Mechanical Engineering 203 Machine Shop Practice

SECTION 921, MAY 1-4, 2000, 8:30-4:30 SECTION 922, MAY 8-12, 2000, 8:30-4:30 FIRST LECTURE: RH 102, 8:30 AM INSTRUCTOR: E.A. Croft 822-6614, ecroft@mech.ubc.ca

YOU ARE EXPECTED TO READ THESE NOTES BEFORE COMING TO THE FIRST CLASS. PLEASE NOTE THE SAFETY REQUIREMENTS ESPECIALLY IN TERMS OF APPROPRIATE CLOTHING WORN IN THE MACHINE SHOP. SPECIFICALLY: SHOES MUST BE WORN. NO OPEN TOED SHOES LONG HAIR MUST BE TIED BACK OR COVERED NO LOOSE CLOTHING OR JEWELRY YOU MUST SIGN AND HAND IN THE FORM ON PAGE 3 AT THE BEGINNING OF THE COURSE. THE QUIZ ON PAGE 20 OF THE NOTES IS DUE ON THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS.

The University of British Columbia Department of Mechanical Engineering

STUDENT MACHINE SHOP REGULATIONS

IN THE INTEREST OF SAFETY AND EFFICIENCY, STUDENTS USING THE MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MACHINE SHOP MUST OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING RULES. FAILURE TO DO SO MAY LEAD TO A SUSPENSION OF MACHINE SHOP PRIVILEGES.

1.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

The student must present proof of current accident insurance to the Machine Shop Supervisor. This insurance coverage can be arranged through the Mech Office at a cost of $7. Permission will then be given to work in the Student Area of the Machine Shop on the West Side of the room.

2.

TOOLS

ONLY THE TOOLS IN THE STUDENT WORKSHOP AREA ARE AVAILABLE FOR STUDENT USE. A basic tool set is available in the Student Area. UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES MAY THESE TOOLS BE TAKEN FROM THE AREA. If tools are required for use elsewhere in the Department they may be signed-out from Stores at the following times: Mon. Wed. Fri. 8:30 - 10:00 a.m. 3:00 - 4:00 p.m. Tues. and Thurs. Stores Closed. TOOLS FROM ANY OTHERWORK AREA OR WORKBENCH IN THE MACHINE SHOP MUST NOT BE USED. Most of these tools are the personal property of technicians.

3.

MATERIALS

Permission must be obtained from the Machine Shop Supervisor before removing from stock any material required for a project. All material must be booked against a designated project.

4.

SAFETY
a) b) c) d) Safety Glasses (available for purchase at Mech. Stores at a cost of $3) MUST be worn; Shoes must be worn - no open toed shoes; Long hair must be tied back or covered; No loose clothing.

The following regulations apply when working in the Machine Shop, and must be adhered to at all times:

Do not attempt to operate any piece of equipment with which you are not totally familiar. Do not disturb technicians when they are working on machines. See the Machine Shop Supervisor if you have questions. Safety electrical cut-outs are located on both sides of the Machine Shop. FAMILIARIZE YOURSELF WITH THEIR LOCATION. A lock-out system is in place (see Machine Shop notice board). First Aid kits are available - one beside the north exit door; one in the lunch room. Familiarize yourself with the location of these first aid kits. Machines and work areas must be cleaned before leaving, and when a job is finished (IHSR #8.50; 8.54). Tools and equipment MUST be returned to their designated location.

5.

NO FOOD OR BEVERAGES are to be brought into, or consumed in the Machine Shop.

The University of British Columbia Department of Mechanical Engineering

The following procedures must be observed when using the Department of Mechanical Engineering machine shop facilities: Power tools must not be used unless there is at least one other person in the machine shop;

A technician must be consulted before using any tool with which you are not familiar;

Machines and benches must be cleaned after use and tools returned to their designated location;

Any observed damage or malfunction of equipment must be reported to the Machine Shop Supervisor.

I am fully aware of operating and safety procedures that must be observed when using machine and hand tools. I have read and am aware of the machine shop regulations, as posted. Name: (print) Faculty Advisor: Signed: Date:

Mechanical Engineering 203 Machine Shop Practice

I.Yellowley, May 1998 revised E. Croft, April 2000

Introduction

These notes are intended as a very brief introduction to the course. Attached to the notes you will find a set of notes on Machine Shop Safety. YOU ARE EXPECTED TO READ THESE NOTES AND COMPLETE THE PROBLEM SET ON THE LAST PAGE. THE PROBLEM SET IS DUE ON THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS. NOTE: the machine shop environment houses many potential hazards, you must follow the safety rules and you should not attempt to operate or adjust any equipment without having received instruction and understood the correct procedures. Failure to comply with the safety rules will result in immediate termination and a failing grade. CAREFULLY REVIEW THE FOLLOWING SHOP DRAWINGS FOR A TAP WRENCH HANDLE. YOU WILL MAKE THIS ITEM DURING THE COURSE.

I.

Basic Geometry of Common Tools

The basic geometry of all tools is defined with respect to the relative work/tool velocity, the first thing one does in examining the geometry of a cutting tool is to orient the tool with respect to this velocity. Figure (1) shows the basic geometry of the cutting operation. Figure (2) shows a simple turning tool with primary and secondary cutting edges separated by a nose radius. The important planes as well as the directions for measurement of rake angle are identified within Figure (2)

Figure (1) Basic Geometry of the cutting operation. Rake Angles are measured between the rake face and a plane perpendicular to the cutting velocity. Two orthogonal values are used to characterise the rake face. US practice uses back rake and side rake, (related to shank). The rest of the world uses the more sensible directions shown, (related to the edge). Clearance angles are measured between clearance planes and the cutting velocity, (normally +5 to +10 degrees).

Figure (2) Basic Geometry of a single point cutting tool.

Figure (3) Typical cemented carbide tipped tools for lathe operations.

Figure (4) How surfaces are generated.

Figure (5) Typical Turning Operations and Tools.

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II.

Basic Geometry and Terminology of Cutting Processes

While tool geometry is fairly standard, process terminology is somewhat different for each operation. This section will consider the most common processes of turning :end milling. a) Turning The turning process usually refers to the process of cutting a rotating workpiece with a single point stationary tool, (there are exceptions however these are relatively minor). The machine tool used for turning is called a lathe, those which are designed for large pieces, held in the horizontal plane are termed vertical turning lathes. A set of typical plan geometries and associated applications are shown in Figure (5), the basic variables are shown in Figure (6), finally the detailed geometry of a representative operation is shown in Figure (7).

Cutting Velocity perpendicular to page. V={(RPM)* *(Dia)/60}} m/s NOTE: However, V is usually specified as m/min OR ft/min!!! Feed Direction Feed Velocity Given by product of feed per revolution and RPM of the workpiece. . Vfeed=s*(RPM), either in mm/min or inch/min The usual units for feed per rev are mm or inches.

Figure (6) Basic Plan View of Turning

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Figure (7) Detailed Geometry of the Turning Process The detailed tool geometry is of great importance in a production environment. The combination of approach angle and trail angle determine the range of applications which a particular tool is capable of. While a decreasing point angle gives greater flexibility, this is at the expense of tool strength. The most common point angles are between 90 degrees and 60 degrees, (square and triangular throw away insert tooling). The tool nose radius and the trail angle influence surface finish, (in the absence of a nose radius then the approach angle also has an influence). A typical example of a machined surface finish profile is shown in Figure (8). The approach angle and the nose radius are also used to "thin" the chip allowing higher feedrates to be achieved before tool breakage occurs. (In theory a change in approach angle from 0 degrees to 45 degrees would allow an increase in feedrate of approximately 40% in those cases where the depth is considerably greater than the nose radius, in practice other factors such as " work push off " and stability, ("chatter"), mitigate against the use of high approach angles for multipass roughing).

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Figure (8), Surface Produced during Machining

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b)Milling There are a very large variety of milling cutter types and associated operations, Figure (9) shows a group of typical operations and cutters. The nomenclature of milling cutters is, to say the least, inconsistent if not downright confusing. You should not worry to much about mastering the terminology but understand the major applications of face mills, end mills and slot drills, (a slot drill has at least one tooth which cuts to centre and hence is capable of an axial plunge cut ... do not try this with an end mil!!!). The basic geometry of the milling process is more complex than most others. The cutting edge must enter and leave the work, and of course the chip thickness in cut is variable. The actual path traced out by each tooth with respect to the workpiece is trochoidal. Luckily the peripheral velocity, (the cutting speed), is much larger than the centreline velocity of the cutter, (the feeding speed). Given that the cutting speed is 2 orders of magnitude higher than the feed velocity, one may assume that each individual path is of a circular shape and is translated by the feed per tooth from the path traveled by the previous tooth. The detailed geometry of the cut is shown in Figure (9) where it is seen that the instantaneous chip thickness, (equivalent to the feed/tooth in turning), is sinusoidal. Most HSS (High Speed Steel) milling cutters and almost all slab mills or end mills utilise a helix angle to attempt to minimise the dynamic force components; in terms of cut geometry, the helix corresponds to an angle of obliquity and also serves to direct the chip away from the surface cut by the face of the tool. The milling process has many more variables than turning, the major decisions to be made now are the selection of axial depth of cut, feed per tooth, cutting velocity, radial width of cut and the mode of milling. There are two modes of milling as shown in Figure (11), namely Up Cut, (Conventional), and Down Cut, (Climb). Figure (11) shows the force components acting upon a single tooth, it should be evident that, for a single tooth in contact, there is a obvious possibility of a force reversal in the feed direction for down milling and in the normal direction for up milling. The force reversal in the feed direction for down milling may cause trouble if there is backlash in the power screw driving the machine table, (the table will be moved bodily by the amount of the backlash). The normal result of the table motion mentioned above is tool breakage, and perhaps component damage, as well as danger to the operator. Down milling is only, (commonly), used on machine tools with backlash elimination, (power screws), or on servo driven mills which utilize preloaded ball screws. The majority of milling on conventional machine tools is then carried out using an upcut or conventional action, there are some advantages to down milling, principally that it produces a better surface finish, it does however create more tool push off force, (normal to surface), so accuracy is generally compromised relative to up milling. Finally there can be impact problems with down milling, and some materials make up milling almost impossible, (soft austenitic stainless steels or nickel base alloys tend to produce chips which adhere to the tooth on exit and cause destruction of the edge on reentry).
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Figure (9) Representation of Chip thickness as the Normal Distance between Two Circular Paths

Figure (10), Typical Milling Operations

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Figure (11) Milling Operations and Force Directions

III.
a) Turning

The Selection of Machining Conditions

The normal method of selecting turning conditions in a production environment is as follows: a) b) c) Select the highest allowable depth of cut, (chatter and tool geometry are the limiting constraints). Select the maximum feedrate, (tool forces, torque, surface finish and tool breakage are the limiting constraints). Select a cutting speed which leads to a reasonable tool life, (check power constraint). Normally a handbook value is used to start, this is adjusted as parts are produced and the actual values become apparent. One should also realise that velocities which are too low will result in the formation of built up edge which causes both a poor, (dull), surface finish and accelerated tool wear/breakage.

For the sake of convenience, a couple of tables for turning are included, (one for carbon steel, (25O BHN-Brinell Hardness Number), the other for brass). NOTE these tables take account of the rather flexible nature of the components and the variation in size of lathe, you may be using. Production rates using carbide tooling, rigid workpieces and heavy duty machine tools would be up to 10 times higher.

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b)Milling The selection process here is very similar to that in turning, however one must be aware that when using small diameter milling cutters, (as will be the case here), then the avoidance of tool shank breakage is a major issue. a) Select a reasonable cutter diameter for the radial width to be cut. Usually in production one prefers to have a cutter diameter which is comparable to the intended radial width since it provides a much lower cost process, in low volume/job shop environments this is not critical. b) Maximise depth of cut, again chatter is a major constraint however, in this case, even before selecting feed per tooth some reasonable data must be consulted to avoid breakage. c) Maximise feed, (breakage is the major constraint, however finish and, accuracy may also need to be considered). d) Select a reasonable starting value of spindle speed, the major constraint is spindle power.

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IV.

Tables of Recommended Machining Conditions

Introduction Approximate values of the machining conditions are given for the processes already introduced, (turning and milling), a very brief table is also included for standard twist drills, (see Figure (9), for the basic geometry of these tools). Given the machine tools available, all data are given in Imperial units! NOTE MACHINING TABLES WHICH FOLLOW ARE APPROXIMATE YOU SHOULD START MACHINING CONSERVATIVELY, (CERTAINLY IN THE CASE OF FEEDRATES), THEN EXPERIMENT TO SEE WHETHER THE VALUES GIVEN HERE ARE REASONABLE 1.)Machining Conditions, Turning of Carbon Steel, HSS Tools Cutting Speed (ft/min) 85 1100 Feed per Rev. (inch) 0.006 to 0.014 0.002 to 0.006 Depth of Cut (inch) 0.05 to 0.125 0.015 to 0.05

Roughing Finishing

NOTE: Reduce cutting speed by a factor of 3 for threading. Interrupted cuts will also require lower speeds, (a factor of 2 is a reasonable first estimate) 2.)Machining Conditions, Turning of Brass, HSS Tools Cutting Speed (ft/min) 1 00 120 Feed per Rev. (inch) 0.006 to 0.017 0.002 to 0.006 Depth of Cut (inch) 0.05 to 0.125 0.01 to 0.05

Roughing Finishing

NOTE: Reduce Cutting Speed by a factor of 3 for threading Interrupted cuts will also require lower speeds, (a factor of 2 is a reasonable first estimate)

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3.)Machining Conditions, Low Carbon Steel, Milling with HSS End Mills Cutter Diameter, (inch) Feed per Tooth, (inch) Axial Depth of Cut, (inch), (MAX) Rotational Speed, (RPM) Feeding Speed, (inch/min)= RPM*(number-of-teeth)*(feed-per-tooth) (1/4) 0.001 to 0.004 0.150 1200 ?? (1/2) 0.002 to 0.006 0.375 750 ?? (1) 0.003 to 0.008 0.500 400 ??

4.)Machining Conditions, Brass, Milling with HSS End Mills Cutter Diameter, (inch) Feed per Tooth, (inch) Axial Depth of Cut, (inch), (MAX) Rotational Speed, (RPM) Feeding Speed, (inch/min)= RPM*(number-of-teeth)*(feed-per-tooth) (1/4) 0.002 to 0.006 0.150 1300 ?? (1/2) 0.003 to 0.007 0.375 850 ?? (1) 0.003 to 0.012 0.500 500 ??

5.)Machining Conditions, Drilling with Standard Chisel Point Drills Peripheral Cutting Speed, carbon steel, 80ft/min, (all diameters). Peripheral Cutting Speed, brass, 100ft/min, all diameters Feedrates for both work materials as follows: Diameter, (inch) Feed/Rev, (inch) 0.5>Dia>0.375 0.006 to 0.010 0.375>Dia>0.188 0.0025 to 0.006 0.188>Dia>0.031 0.001 to 0.0025

Figure (9) Basic Drill Geometry

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V.

Quiz

1) On what machine tool is the turning process done? 2) A steel shaft, with a diameter of 1/2 inch is being turned at 90 ft/min. What is the cutting velocity? If the feed per revolution is 0.010 inch, what is the depth of cut? 3) What is the difference between up-milling and down-milling. Which process is normally used. Under what conditions is down-milling used? 4) Why does a higher approach angle allow higher feed-rates? 5) What distinguishes a slot drill from a end mill? What is this feature used for? 6) How much should one reduce cutting speed for threading? 7) You are milling a steel block, using a 1/2 inch HSS End Mill with 4 teeth. The milling machine has the following available Rotational Speeds: 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200. What rotational speed should you use? What feed speed should you use (a) When you initiate cutting. (b) after cutting for some time.

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