implementing authority is responsible for resolving these issues. The gap between one who provides a solution and one who wishes to use it should be eliminated. To achieve this, O.R. scientist as well as management should play a positive role. A properly implemented solution obtained through O.R. techniques results in improved working and wins the management support.

Limitations
Dependence on an Electronic Computer: O.R. techniques try to find out an

optimal solution taking into account all the factors. In the modern society, these factors are enormous and expressing them in quantity and establishing relationships among these require voluminous calculations that can only be handled by computers.
Non-Quantifiable Factors: O.R. techniques provide a solution only when all the

elements related to a problem can be quantified. All relevant variables do not lend themselves to quantification. Factors that cannot be quantified find no place in O.R. models.
Distance between Manager and Operations Researcher: O.R. being

specialists job requires a mathematician or a statistician, who might not be aware of the business problems. Similarly, a manager fails to understand the complex working of O.R. Thus, there is a gap between the two.

 Money and Time Costs: When the basic data are subjected to frequent

changes, incorporating them into the O.R. models is a costly affair. Moreover, a fairly good solution at present may be more desirable than a perfect O.R. solution available after sometime.
Implementation: Implementation of decisions is a delicate task. It must take

into account the complexities of human relations and behaviour. Q2. What are the common methods to obtain an initial basic feasible solution for a transportation problem whose cost and requirement table is given? Give a stepwise procedure for one of them? Ans. Transportation Problem & its basic assumption This model studies the minimization of the cost of transporting a commodity from a number of sources to several destinations. The supply at each source and the demand at each destination are known. The transportation problem involves m sources, each of which has available. i (i = 1, 2, ..,m) units of homogeneous product and n destinations, each of which requires bj (j = 1, 2., n) units of products. Here a i and bj are positive integers. The cost cij of transporting one unit of the product from the ith source to the jth destination is given for each i and j . The objective is to develop an integral transportation schedule that meets all demands from the inventory at a minimum total transportation cost.It is assumed that the total supply and the total demand are equal.i.e. Condition (1)The condition (1) is guaranteed by creating either a fictitious destination with a demand equal to the surplus if total demand is less than the total supply or a (dummy) source with a supply equal to the shortage if total demand exceeds total supply. The cost of transportation from the fictitious destination to all sources and from all destinations to

the fictitious sources are assumed to be zero so that total cost of transportation will remain the same. Formulation of Transportation Problem The standard mathematical model for the transportation problem is as follows. Let xij be number of units of the homogenous product to be transported from source i to the destination j Then objective is to Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a feasible solution to the transportation problem (2) is that Q3. a. What are the properties of a game? Explain the best strategy on the basis of minmax criterion of optimality. b. State the assumptions underlying game theory. Discuss its importance to business decisions. Ans. a) Minimax (sometimes minmax) is a decision rule used in decision theory,game theory, statistics and philosophy for minimizing the possible loss whilemaximizing the potential gain. Alternatively, it can be thought of as maximizing the minimum gain (maximin). Originally formulated for two-player zero-sumgame theory, covering both the cases where players take alternate moves and those where they make simultaneous moves, it has also been extended to more complex games and to general decision making in the presence of uncertainty.

Game theory
In the theory of simultaneous games, a minimax strategy is a mixed strategywhich is part of the solution to a zero-sum game. In zero-sum games, the minimax solution is the same as the Nash equilibrium.

MINIMAX THEOREM
The minimax theorem states:

For every two-person, zero-sum game with finitely many strategies, there exists a value V and a mixed strategy for each player, such that (a) Given player 2s strategy, the best payoff possible for player 1 is V, and (b) Given player 1s strategy, the best payoff possible for player 2 is V. Equivalently, Player 1s strategy guarantees him a payoff of V regardless of Player 2s strategy, and similarly Player 2 can guarantee himself a payoff of V. The name minimax arises because each player minimizes the maximum payoff possible for the othersince the game is zero-sum, he also maximizes his own minimum payoff. This theorem was established by John von Neumann,[1] who is quoted as saying As far as I can see, there could be no theory of games without that theorem I thought there was nothing worth publishing until the Minimax Theorem was proved.[2] See Sions minimax theorem and Parthasarathys theorem for generalizations; see also example of a game without a value.

EXAMPLE
The following example of a zerosum game, where A and B make simultaneous moves, illustrates minimax so lutions. Suppose each player has three choices and consider the payoff matrix for A displayed at right. Assume the payoff matrix for B is the same matrix with the signs reversed (i.e. if the choices are A1 and B1 then B pays 3 to A). Then, the minimax choice for A is A2 since the worst possible result is then having to pay 1, while the simple minimax choice for B is B2 since the worst possible result is then no payment. However, this solution is not stable, since if B believes A will choose A2 then B will choose B1 to gain 1; then if A believes B will choose B1 then A will choose A1 to gain 3; and then Bwill choose B2; and eventually both players will realize the difficulty of making a choice. So a more stable strategy is needed.

B chooses B1 A chooses A1 A chooses A2 A chooses A3 +3 1 4

B chooses B2 2 0 3

B chooses B3 +2 +4 +1

Some choices are dominated by others and can be eliminated: A will not choose A3 since either A1 or A2 will produce a better result, no matter what B chooses;B will not choose B3 since some mixtures of B1 and B2 will produce a better result, no matter what A chooses. A can avoid having to make an expected payment of more than 1/3 by choosing A1 with probability 1/6 and A2 with probability 5/6, no matter what B chooses.B can ensure an expected gain of at least 1/3 by using a randomized strategy of choosing B1 with probability 1/3 and B2 with probability 2/3, no matter what Achooses. These mixed minimax strategies are now stable and cannot be improved. b) Brandenburger and Nalebuff discuss how game theory works and how companies can use the principles to make decisions. The authors state that managers can use the principles to create new strategies for competing where the chances for success are much higher than they would be if they continued to compete under the same rules. A classic example used in the article is the case of General Motors. The automobile industry was facing many expenses due to the incentives that were being used at the retailers. General Motors responded by issuing a new credit card where the cardholders could apply a portion of their charges towards purchasing a GM car. GM even went so far as to allow cardholders to use a smaller portion of their charges towards purchasing a Ford car, allowing both companies to be able to raise their prices and increase long term profits. This action by GM created a new system where both GM and Ford could be better off, unlike the traditional competitive model where one company must profit at the expense of another. The authors state that while the traditional win-lose strategy may sometimes be appropriate, but that the win-win system can be ideal in many circumstances. One advantage to win-win strategies is that since they have not been used much, they can yield many previously unidentified opportunities. Another major advantage is that since other companies have the opportunity to come out ahead as well, they are less likely to show resistance. The last advantage is that when other companies imitate the move the initial company benefits as well, in contrast to the initial company losing ground as they would in a win-lose situation. The authors also state that there are five elements to competition that can be changed to provide a more optimal outcome. These elements are: the players (or companies competing), added values brought by each competitor, the rules under which competition takes place, the tactics used, and the scope or boundaries that are established. By understanding these factors, companies can apply different strategies

to increase their own odds of success. The first way that companies can increase their chances of success involves changing who the companies are that are involved in the business. One way that companies can improve their odds of success is by introducing new companies into the business. For example, both Coke and Pepsi wanted to get a contract to have Monsanto as a supplier. Since Monsanto had a monopoly at the time, they encouraged Holland Sweetener Company to compete with Monsanto. Since it seemed Monsanto no longer had a monopoly on the market, they were able to get more favorable contracts with Monsanto. Another way that companies can improve their chances is by helping other companies introduce more or better complimentary products. Companies can also change the added values of themselves or their competitors. Obviously, companies can build a better brand or change their business practices so they operate more efficiently. However, the authors discuss how they can also lower the value of reducing the value of other companies as a viable strategy. Nintendo reduced the added value of retailers by not filling all of their orders, thus leaving a shortage and reducing the bargaining power of the stores buying its products. They also limited the number of licenses available to aspiring programmers, lowering their added value. They even lowered the value held by comic book characters when they developed characters of their own that became widely popular, presumably so that they wouldnt have to pay as much to license these characters. Changing the rules is another way in which companies can benefit. The authors introduce the idea of judo economics, where a large company may be willing to allow a smaller company to capture a small market share rather than compete by lowering its prices. As long as it does not become too powerful or greedy, a small company can often participate in the same market without having to compete with larger companies on unfavorable terms. Kiwi International Air Lines introduced services on its carriers that were of lower prices to get market share, but made sure that the competitors understood that they had no intention of capturing more than 10% of any market. Companies can also change perceptions to make themselves better off. This can be accomplished either by making things clearer or more uncertain. In 1994, the New York Post attempted to make radical price changes in order to get the Daily News to raise its price to regain subscribers. However, the Daily News misunderstood and both newspapers were headed for a price war. The New York Post had to make its intentions clear, and both papers were able to raise their prices and not lose revenue. The authors also show an example of how investment banks can maintain ambiguity to benefit themselves. If the client is more optimistic than the investment bank, the bank can try to charge a higher commission as long as the client does not develop a more realistic

appraisal of the companys value. Finally, companies can change the boundaries within which they compete. For example, when Sega was unable to gain market share from Nintendos 8-bit systems, it changed the game by introducing a new 16-bit system. It took Nintendo 2 years to respond with its own 16-bit system, which gave Sega the opportunity to capture market share and build a strong brand image. This example shows how companies can think outside the box to change the way competition takes place in their industry. Brandenburger and Nalebuff have illustrated how companies that recognize they can change the rules of competition can vastly improve their odds of success, and sometimes respond in a way that benefits both themselves and the competition. If companies are able to develop a system where they can make both themselves and their competitors better off, then they do not have to worry so much about their competitors trying to counter their moves. Also, because companies can easily copy each others ideas, it is to a firms advantage if they can benefit when their competitors copy their idea, which is not usually possible under the traditional win-lose structure. This article has some parallels with the article Competing on Analytics by (). The biggest factor that both of these articles have in common is how crucial it is for managers to understand everything they can about their business and the environment in which they work. In Competing on Analytics, the authors say that it is important to be familiar with this information so that managers can change the way they compete to improve their chances of success. At the end of The Right Game: Use Game Theory to Shape Strategy, the authors discuss how in order for companies to be able to change the environment or rules under which they compete they need to understand everything they can about the constructs under which they are competing. Whether a manager intends to use analytics or game theory to be successful, he or she must first have all available information and use that information to understand how to make the company better off. However, the work shown in Competing on Analytics tends to place an emphasis almost exclusively on the use of quantitative data to improve efficiency or market share of the company. The Right Game, however focuses more on using information to find creative ways of changing the constructs or rules applied between companies, often yielding a much broader impact. Q4. a. Compare CPM and PERT explaining similarities and mentioning where they mainly differ. Ans.

The Major Differences and Similarities between CPM and PERT

CPM (Critical Path Method) & PERT(Program Evaluation and Review Technique) 1)PERT is a probabilistic tool used with three 1)CPM is a deterministic tool, with only single Estimating the duration for completion of estimate of duration. 2)This tool is basically a tool for planning 2)CPM also allows and explicit estimate of and control of time. costs in addition to time, therefore CPM can control both time and cost. 3)PERT is more suitable for R&D related 3)CPM is best suited for routine and those projects where the project is performed for projects where time and cost estimates can the first time and the estimate of duration be accurately calculated are uncertain. 4)The probability factor i major in PERT 4)The deterministic factor is more so values or so outcomes may not be exact. outcomes are generally accurate and realistic. Extensions of both PERT and CPM allow the user to manage other resources in addition to time and money, to trade off resources, to analyze different types of schedules, and to balance the use of resources. Tensions of both PERT and CPM allow the user to manage other resources in addition to time and money, to trade off resources, to analyze different types of schedules, and to balance the use of resources. Graphs _ In mathematics, networks are called graphs, the entities are nodes, and the links are edges _ Graph theory starts in the 18th century, with Leonhard Euler _ The problem of Knigsberg bridges _ Since then graphs have been studied extensively.

Graph Theory _ Graph G=(V,E) _ V = set of vertices _ E = set of edges _ An edge is defined by the two vertices which it connects _ optionally: A direction and/or a weight _ Two vertices are adjacent if they are connected by an edge _ A vertexs degree is the number of its edges Graph G=(V,E) V = set of vertices E = set of edges 2 4 5 1 3 2

Each edge is now an 3 arrow, not just a line -> direction The indegree of a vertex is the number of incoming edges 4 The outdegree of a vertex is the number of outgoing edges

PGDBA- Semester II MB0049 Project Management Q.1 Explain the nine steps which take project management to a New Horizon Ans. The following nine steps are suggestive measures to provide new dimensions to the management of projects. Step 1: Believing in discontinuity and not continuity with incremental improvements Continuity or the status quo is a function of quantum of changes. Incremental improvements are valid only when the rate of change is not excessive. Both the continuity and incremental improvements are linked with the rate of change and quantum. Beyond a threshold of rate of change, one cannot go with the continuity and incremental improvements. The modern day Internet and technological based world has

witnessed the unprecedented rate of change and explosion in the quantum of changes. It is this process which has resulted in making continuity theory as baseless. Continuity in principle is to preserve the past where as discontinuity breaks the linkage with the past to the extent it can have fewer constraints to move into the future. There is no choice except to believe in discontinuity as only then mind and body is prepared to accept the unknowns and be ready to face it and control thereafter. Step2: Owning the problems and sharing the solutions More one owns problem, more he becomes experienced. It is not the number of years of service one has performed for a company but how much number of problems was faced and owned is now becoming the benchmark to define an experienced person from inexperienced. The true spirit of entrepreneurial outlook is to own the problems and solve the same and in this process make Money. The fixed mould mentality is to empower the problems to be faced outside than oneself and get the credit for solutions. Step 3: Breaking the status quo mentality No change means perpetuation of the Present into the Future. This is in contradiction to the nature as Future is not the extension of Present. Breaking the status quo mentality implies in taming the future as it is the future which becomes Present at some point of time. Focusing into Future and affecting the Present is antiestablishment and require concerted efforts to move out from the comfortable zones. Project managers can hardly afford to have status quo mentality as day in and day out they are involved in acting in present to affect Future. At times, when we do not get away from the status quo mentality, contradictions fall apart everywhere in the project between the two types of group- the champions of future and those who believe in extending Present. Step 4: Stepping out of comfortable zone As apart of the step 3 and in a way extension of it, the comfortable zone is to dear to break and cross. Fear of uncertainties makes the comfortable zone more comfortable than if the fear did not exist. The project managers of tomorrow are those who have so called comfortable zone carve out from that area which conventionally is uncomfortable and that is the zone of uncertainties. If we seek comforts in conquering the uncertainties with planning and indomitable spirit of winning, then we are able to provide project leadership and inspire the team members to plunge into risk taking.

Step 5: Human Capital by passing Financial Capital While the agriculture society witnessed the Nature as the foremost, the 20th century saw the men-machine interaction as the key factor for the capital formation. 21st century in this Internet age is beginning to see the human capital surpassing the financial capital. Venture capitalists were all over the place to fund any idea, which they thought would create a brave new world. Its consequent failure in the last couple of years could not be attributed to the over faith in Human capital but absence of effective filtering mechanism from good to bad idea. While Return On Investment (ROI) could be seen as financial driven phenomena, Return On Time Invested (ROTI) is basically based human efforts and its deployment. ROTI will be more meaningful to ROI in the context of new processes on their way to unfold in the beginning of 21st century. Step 6: Transform work culture from 5 to 7 dimensions Conventionally we all live in the conventional 5 dimensions of space i.e. X, Y and Z, Time and Mind. We need to supplement on these 5 dimensions the additional 2 dimensions of Passion and Joy If we do what we want do then the gap between Wish and Reality is so little that one is in position to provide its very best. It is his/her added 2 dimensions, which make the total difference. The new miracles in project management will take place when we bring the work of joy like in the art domain of music and paintings in our project work. Step 7: Real number of encounters replacing number of years of experience The experience profile should be redefined by the number of encounters and problems faced instead of number of years. The wisdom evolved based on encounters is far richer than accumulated simply by repeating the same encounters n number of times in ones employee ship. The secret is to increase the encounters meaningful to ones own dream or passion profile. Step 8: Seeking meaning out of change Change is first degree. It is a must. Change can be threat or an opportunity. It depends how one looks at it. If change is resisted, it becomes all the more difficult to see the real outcome of the change as it is partly distorted. Project implies change and that too a temporary one. It is essential to make people to have a real communication about the

change. One of the major strategies to bring about a change is to communicate, communicate and communicate. Step 9: Detachment from the fruits of the results To act is within ones control. To get the reward as a reaction to the action is not within ones purview. Too much emphasis on that part, which is not within our control, is a wasteful exercise instead concentrates on actions to the best of ones ability. The results so arrived at must be analyzed from the cause and effect relationship and constant learning must be made out of all such actions or group of actions. Attachment with the results of the actions often dilute ones own energy and may shift ones focus from the main road to its detour. Detachment from the results does not imply one should not demand or expect materialistic benefits, no, it only means that in case you do not get what you deserve, leave it and move forward rather than brooding over that part which is not within ones control. The journey comes to a standstill if we get attached to the surroundings and to the results of the present beyond a small time frame. Project managers and team members are never stationary. They must move on. In summary, the new discovery or dimensions in project management heavily depends on the human factor of breaking ceilings, getting motivated all the time, working with passion, detachment with the results rather than with the actions, human capital surpassing that of financial capital, breaking the status quo mentality, owning the problems and solutions and creating discontinuity. The journey has just begun and it must continue as in the human race, there is no finishing line. Q.2 Discuss the traits of a successful project manager.

ANS. TEN TRAITS OF A SUCCESSFUL PROJECT MANAGER

This short article highlights some of the best traits of a successful project manager. He or she has many of these abilities:

1. 2. 3.

In Touch Regularly checks the pulse of the project. The balance is in Good Vibrations Has inner and outer warmth. The manager Rock-solid Has a solid character. Everyone respects and trusts the

checking often enough for scope and length of the project, without over-checking. understands people, and can use humor as a relief. manager and his actions.

4. 5. 6.

Does the Job Has a preference for action doesnt wait for issues to Good Reactions Anticipates problems and plans as he can to handle or Not Scattered Can handle mulitple tasks with proper focus. His

resolve themselves. avoid them. management style is balanced between multi-tasking and focusing on the important details and tasks. This trait is connected to good time management.

7.
project.

Focused Picture When buried in details, she can also look at the big

picture, and understands how the teams efforts are integrated in the whole of the

8. 9.

Quality Workmanship - Through leading by example, quality outcomes Bends, but Unbreakable Has flexibility, but can make firm decisions. It

and products are achieved. is a key trait to be able to understand when decisions have to be made by the manager (as opposed to letting others intercede or make decisions for the manager by default.)

10.

Leverages Tools Learns and uses tools to help manage projects. A

good PM doesnt get buried learning complex project management tools especially if she does not yet know the theories or uses behind techniques (such as earned-value management or PERT charts). Q.3 Define the change management model. Ans. 1) Change management is a systematic approach to dealing with change, both from the perspective of an organization and on the individual level. A somewhat ambiguous term, change management has at least three different aspects, including: adapting to change, controlling change, and effecting change. A proactive approach to dealing with change is at the core of all three aspects. For an organization, change management means defining and implementing procedures and/or technologies to deal with changes in the business environment and to profit from changing opportunities Successful adaptation to change is as crucial within an organization as it is in the natural world. Just like plants and animals, organizations and the individuals in them inevitably encounter changing conditions that they are powerless to control. The more effectively you deal with change, the more likely you are to thrive. Adaptation might involve establishing a structured methodology for responding to changes in the business environment (such as a fluctuation in the economy, or a threat from a

competitor) or establishing coping mechanisms for responding to changes in the workplace (such as new policies, or technologies). Terry Paulson, the author of Paulson on Change, quotes an uncles advice: Its easiest to ride a horse in the direction it is going. In other words, dont struggle against change; learn to use it to your advantage. 2) In a computer system environment, change management refers to a systematic approach to keeping track of the details of the system (for example, what operating system release is running on each computer and which fixes have been applied).

The Change Management Model The model follows a 3-phase, 8-step process which is represented graphically below. Click on the graphic below to view the phase and step descriptions.

A change management model Dealing With The Truths of Change Leaders of change take note: Emotional reactions are at least as important as any other aspect of implementing change. The higher the involvement in change, the less negative the inevitable reactions. The intensity of emotional reaction is proportionate to the speed of change. The unresolved effects of change are cumulative. The longer a group / individual / situation has remained static, the greater the investment in the status quo. Therefore, the greater the resistance and reaction. Rewards and incentives can cause people to change, but they will not neutralise their feelings of loss.

Dealing With Change Misconceptions Change happens quickly Survivors are glad they have a job Time takes care of everything Everyone who is not on board has something wrong with them The weak people are the ones who leave During change, those who appear OK really are People hear what senior management communicates People take senior management communication at face value If the communication is done right the first time, it is enough By changing the formal relationship, how we do business will change The transition behaviour of the senior management is invisible to the rest of the organisation Pressures that caused the change will be seen in a rational manner We suggest these misconceptions require a thoughful approach from those leading change. What Happens when your Organisation Undergoes Change? People frequently feel overwhelmed when there are major changes within their organisation. They are often uncertain of their future, and the future of their colleagues in the organisation. Consequently the following fear of change reactions may occur. People generally feel smaller, ie. Self-conscious - the only one feeling the effects Missing - opportunities, job, status, security taken away Alone - nobody understands, the unlucky one Lethargic- commitment goes, energy levels drop Limits - each person has limits to the amount of change theyre comfortable with Enough - when those limits are reached they cry enough and resist further change Revert - people easily revert back to known behaviours Because we are all individuals we react differently. Some of the common reactions to change result in the following behaviours at work:

Drop in morale Drop in work outputs and Drop in productivity Drop in Managers credibility Drop in Commitment to the organisation and work Drop in levels of service Staff resisting change or conflict and making life difficult. This especially happens when people have been in the organisation for a long time. Staff bad mouthing the organisation/management or behaving in negative ways because they feel angry and/or threatened and want to hit back at the organisation. Effective leaders of change are aware of these not uncommon individual reactions to change. They plan how to deal with change by acccepting that employee anticipation and fear of change is a significant organisational risk unless people can be encouraged to learn and engage with the change and reflect upon the choices and options available to them. The dogmas of the quiet past are inadequate to the stormy present.The occasion is piled high with difficulty, and we must rise with the occasion. As our case is new, so we must think anew and act anew Abraham Lincoln Q.4 Describe the three major classification and categories of Risk management. Ans. Risk management is a structured approach to managing uncertainty related to a threat, a sequence of human activities including: risk assessment, strategies development to manage it, and mitigation of risk using managerial resources. About Types of Risk Management Commercial enterprises apply various forms of risk management procedures to handle different risks because they face a variety of risks while carrying out their business operations. Effective handling of risk ensures the successful growth of an organization. Various types of risk management can be categorized into the following:

OPERATIONAL RISK MANAGEMENT:

Operational risk management deals with technical failures and human errors

FINANCIAL RISK MANAGEMENT:

Financial risk management handles non-payment of clients and increased rate of interest

MARKET RISK MANAGEMENT:

Deals with different types of market risk, such as interest rate risk, equity risk, commodity risk, and currency risk

TYPES OF RISK MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Risk management is a business process in which a business analyzes risk in an effort to miminize the effects of such risk. Organizations must identify risks and assess how dangerous each risk could be to the organization. Taking steps to eliminate risks will reduce the possibility of a financial loss. Risk management should be continuous and revisited at intervals the organization deems appropriate. y
Q.5 List and explain the 10 rules which serve as the guidelines for development of high technology. Ans. Guidelines for development of high technology Some guidelines in the form of rules which help organization to be strong in this area. Rule1. Identify the critical technology and make a deliberate choice for indigenous development. Rule2. Always aim one step higher in performance. Rule3. Focus on multi use technologies. Rule4. Spot the competency of divisions and empower them for technology development. Rule5. Ensure redundancy for critical systems and technologies. Rule6. Focus efforts through Programme/Projects/Mission oriented approach.

Rule7. Build concurrency into every activity. Rule8. Build long term partnership with all the stake holders. Rule9. Focus on Problem Forecasting and Prevention. Rule10. Ensure continuous and integrated Performance Measurement