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Cisgenesis
Next Step in Classical Plant Breeding
Evert Jacobsen and Henk J. Schouten
Abstract Plant breeding is an ongoing activity that started many years ago through domestication of crops by farmers selection. After discovery of Mendels Law plant breeding became gradually more science driven. Nowadays, plant breeding is developing very rapidly because of the development of many new technologies and scientific disciplines that can be applied. Approaches for genetic modification (GM) of plants developed quickly in the eighties and nineties of last century, but it is the first technology that has not been widely accepted in the world by NGOs and consumers. GMO-regulations have been developed which are by the strict application obstructing the development of GM-varieties, especially in Europe. These regulations are based on the modification process and on transgenes originating from non-crossable species. These transgenes are a new gene pool for plant breeding. However, it turns out that cisgenes, which are genes from the plant itself or from crossable species, will be more and more available. They belong to the existing breeders gene pool but they are treated in the regulation like transgenes. It is recommended to exempt from the regulation GM-plants that contain cisgenes only. This chapter provides a historical context of cisgenesis. Further, it discusses breeding approaches of autogamous, allogamous and vegetatively propagated crops. Options for cisgenesis in these kind op crops are presented. Some examples are disease resistance in potato and apple using R- and Avr-genes, hybrid seed production using genes for male sterility, or S_RNase genes for changing self-incompatibility. We regard cisgenesis as next important step in introgression breeding, using natural genes spatie. Cisgenesis has also been compared with intragenics and induced mutation breeding. We recommend less stringent oversight for intragenic plants, compared to transgenic plants especially when it concerns RNAi.
E. Jacobsen () and H.J. Schouten Plant Breeding, Wageningen University and Research Center, Wageningen, The Netherland e-mail: evert.jacobsen@wur.nl E. Jacobsen Transforum Agribusiness & Rural Areas, Louis, Pasteurlaan 6, 2700 AB Zoetermeer, The Netherlands S.M. Jain and D.S. Brar (eds.), Molecular Techniques in Crop Improvement, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-2967-6_25, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010 591
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This activity is imbedded in forms of traditional plant breeding. Over 40% of the worlds agricultural area is still under management and seed supply of small-scale farmers (Jarvis and Hodgkin 1999). 25.1.1.3 Professional Cross Breeding Rediscovery of Mendels laws at the end of the 19th century led to a shift to more science-based plant breeding. It stimulated professionalization of plant breeding and development of seed business. Combining useful traits by crossing and selection on the basis of classical genetics influenced crop improvement strongly, and led to more rapid selection for superior types. The impact of classical genetics on professional plant breeding started in the early twentieth century, but is still ongoing. It has stimulated domestication of crops in many ways. Selection in plant breeding implies reduction of genetic variation. However, also widening of genetic variation is required for novel traits, such as resistances to biotic or a-biotic stress, further yield improvement, hybrid seed production and new quality traits. Additional genetic variation can be found in crossable relatives. The pool of genetic variation can be further extended by techniques such as embryo rescue, protoplast fusion, and recently genetic modification. In addition to domestication of crops by normal cross breeding, in which several traits from both crossing parents will be combined, it is also important to introgress specific or single traits from wild material into crops. Introgression and in some cases induced translocation breeding of specific traits simultaneously introduces so many unwanted alleles from the wild plant that pre-breeding is required, in order to remove the majority of these unwanted alleles. Unwanted alleles that are genetically tightly linked to the desired allele can bring serious problems. The problem of linkage drag with negative traits is frequently the main bottle neck in such approaches. Solving linkage drag problems may require many years of crossing and selection. Molecular markers can nowadays be helpful to reduce linkage drag problems or to speed up the solution, but it never completely removes the linkage drag. An example of linkage drag is insect resistance in lettuce that was closely linked to compact growth and rapid aging. Jansen (1997) described how Marker Assisted Breeding (MAS) was helpful to solve this linkage problem. 25.1.1.4 Cisgenic Breeding A sometimes more efficient solution for introgression of alleles from wild germplasm into crops is cisgenesis (Schouten et al. 2006a). In this approach, the allele from the wild relative is isolated molecularly from the genomic DNA of that wild relative. Subsequently, this allele is transferred to the recipient crop plant through marker free genetic modification techniques (Fig. 25.1). Isolation of the allele from the donor plant is crucial here, as it is not flanked by undesired alleles anymore. By definition, cisgenesis prevents linkage drag. This is the major advantage of cisgenesis.
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Further, by definition, the cisgene contains its native introns and is preceded by its native promoter and followed by its native terminator (Schouten et al. 2006a, b). The cisgenic insertion contains only one or a few cisgenes and is not surrounded by other genes of the donor plant, nor by genes from a vectors backbone. Here domestication of the cisgene is obtained by surgical precise isolation of desired alleles from donor plants, whereas in introgression breeding many times uncontrolled meiotic recombinations of linked genes are required for removal of negative side effects. Cisgenesis requires methods of genetic modification that do not leave behind transgenes for selection of transformed cells, for example coding for herbicide tolerance or for resistance to antibiotics. As shown in Fig. 25.1, nowadays different methods are applied to obtain such marker-free plants (Fig. 25.1). The first possibility is the removal afterwards of the selection genes and other helper genes by recombinase-based excision (Schaart et al. 2004). The second approach is transformation without a selection gene, but screening by means of PCR for transgenic regenerants containing the insert (Vetten de et al. 2003). The third approach is infection with two Agrobacterum strains, the first one containing the selection marker and the second one the agricultural cisgene(s) of interest (Yu et al. 2006). After sexual crossing with wild type plants or after selfing, cisgenic plants can be
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selected from the segregating offspring. Plants with only the cisgene(s) are selected and the transgenic plants with only the selection gene or with both selection gene and the cisgene(s) are discarded.
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As cisgenic plants are very similar to traditional plants, and at least as safe as traditionally bred plants or plants from (induced) mutation breeding or induced translocation breeding, Schouten et al. (2006a, b) and Jacobsen and Schouten (2007) have proposed to exempt cisgenesis of plants from the regulation on deliberate release of GMOs into the environment, therewith clearing cisgenic plants in a timely and cost-effective manner. Rommens et al. (2007) proposed this also for intragenic plants. The main reason is the source of the genetic material, which is within the species or within sexual compatible species, available to conventional plant breeding. The main difference between cisgenesis and intragenics is that cisgenesis used natural genes including their native promoter, whereas intragenics allows also novel combinations of promoters and coding sequences, present in the plant and which are or can be used in traditional plant breeding.
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Table 25.1 Proposed changes for notification in GMO-regulations with respect of transgenes, cisgenes or intragenes in plants. The transformation process brings per definition a GM-plant. The DNA source determines the way regulation should be applied. Transgenes are partly from non crossable species, but intragenes and cisgenes are from the species itself or from crossable species. A. Baseline is natural complete genes. B. Baseline is natural functional sequences such as promotors, coding parts and terminators GMO regulation Categories Type of genes A B 1 New transgenes Full Full 2 New events in existing gene-crop combination Partial Partial Intragenes Partial Exempted 3 Cisgenes Exempted Exempted
Table 25.1 shows a proposal for deregulation of cisgenic and intragenic plants. Both in cisgenesis and intragenics, the genes used belong to the gene pool of the conventional breeder. The conventional breeding is regarded as the baseline for the GMO regulation. As cisgenesis uses natural genes with their native promoters from the breeders gene pool, it makes sense in treating cisgenic plants in a similar way as traditionally bred plants (Schouten et al. 2006a, b; Jacobsen and Schouten 2007). Intragenics uses the same gene pool too, and therefore should be deregulated too. However, expression patterns may be obtained that are very unlikely through conventional breeding. Intragenics can therefore result into plants that cannot be obtained by means of conventional breeding. Therefore we propose a partial deregulation for intragenics. RNAi is in this sense a special application of intragenics, mimicking natural or induced mutations. Also in this case deregulation is logic. It results in loss of function of genes that may also be obtained by means of induced mutations. In case RNAi is designed for a sequence that appears at more loci of the plants genome, such as a conserved domain of a gene family, it may interfere with a group of genes. This exceeds the effect of a mutation in one locus. Therefore we propose here partial deregulation. In Table 25.1 we show also the situation in which functional sequences as promotors, coding parts and terminators of intragenes are seen as smallest natural units for exemption. In this case intragenes as well as cisgenes would be exempted.
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a
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Receptor r r
Receptor r r x r
F1 R r
Receptor r x r
F1 R r R r R r r
R irradiation
BCn R r R r r
BC and/or selfing R r r
TRENDS in Biotechnology
Fig. 25.2 The most important steps in introgression, induced translocation and cisgenic breeding with a resistance (R) gene. These result in (a) introgression, (b) induced translocation of the R-gene with linkage drag, and (c) cisgenic R-gene insertion without linkage drag (Jacobsen and Schouten 2007)
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The availability of molecularly isolated genes and marker-free transformation methods would help breeding. For seed propagated crops co-inoculation with two Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains followed by genetic segregation of the selection marker and the agricultural traits, is a good option for obtaining marker-free transformation. It is known that T-DNA from both strains are frequently inserted at different chromosomes in the same transformed cell, so that they will segregate independently after crossing (Yu et al. 2006).
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The cisgenic approach could also in this case be very helpful. It is a one step approach instead of all complicated steps described above. Precondition is the availability of the gene of interest and transformation ability of the variety which has to be improved. In the case of complex allopolyploid crops the advantage of cisgenesis is highly evident. It will improve breeding power of this type of crops considerably.
Table 25.2 Breeding characteristics of some major crops Crop species Mode of reproduction Type of cultivar Apple Vegetative Cultivars Asparagus Allogamous open pollination (dioecious) F1 Hybrids Barley Wheat Cucumber Maize Autogamous Allogamous monoecious Allogamous (monoecious) Vegetative Sexual Allogamous Autogamous Landrace Modern Cultivars F1 hybrids Landrace and open pollination F1 hybrids Inbred lines Cultivars True potato Seed Open pollination Old/modern Cultivars F1 hybrids
Homogeneity Homogeneous Heterogeneous Homogeneous Heterogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous Heterogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous
Zygosity Heterozygous Heterozygous Heterozygous Homozygous Homozygous Heterozygous Heterozygous Heterozygous Homozygous Heterozygous Heterozygous Heterozygous Homozygous Heterozygous
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Fig. 25.3 The production of male fertile F1 hybrid seed by the use of cytoplasmic male sterility in cms Mother lines, in combination with male fertile Maintainer lines with normal cytoplasm and male fertile Father lines with normal or cms cytoplasm which are homozygous for the restorer gene (Rf) (Pelletier. and Budar 2007)
fertile hybrid. Crossing of this father line with the CMS mother line delivers male fertile hybrid seed with CMS cytoplasm but heterozygous for the restorer gene (Rfrf). In recent years, Rf genes of Petunia (Rf-PPR592; Bentolila et al. 2002), rice (Rf1A and Rf1B; Wang et al. 2006) and maize (Rf2-R213; Liu et al. 2001) have been isolated and can be used in cisgenic GM-approaches.
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Fig. 25.4 Schematic representation of transformation experiments to ascertain the function of PiSLF. (a) Self-incompatibility behaviour of an S1S1 transgenic plant carrying a single copy of the PiSLF2 transgene. (b) Self-incompatibility behaviour of an S2S3 transgenic plant carrying a single copy of the PiSLF2 transgene. The genotypes of pollen produced, the predicted S-genotypes of the progeny resulting from self-pollination, and inheritance of the transgene are indicated (Sijacic et al. 2004)
literature that unraveling of the whole GI system is complicated but at the other hand the results with the cloned S-alleles in GM-plants of Petunia inflata (Sijacic et al. 2004), as seen in Fig. 25.4, showed that these cisgenes can be used for inhibiting self-incompatibility. This possibility is based on the earlier observation that two different S-alleles present in one pollen grain prevent the incompatibility reaction in the style. It means that for hybrid varieties, inbreeding is more feasible with additional S-cisgenes. If transformation is not an obstacle, these cisgenes could be used for developing inbred lines and/or seed producing hybrid varieties.
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onion (shallot). All these crops have in common that varieties are consisting of one genotype which is vegetatively propagated by roots, tubers, bulbs, shoots, rhizomes or grafts. These crops are annual or perennial. They have also in common that these crops are genetically highly heterozygous and that crosses are recombining all combined traits immediately so that the parental genotype is lost and can never come back in the same combination via backcross procedures. In all these crops it is very well known that variety breeding demands increasingly numbers of seedlings in order to be able to find seedlings combining more desired traits. Nowadays, in potato over 1,00,000 seedlings are needed for one new variety. Genetic variation has also to come more frequently from wild species so that pre-breeding for breeding parents is a very important first step in the breeding process using wild plants. Success of pre-breeding is in these cases also highly dependent on linkage drag problems with presence of undesired alien traits. It is important to realize that improvement of existing varieties in traditional breeding is only possible by spontaneous mutations or by mutation induction. This way of improvement is frequently used in fruit crops like apple and in ornamentals like Chrysanthemum, Alstroemeria and rose and bulb species like tulip, crocus and narcissus, where changes in appearance are directly useful. Loss of function of specific genes can also be obtained by the RNAi approach, This is very powerful as has been shown, for example, for amylose-free potato starch (Heilersig et al. 2006). However, the outcome is a GM-plant which is based on a transgene, which could nowadays be indicated as an intragene if all functional parts are coming from natural gene sequences of the crop plant itself or from crossable species. In case of an RNAi intragene the deregulation could also be made less costly and less time consuming because all functional parts of the intragene are belonging to genes from the plant itself or from crossable species.
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Until the fifties Solanum demissum was used as main source of resistance to Phytophthora without sustainability in success. All 11 R-genes from S. demissum were broken and attention was shifted to horizontal resistance which is more based on quantitative traits. In potato this approach appeared also to be without sufficient amounts of success. Only a few varieties have been obtained with quantitative resistance. The present solution is searching for resistance in many different crossable species. These resistances do segregate well in crosses with susceptible plants and are effective against different complex isolates. In this way, R-genes are selected which in combination with other major resistance genes could be the basis for more durable resistance (Jacobsen and Vossen 2009). Sources of resistance in different species are found and needed, which brings more often introgression problems because of a lower degree of crossability and linkage drag problems because of decreased cross-over events in the homoeologous parts of the chromosomes of backcross plants during meiosis. Introgression breeding in vegetatively propagated crops brings the same problems of linkage drag as shown above for self-fertilizing crops. Fig. 25.5 shows how many years are needed for a new variety in traditional breeding when (double) bridge interspecific crosses are required to transfer major resistance genes into normal breeding material. In case of bridge crosses with far related species it is expected that during backcrossing meiotic cross-over events occur less frequently in the introgressed areas. This is generally increasing the size of introgressed alien chromosome parts and the chance of negative side effects by other linked alien genes. In case of potato, it has taken over 50 years before varieties with the first R-genes of S. bulbocastanum against Phytophthora could be released as recently has been done with the new dutch varieties Toluca and Bionica (personal comm.). This highly resistant variety probably contains only Rpi-blb2 (unpublished observations) which still provides in the Netherlands total resistance however, in trap fields virulent isolates of late blight have already been isolated (Kessel, pers. comm). Therefore, only one R-gene in a variety is dangerous because of potential breakage problems. The philosophy has to be to stack several major R-genes from different sources at the same time in one genotype (Jacobsen and Vossen 2008). In classical breeding this leads to accumulation of linkage drag problems and, therefore, Double-bridge crosses in potato for resistance to Phytophthora infestans
S. acaule 4x S. bulbocastanum 2x (R genes) AB hybrid 3x colchicine doubling AB hybrid 6x S. ph ureja 2x ABP hybrid 4x S. tuberosum 2x ABPT material 4x R -gene + linkage -drag
Fig. 25.5 Double-bridge crosses in potato introgression breeding for resistance to Phytophthora infestans. This multiple step approach with far related species is difficult and always accompanied with a lot of linkage drag around the donor resistance gene. Stacking of R-genes from different sources, without linkage drag problems, is complex
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decreasing the chance of providing attractive varieties in a reasonable time. The tetraploid and heterozygous nature of potato further complicates the combination of desired traits in a new variety. Alternatives like stacking durable R-genes via cisgenesis are in development in order to solve this problem. At the moment 15 R-genes from several species like S. demissum, S. bulbocastanum, S. stoloniferum, S. papita and S. venturii have been isolated and are tested with different isolates for their spectrum of resistance. The use of Avr-genes is also speeding up the detection of R-genes in other species with the same or nearly the same specificity. It is getting more and more clear that R-genes can be subdivided into different groups with various resistance mechanisms (Vleeshouwers et al. 2008). These isolated R-genes can be stacked more easily by cisgenesis, and the availability of the corresponding Avr-genes enable testing the simultaneous biological expression of these R-genes in one plant. The possibility of using R-genes in GM-plants is also promoting the development of new resistance strategies as has been applied in the past with Bt based insect resistance genes by using refuges (Babu et al. 2003). In potato three resistance strategies have been described which could be used in practice (Jacobsen and Vossen 2008). It is one by one using single R-genes, stacking R-genes in one variety or using different R-genes in different clones from the same variety in mixed varieties.
25.6.3.1 AppleVenturia Inaequalis Interaction In 1946 crosses were made for introduction of resistance to apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) into commercial apple varieties, using as source of resistance the crab apple Malus floribunda 821 (Hough et al. 1953). The progeny of the cross between M. floribunda 821 and susceptible cultivars segregated in a Mendelian fashion for resistance in a 1:1 ratio. The gene putatively underlying this resistance was named Vf-gene. However, the fruits of the resistant parent M. floribunda 821 were very small, approximately 1 cm. The apples of the progeny were also small, and did not have the fruit quality that was required for commercial cultivars. This was caused by linkage drag: not only the desired resistance gene was inherited to part of the progeny, but also many unwanted alleles leading to poor fruit quality and other unwanted traits. In order to get rid of the unwanted alleles, subsequent crosses had to be carried out between resistant progeny and susceptible high quality cultivars. As indicated in Fig. 25.6 about five generations were required to remove enough unwanted alleles from M. floribunda, yet keeping the desired Vf-gene for scab resistance. Approximately 50 years after the first cross, Vf-cultivars with a reasonable fruit quality were introduced onto the market (Anonymous 1999). Therefore, it has taken half a century to introduce the Vf-gene and remove the linkage drag to an acceptable degree. In the mean time, Venturia inaequalis strains have been detected that are able to infect Vf-cultivars (Parisi et al. 1993). Especially in North-western Europe these strains are present and have spread (Parisi et al. 2006). As a result, several orchards that consist of Vf-cultivars have to be sprayed like orchards with susceptible
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Fig. 25.6 Breeding scheme between apple and Malus floribunda 821 for introgression of the Vf resistance gene against apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) providing after 50 years the resistant cultivar Santana
cultivars (Trapman 2006). Fifty years of breeding is fading away in 10 years. Obviously, more individual resistance genes need to be accumulated for obtaining durable resistance. Fortunately, many loci that confer resistance to apple scab have been discovered in Malus, both major genes and QTLs (Calenge et al. 2004; Schmidt and Van de Weg 2005; Gessler et al. 2006; Gardiner et al. 2006). Therefore, sufficient genes for resistance are present in the germplasm of apple. Introgression of one resistance gene took approximately 50 years. Introgression of four or more genes for durable resistance will require more time, when the breeding is performed in the classical way. Would this imply that we are left with an additional 50 years of intensive fungicide applications to scab in apple, before the durably resistant cultivars are introduced? We regard it as our challenge to shorten this period significantly, by introducing the resistance genes and preventing the linkage drag. One way to speed up the breeding process is marker-assisted breeding. This method can be of tremendous use and we advocate this approach, but still this will be timeconsuming, because linkage drag has to be removed through crosses and meiotic recombination. Accumulation of resistance genes from four sources of resistance and sufficient removal of unwanted alleles from the same sources, will probably require at least another five cross generations of apple. As long as the juvenile
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period and additional evaluation time in apple is about eight years, this would require a minimum of 40 years of breeding. An alternative route is introduction of the resistance genes into susceptible elite cultivars without simultaneous introgression of unwanted alleles, so prevention of linkage drag, rather then removal of linkage drag. Through this process of cisgenesis, durable resistance provided by several resistance genes is added to high quality cultivars in one step, preserving the proven fruit quality and other desired traits of these cultivars. Currently, apple is being sequenced, and other fruit crops probably will soon follow. This provides unprecedented opportunities for identification of genes. In addition, numerous loci have been mapped genetically in diverse germplasms, including fruit crops (Kole 2006). The information on genetic positions on the linkage groups, together with the whole genome sequences, and knowledge of genes from model plant species, offer us great opportunities to isolate alleles for desired traits at an increasing efficiency. We expect that, in the coming ten years, a vast number of major alleles for desired traits will be isolated in many crops, including fruit. So, the treasury of isolated alleles for cisgenesis will be filled at an increasing rate. The already mentioned Vf-gene was isolated by means of map-based cloning and subsequently functionally analyzed (Belfanti et al. 2004). A closer analysis revealed that a tandem repeat of two gene copies provides the Vf-resistance (Malnoy et al. 2007). Therefore, the spelling Vf-gene should be updated to the plural form Vf-genes. In the mean time several other resistance genes to apple scab are being isolated. As soon as the apple genome sequence becomes available to the scientific community, many more genes and their alleles will also be isolated and characterized, and will enrich the wealth of available alleles for cisgenesis. After discovery of the Vf-genes, several research groups in Europe and the USA proceeded in inserting these genes with strong, constitutive promoters in susceptible cultivars, resulting in resistance. However, at nearly the same time, the natural cisgenes were inserted with their own promoters. Apparently, the concept of cisgenesis was a logical step following the isolation of the Vf-genes. Additional resistance genes will also be inserted into apple by means of cisgenesis within a few years, using a combination of Vf-genes and other resistance genes. These stacked functional resistance genes will provide more durable resistance in elite cultivars. We regard cisgenesis as a way to apply the increasing knowledge about alleles to plant breeding, to the benefit of growers, consumers and the environment. An extra advantage of cisgenesis in comparison with cross breeding is that susceptible cultivars can be used that already have a proven high fruit quality and safe use. Apple is self-incompatible. Crossing with apple germplasm scrambles the genetic composition of good cultivars, and restoring such a cultivar through crossings is virtually impossible. However, cisgenesis preserves the genetic assembly of the high quality cultivar, and adds some well-defined apple alleles. Subsequently, the enriched cultivar can be propagated vegetatively by means of grafting, which is a common practise in apple propagation.
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