GROUNDWATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF AMUWO ODOFIN LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA

BY AKWARA NOREDIA 000402032

Being a project submitted to The department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty of Engineering University of Lagos In partial fulfilment of Requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering September 2006

TABLE OF CONTENTS Certification Dedication Acknowledgements Abstract CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1.0 1.1
1.2. 1.3.

Introduction Background to the Study

Description of case study area Importance of the Project

CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review

2.1 2.2 2.3

Groundwater Groundwater quality from deep wells Groundwater contamination 2.3.1 Domestic/Municipal sources of groundwater contaminants

2.4

Effect of Urban Development on groundwater

- 2.4.1 Relationship between Municipal landfills and Groundwater pollution 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 Water supply system in Amuwo Odofin LGA Saltwater intrusion in deltaic terrains Water quality standards The geology of the case study area - 2.7.1 Hydrogeology CHAPTER THREE: Methodology 3.1 Methodology - 3.1.1. Meetings with the local government officers - 3.1.2. Survey carried out in case study area - 3.1.3. Field Investigation 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Sources of Data Parameters Field Study Laboratory Analysis

CHAPTER FOUR: Discussion of Results 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4. Descriptions of Location Discussion of Physio-chemical parameters Discussion of results Groundwater Remediation -4.4.1 -4.4.2 Programs of activities for Groundwater Remediation Groundwater remediation from Point sources

CHAPTER FIVE: Conclusion and Recommendation 5.1 Conclusion

5.2 5.3

Protection/Prevention of Groundwater pollution Recommendation

REFERENCES APPENDICES CERTIFICATION This is to certify that this project GROUNDWATER QUALITY AND REMEDIATION OF GROUNDWATER POLLUTION: A CASE STUDY OF AMUWO ODOFIN LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA was carried out by AKWARA NOREDIA and supervised by DR. E.O LONGE

Student: AKWARA NOREDIA Signature:. Date:.

Supervisor: DR. E.O. LONGE Signature:... Date:

Head of Department: PROF. SALAU Signature Date:

DEDICATION This project is dedicated to the Loving Father, in whom I repose all trust. And to the memory of Emmanuel O. Akwara

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT To the Akwara family. Thanks for the support you gave me.

ABSTRACT Groundwater pollution is a growing problem in most countries.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study

The quality of water available to a community is closely related to the health issues of the community. An important factor in the growth of a community is its accessibility to potable water. In many countries of the world including Nigeria, groundwater constitutes the main source of drinking water. But in recent decades, the groundwater quality has very much deteriorated due to rapid industrialization and human mismanagement. The sources of water in Lagos state are from surface water and groundwater. Since 1910 to date, the main concern of the authorities managing water supply to Lagos has always been how to increase the supply of potable water due to the ever increasing population of Lagos as a commercial nerve centre of the nation's economy. The population of Lagos is growing rapidly daily with more people settling down than moving out and the effect of this large scale growth is felt on the environment. At present, Lagos has a population of about 15 million.

In the past, surface water was the main source of water supply for domestic and industrial use. Awareness of the large store of the water underground led to the implementation of water supply units based totally on groundwater. Groundwater is of major importance to civilization; because it is the largest reserve of drinkable water in regions where humans can live. Now, water resources in Lagos state for domestic, industrial and commercial uses, are becoming scarce as a result of pollution of water bodies by wastewater, which contains inorganic compounds, bacteria, etc. The effects of on-lot sewage disposal systems in densely populated areas surface runoff from developed areas, industrial site contamination are some of the problems facing groundwater quality in Lagos state. In Amuwo Odofin and Festac, the population housing is divided into three types: o Blocks of three bedroom family units (flats) o Semi-detachable houses
o Fully-detached houses and privately built homes

Most of the households depend on dug wells and boreholes for their water supply. The problem lies in ensuring that the community gets clean, potable water. Pollution can cause problems with the taste, odour and colour in water. Many of the chemicals that enter the water with runoff and seepage are, even in minute amounts, toxic to human health and can alter ecosystems by destroying fish, wildlife and plants. Heavy metals, pesticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons are typical examples. The majority of the community wells and boreholes are provided for by the individuals using it.

1.2. Description of case study area Amuwo Odofin local government area is situated in Lagos state, the most populous state in Nigeria. The population of Amuwo Odofin LGA is estimated to be over 270,000 persons and over 80% of this value obtains their water from private wells and boreholes. In more developed countries, community water supply systems are checked by professional staffs that are required by law to ensure that water supplied to these homes is safe for drinking, but in Nigeria, that is not the case. It has now become the responsibility of the users of the well to keep their water free from health hazards. Safe water cannot be taken for granted. There have been cases of physiochemical pollution of private well water. This has been the case since the local government does not provide water to the area and households have been left to source for their own water supply, taking whatever is available, giving rise to either no water treatment or over-treatment of the water due to lack of knowledge. The placement of wells and boreholes for domestic use is very important as its proximity to septic tanks can lead to contamination from the tanks. The construction of wells is also important. An improperly constructed well could lead to contamination at the surface of the well or ground. Wells in Festac town are susceptible to this, as they are of hand dug, ring construction type, going down 3 or 4 rings to the ground surface.

Amuwo Odofin local government area is a mostly residential area with about 35% of the area given to small businesses and small-scale, privately owned industries. The case study area comprises of two major sections: - Amuwo Odofin, Raji Rasaki Estate, Jakande Estate and their environs - Festival town, also known as Festac, which is divided into old Festac and Festac Phase II.

1.4.

Aims of the project

The aim of this project is to obtain the exact level of contamination of groundwater resources in Amuwo Odofin local government area. Other objectives of this project are:
1. To identify the characteristics of each groundwater sample, by

ascertaining the amount of compounds and elements that explains its contamination.
2. To identify environmental and health hazards posed to the community

due to contaminated groundwater.

3.

To identify the characteristics of each groundwater sample, by ascertaining the amount of compounds and elements that explains its contamination.

4. To determine anthropogenic activities affecting the quality of groundwater in the area.

5. To determine areas of greatest educational need towards the inhabitants of Amuwo Odofin LGA. 6. To propose solutions which shall include corrective measures to guard against groundwater contamination and efficient methods for water treatment and distribution in the case study area. 7. To identify different models for groundwater pollution abatement and study borehole techniques, prevention and remediation. 8. To determine homeowner, and attitudes towards groundwater, that might affect groundwater quality. 9. To propose solutions which shall include corrective measures to guard against groundwater contamination and efficient methods for water treatment and distribution in the case study area.
1.5.

Importance of the Project

The offices of the local government in Amuwo Odofin have no information gathered on the groundwater quality of the area. Knowledge of the diverse ways by which groundwater pollution occurs will lead to proper awareness of the need to protect it and comprehension on how to prevent it. Reduction in the intensity of pollution accordingly reduces the cost of water treatment so as to meet the required standards of quality for its many uses and also reduce health risks. There is a need to understand the hydrogeology of the area, to know the constituents of the groundwater in the area and understand how human activities affect the quality of groundwater. This is an important objective in improving the overall health of the inhabitants of the case study area. Also information gathered on the water quality will affect urban planning and distribution of financial resources towards all water treatment plants in the zone.

1.6.

Scope of the Project

The scope is limited to Amuwo Odofin local government area, parameters being general constituents of groundwater pollution, covering domestic and some industrial pollutants.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Groundwater Groundwater can be defined as water that has percolated from the surface that is stored underground in pore spaces in soils and sands; and cracks in rocks. Very deep-lying groundwater can remain undisturbed for thousands or millions of years. Most groundwater lies at shallower depths, however, and plays a slow but steady part in the hydrological cycle. Worldwide, groundwater accounts for about one per cent of the Earth's water, or about 100 times more than the total volume of all lakes and rivers. Groundwater is usually cleaner than surface water due to the fact that certain contaminants in the water are filtered off by the different soil strata it passes

through before reaching the water stored underground. Groundwater can be tapped from aquifers by the use of wells and boreholes. Groundwater contamination occurs as a result of either direct or indirect human activities or indirectly through alteration of the ground which water passes through. Sewage is a very common type of groundwater pollution.

2.2. Groundwater Quality from deep wells It has been observed that deep-well sources satisfy municipal water quality factors of safety, appearance, taste, temperature and odours. Well-water contains large concentrations of iron, manganese and hard water. Shallow wells recharged by a nearby water source may have quality characteristics similar to deep wells or may relate more closely to the watercourse quality. A sand aquifer adjacent to a river may act as an effective filter for removal of organic matter and as a heat exchanger for levelling out temperature changes of the recharge water seeping into it. Ground water in the majority of properly constructed drilled wells is bacteria free. To ensure protection from any health risk, it is important for the public to understand something about micro organisms and how they might impact health of any community. The occurrence of bacteria in water is common, treatable, and in most cases, preventable. The ideal situation is to have no bacteria in drinking water, although most bacteria in well water are harmless and pose little health risk. 2.3. Groundwater Contamination

Groundwater contamination is the degradation of natural water quality as a result of human activities, and pollution occurs when contaminant concentration levels restrict the potential use of groundwater. There is a difference between well contamination and aquifer contamination. If a bacterial water quality problem is detected, it could be occurring in the water system, the well or (less likely), and the aquifer. There are several indicators and indicator organisms, bacteria, pathogenic organisms and inorganic constituents which can pollute water. Pollution is not always visible. In groundwater, which is the most important source of water supply in many countries, pollution is difficult to discern. But the effect of pollution is always severe whether immediately or over a long period. There are three sources of groundwater contamination and they are: Point Sources: These may include industrial waste landfills, sanitary landfills, sewage lagoons and leachates and mining waste dumpsites. Point sources in this country come from most waste management facilities of any kind. They are concentrated point sources. Non-point sources: These include urban runoff; and aerial application of pesticides and herbicides, and other agricultural practices. Natural Processes of Mineralization: Underground water is in contact with soil formations and dissolves minerals and salts. The water quality of groundwater depends on the mineral rock formation. (Venugopaln & Tanwar, 1981)

From the above, sources of groundwater pollution may be grouped as follows: - Domestic/ Municipal wastes: Refuse, sewage disposal systems, garbage.
-

Industrial sources: Mining activities, underground tanks and pipeline leakages, liquid chemical leakages, used water, rain infiltrating through industrial waste disposals.

Agricultural sources: Irrigation, fertilizers, animal wastes, pesticides and feedlots.

- Saltwater intrusion
-

Surface runoff

(Fried,1987)

Pollutants can be divided into chemical, physical and microbiological pollutants. Chemical pollutants can be divided into non-persistent (degradable) and persistent (pollutants which degrade slowly). Persistent pollution is the most rapidly growing type of pollution and includes substances that degrade very slowly or cannot be broken down at all; they may remain in the aquatic environment for years or longer periods of time. Persistent pollutants include some pesticides (e.g. DDT, dieldrin), some leachate components from landfill sites, petroleum and petroleum products, PCBs, dioxins, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), radionuclides, metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium. The damage they cause is either irreversible or reparable only over decades or centuries.

Non persistent pollutants include domestic sewage, fertilisers and some industrial wastes. These compounds can be broken down by chemical reactions or by natural bacteria into simple, non-polluting substances such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen. However if the pollution load is high, this development can lead to low oxygen levels; fortunately this damage can be reversible.

Table 1: List of possible groundwater pollutants and pollution indicators

Total dissolved solids C O D ( chemical oxygen demand) B O D ( biological oxygen demand) Carbon (organically linked) Hydrogen (organically linked) Nitrogen Detergents Phenols Oxygen Sulphates (SO2-4) H2S Nitrates (NO3-) Nitrites (NO2) Ammonium (NH4) Arsenic SiO2 Conductivity

Free CO2 Bicarbonates (HCO3) Iron (Fe2+ And Fe3+) Manganese Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Total Hardness Chloride Fluoride Phosphate (HPO4) Zinc Lead Copper Temperature pH Redox potential

(Source: Fried, 1987)

2.3.1. Domestic/Municipal sources of Groundwater contaminants

Anthropogenic activities have been established as having impacts on ground water. The most likely sources of groundwater contamination in the case study area are from domestic/ municipal wastes and natural mineralization processes. From information gathered through testing by private water purification and supply companies in the local government area, it has been observed that the groundwater has these impurities:
-

a high iron (Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions) content and Cryptosporidium.

- Pathogenic organisms like Shigella (bacteria), Giardia lamblia (protozoa) - Indicators and indicator organisms like Escherichia coli (E. coli)
-

A moderately acidic pH number, varying in areas from 6.1 to 6.8

- An degree of salinity present in the water Exact values of these have not been determined. After tests carried out during the course of this study, more pollutants and impurities will be added to these and their precise amounts in the groundwater of the study area will be determined. Certain pollutants like Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are not commonly found in non-industrial areas. Festac town was designed with a central sewer system, but the efficiency of this has depreciated with age and lack of maintenance and as a result, septic tanks are the main form of domestic sewage treatment in the case study area. In other parts of Amuwo Odofin LGA, septic tanks are the only form of domestic sewage treatment. This scenario has led to the presence of faecal coliforms and higher microbial loads in the surface waters and groundwater of the area. In rainy seasons, starting from midway March to September, with the heavy rains usually experienced in the area, cases of the septic tanks of private homes

overflowing has been known. There is a landfill located in 7th avenue and this is a point source of groundwater contamination. Where the subsurface geology permits rapid downward movement of water from the surface, or where the ground water sources are tapped near the surface, aquifers may be vulnerable to pollution. Shallow dug wells, or drilled wells in which the well casing is not properly grouted (sealed), are particularly susceptible to contamination. 2.4. Effect of Urban Development on Groundwater With urban development comes increased dependence on groundwater and more amounts of water being consumed daily. Lagos states per capita demand is listed as 120 to 150l.c.d. In areas where groundwater is the only source of water, town development placed unfavourable changes in groundwater. Bujwid (1981) presented a paper which stated that these changes usually found expression in the increase of some nitrogen compounds, trace elements and bacteriological contamination. In Amuwo Odofin LGA, while precise values of population have not been ascertained, it is generally held that the amenities planned for by the housing authorities are inadequate for the use of the current inhabitants. Over-population is a known problem. With the increase in the population, and lack of governmental forecast, several private wells and boreholes were sunk. Currently, the local government is not aware of how many exist in the area. Privately owned homes have either a well or borehole each, while the flats make use of a minimum of two (2) wells and three boreholes. More boreholes are being constructed monthly as more people move into the area.

It has become difficult to also control solid waste disposal in the area. Private sector participation has come in to undertake this task, as the internal squabbles between the state and federal government as to under whose jurisdiction Festac town fell under had affected the release of funds in the past. 2.4.1. Relationship between Municipal landfills and groundwater pollution A sanitary landfill is a method of solid waste disposal that should function without creating a nuisance or hazard to public health or to the environment. Landfills can also be classified as hazardous (toxic) or as municipal by the types of waste accepted. Over the last 30 years a number of problems have been recognized at landfill sites, including contamination of nearby surface waters and underlying groundwater by landfill leachates. Municipal landfills have impacted groundwater resources especially hydro-geological environments where impacts are expected to be greatest, for example where the water table is shallow, where groundwater is of good quality and flow is rapid.

2.5 Water Supply system in Amuwo Odofin LGA Festac town was constructed in 1977-78. It was a planned urban development by the federal government of Nigeria. For the first ten (10) years of its existence, water was supplied to its inhabitants by the state water board. Amuwo Odofin LGA is still on the water grid. Of recent, the local government has erratic supply of water. Though Amuwo Odofin LGA is bordered by water bodies (the canal), it is generally assumed that the surface water is very polluted; consequently, groundwater is preferred and many residents have decided to get their water supply from privately constructed shallow wells and

boreholes. The definition of shallow or deep water well will vary with the hydro geological conditions considered to be the standard with the area (Clarke, 1996). For this project, Shallow wells refer to water wells not more than 70m deep, which must be completed with steel casings and screens (Obiora and Onwuka, 2005). The type of wells constructed in Festac and Amuwo Odofin are of the Hand dugs variety and these are more vulnerable to pollution than a drilled borehole (Clarke, 1996). The wells in Festac town range from depths of 4m to 8m, while wells in Amuwo Odofin go as down 90m. Boreholes in the area are of almost the same depth as wells (some are drilled deeper to reach a cleaner source of water). The wells are of concrete ring type, with a natural layer of sand at the bottom. Wells generally improve with age, although they need to be maintained and checked annually for breaks in the casing that might lead to contamination of the water well. 2.5. Saltwater Intrusion in Deltaic terrains Saltwater intrusion is defined as the introduction, accumulation, or formation of saline water in a water of lesser salinity. It is one of the most common problems in coastal aquifers, i.e. the induced flow of salt water into fresh water aquifers caused by groundwater development. The intrusion of seawater into coastal aquifers is a widespread phenomenon that increasingly causes the problem of groundwater salinity. In places where groundwater is being pumped from aquifers that are in hydraulic connection with the sea, the induced gradients may cause the migration of salt-water from the sea toward the well. The key to controlling this problem is to maintain the proper balance between water being pumped from the aquifer and the amount of water recharging it. Constant monitoring of the salt-water interface is necessary in determining proper control measures.

The increased use of groundwater causes the salt-water interface to move inland and closer to the ground surface. In the past, many communities coming across salt-water intrusion problems simply set up new production wells further inland. This only complicated the problem. Saltwater intrusion refers to surface water contamination while saltwater encroachment refers to the contamination of ground water. The processes involved in these intrusions can result from natural phenomena or human-influenced activities, particularly dredging, and may assume a variety of specific forms. The concern about saltwater intrusion arises from the environmental damage or water use impairment that may result because of the presence of salts in ground or surface waters. Excessive salt concentrations can render water unfit for consumption by humans and animals as well as impair the growth of plants. Agricultural and industrial uses of water can also be impaired by high salinity levels. When no freshwater is available, slightly saline waters may be viewed as having acceptable quality for some purposes. There are a number of possible effects of saltwater contamination, as indicated by the following: - Enhancement of the toxicity of other toxic chemicals dissolved in water may occur. - Saturation levels of dissolved oxygen decrease with increasing salinity, thus potentially accentuating poor dissolved oxygen conditions in streams.
-

Permeability of soils being altered, thus altering aquifer recharge conditions.

- Large costs may be incurred in the treatment of saline water in order to make it usable.

- Increasing salinity may force the use of alternate sources of water which, in turn, may have adverse consequences. Exhaustive urban, industrial and agricultural activity relies heavily on exploitation of groundwater resources, and in recent years, this reliance has led to increasing levels of salinity in groundwater systems. There has been a reported case of saltwater intrusion in Festac in recent years, but it was not well documented. 2.6. Water quality standards Water quality standards vary according to each country, with the WHO setting the international standards for water quality. According to Cohn et al, these standards stretch from aesthetic quality (taste, odour, turbidity, hardness and colour) to Health aspects (ranging from disease agents to organic and inorganic contaminants).

Table 2: WHO Standards for quality of water Physical WHO standard P

Turbidity (ppm) Colour Taste and Odour

5 5 Unobjectionable

25 50

Chemical pH Total Solids (mg/l) Total Hardness (as CaCO3) (mg/l) Calcium (as Ca) (mg/l) Magnesium (mg/l) Iron (as Fe) (mg/l) Manganese (mg/l) Copper (as Cu) (mg/l) Zinc (mg/l) Chlorides (as Cl) (mg/l) Sulphate (as SO4) (mg/l) Phenolic substances (mg/l) Fluorides (mg/l) Nitrates Arsenic Lead Cyanides Radio-activity (as Emmitter (c/ml) Bacteriological Five 10ml portions (mg/l)

7-8.5 500 -75 50 0.3 0.1 1.0 5.0 200 200 0.001 0.5 ----Alfa --

< 6.5 or>

9.2 1500 -200 150 1.0 0.5 1.5 15.0 600 400 0.002

1.0 to 1.5 50 to 100 0.2 0.1 0.01 10-9

Not more than 10% of all portions examined shall show presence of coliform bacteria. MPN 1 per 100ml. No two

consecutive samples shall have the presence of coliform bacteria P= Permissible E= Excessive Source: J.P. Sanjaygadhvi

Table 3: Federal Ministry of the Environment, Nigeria: Standards for Groundwater Quality PARAMETER Turbidity (NTU) *Color (Pt-Co) *pH FMEnv Standard NS 7.00 6-9

Temperature (oC) *Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) (mg/l) *Total Suspended Solids (TSS) (mg/l) Total Solids (TS) (mg/l) Conductivity ( S/cm) Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/l) *Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) (mg/l) *Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (mg/l) Total Alkalinity (mgCaCO3/l) Bicarbonate Alkalinity (mgCaCO3/l) Calcium (Ca2+)(mg/l) Magnesium (Mg2+) (mg/l) Total Hardness (Ca2++ Mg2+) (mg/l) Chloride (Cl-) (mg/l) Nitrate (NO3-) (mg/l) Sulphate (SO42-) (mg/l) Phosphate (PO43-) (mg/l) Potassium (mg/l) Sodium (mg/l) Iron (Fe) (mg/l) Nickel (mg/l) Lead (mg/l) Manganese (mg/l) *Oil and Grease (mg/l) *Coliform (cfu/100ml)

NS 2000 30.0 20-30.0 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS 600.00 20 500 5.00 NS NS 20 Less than 1 Less than 1 5.00 10.00 400

2.7. The Geology of the case study area The geologic conditions of a site must be determined to assess groundwater vulnerability. For example, layers of gravel above the groundwater area do not offer much protection against percolation or leaching. Layers of sands and silts

do much to filter percolating water, depending on grain size distribution. A layer of clay generates an effective filter for many chemicals. A steep slope in the geology of an area increases the potential for surface runoff and the subsequent movement of chemicals to other vulnerable areas. Water and wetlands cover over 40% of the total land area within Lagos state. A considerable part of the state area is made up of lagoons and creeks. Lagos state is naturally made up of depositional landform, which include; wetlands, barrier islands, beaches, low-lying tidal flats and estuaries. The land surface in the state generally slopes gently downwards from north (Ikorodu) to the south (Victoria Island, Apapa and Badagry). The entire area of Amuwo Odofin local government area is sand-filled, overlying a swampy ground. It is part of the Quartenary deltaic plain sands, the Benin formation (Obiora & Onwuka, 2005) and it provides a ready answer to the groundwater problems, giving rise to high yielding boreholes (Offodile, 2002). Festac town is part of the Quaternary deposit of the south-western part of Lagos state. It consists of deep basal sand proved from about 40m depth. Following the basal sand is a series of soft deposit of peat (an organic soil), soft clays and variegated materials (Meshida, 2005). The depth to groundwater at a specific location is important because the soil between the surface and groundwater acts as a filter. Less soil means more leaching, less adsorption and less degradation. 2.7.1. Hydrogeology Lagos state falls into Deltaic terrains. The hydrogeology of the case study area can be simplified into four layers.

- A short layer of fairly clean water

-

A layer of ionic water, to about 95m Brackish water, from 120m to a depth of about 200m Another layer of ionic water

Below 200m to 220m can be found freshwater. Information on the subsurface distribution of beds of various aquiferous properties has to be gotten form boreholes, since geophysical methods yield ambiguous results because of the presence of brackish or saline water in deltaic terrains (Mandel & Shiftan)

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1. Methodology The project programme was executed in four stages:

1. Meetings with the local government officers, notably the Sanitation

officer, the heads of Engineering department and Water Corporation, Festac/Amuwo Odofin district. 2. Surveys conducted in the case study area. 3. Field Investigation.
4. Laboratory analysis of physio-chemical and microbiological parameters.

3.1.1. Meetings with the local government officers The offices of the local government are located at 22 rd, Festac town. Information gathered from the local government included - population estimate of Amuwo Odofin LGA - information on the water quality of Amuwo Odofin LGA
-

State laws or federal laws governing water quality standards. Any water treatment projects executed in the case study area.

3.1.2. Surveys carried out in the case study area A questionnaire was circulated to the people living in the areas from which each sample site was located. In the Appendices is a sample of the questionnaire.

3.1.3. Field Investigation Ten samples from the case study area were collected from water wells whose depths ranged from 4m to 9m. The distribution of the wells for sampling is given as:

Five (5) in Jakande estate, Amuwo Odofin, and its environs (towards Maza Maza and the Mile 2 service lanes), Raji Rasaki estate, Lakeside LSDPC estate, Waterside, Amuwo Odofin, and its environs ( after the canal)

Three (3) located in Festac town, from wells in 1st avenue to 7th avenue. Two (2) located in Festac town extension, i.e. Festac phase II, 4th avenue and 6th avenue, over the canal.

Table 4 presents the summary of well characteristics. Table 4: Descriptions at Sample site SAMPLE NO. SP 1 LOCATION OF WELL 7TH Avenue, A1 close, Festac PRESENT STATE OF USE PRESENCE/ TYPE OF WELL-HEAD None

SP 2

SP 3

SP 4

Well used for washing, bathing and general cleaning 311 rd, Festac Well used for washing, bathing and general cleaning Mile two estate, Well used for Amuwo Odofin washing, bathing (Jakande) and general cleaning Festac extension, Well used for Amuwo Odofin, washing, bathing Alaba expressway and general cleaning. Consumed by mallams

Yes, metal but rusted through none

Yes. Made of concrete, partially covering well. well located at ground level

SP 5

SP 6

Catholic church, Maria rd, Amuwo Odofin layout Patience Olukayode street, Lakeview est., Amuwo Odofin Engr. Uchendu street, ICAN, Amuwo Odofin

Used now mostly for construction purposes Well used for washing, bathing and general cleaning Well used for washing, bathing and general cleaning. Consumed by shanty-dwellers nearby Used by Car wash and Mechanics nearby, also supplies shanties close by Used for general cleaning Used by a pure water manufacturing company

none

None. well carved out of ground, no lining none

SP 7

SP 8

4TH Avenue, Festac extension

none

SP 9 SP 10

3rd avenue, F1 close, Festac 6th avenue, Festac town extension

none yes

Untreated water samples taken directly from each well were analyzed for bacteria, trace metals, and general water potability. The study period fell in June 2006, which is in the rainy season, during which waste interference and leaching are greatly enhanced.

For the purpose of this project, the following were used to collect water samples for laboratory analysis and for on-site testing:
-

20, 2ml plastic containers

- 10 laboratory bottles - temperature, conductivity and pH meter 3.2. SOURCES OF DATA This was gathered from analysis of water samples taken directly from wells in the area, maps and questionnaires distributed to residents. Primary sources of data were questionnaires and observations while secondary sources were reviews of past work, journals and past projects.

3.3. PARAMETERS The parameters to be tested for in the water samples are listed below: 1. Chloride 2. Colour (Pt-Co) 3. Nitrate 4. Iron 5. Fluoride 6. pH 7. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
8. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

9. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 10. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

11. Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 12. Phosphate 13. Sulphate 14. Bicarbonate 15. Alkalinity 16. Magnesium 17. Potassium 18. Lead 19. Cadmium 20. Calcium 21. Total Hardness of water
22.

Faecal Coliform bacteria

3.4. FIELD STUDY The conductivity, pH values and temperatures of the samples were recorded insitu. Since water temperature will adjust to its surroundings with time, it is important that the sample be tested as soon as possible after collection. The thermometer was left in the sample for two minutes before a reading was taken. Temperature ranges will vary depending on location and time of day. The concentration of the above listed minerals, trace metals and metals will be used to determine the quality of groundwater. The last parameter is to estimate the amount of Coliform bacteria present that are indicator organisms used to indicate the presence of viruses and other pathogenic organisms. Sampling for this parameter was done using sterilized containers, which were transferred, with the samples in them, to the laboratory as soon as possible. Sample bottles

were rinsed with the groundwater being sampled before filling. This was done as part of quality control measures.

3.5 LABORATORY ANALYSIS The water samples were taken to three laboratories; Triple E Systems Associates Ltd., the laboratories of the Department of Microbiology and the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, to be analyzed and statistical analysis of the results will be carried out from both these data. The samples collected for use in testing for heavy metals were preserved with 2ml concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4., at 4oC in the laboratory refrigerator. pH, temperature, TDS and TSS were determined in-situ using a Hanna combo pH & EC meter on-site. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biological oxygen demand (BOD) were measured using Azide modification method, with the addition of H2SO4 acid. The Chemical Oxygen demand level was measured using the Open Reflux and titrimetric methods, using Potassium Dichromate and H2SO4. The level of Bicarbonates was determined with titration. Chloride, Sulphate, Nitrate, Fluoride and Phosphate were all determined using a portable Hach UV spectrophotometer, the wavelength of the anions being measured ranging from 70-488nm, with titrant FAS (Ferrous Aluminium Sulphates). Levels of heavy metals such as cadmium and iron, and cations such as sodium and magnesium were measured using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer of graphite furnace and flame, hydride system.

The determination of Total and Thermo-tolerant (faecal) coliform in each sample was done using the Spread Plate technique. Appropriate dilutions of the samples were plated out on MacConkey agar plates for the isolation and enumeration of total and thermo-tolerant (faecal) coliforms. A sterile glass rod shaped like a bent iron (hockey stick) was used to spread the inoculum on the surface of the agar plates. The plates were made in duplicates. The temperature of incubation was 370oC for total coliforms and 44oC for thermo-tolerant (faecal) coliforms. Colonies appear on the medium as pink or red, usually circular and convex in shape.

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1. Data Analysis using Questionnaire From 50 questionnaires distributed throughout the study area, data gathered over a vast group of residents, the following was realised:
1. Residents in general had little or no knowledge as to how to protect

groundwater or their wells.

2. There are very few wells constructed in the study area which comply

with the standards given by the FME and the wells are dilapidated 3. Most of the wells in the study area have no well head as protection and have not been maintained since its construction.

Table 5: Summary of Physical parameters Parameter Colour, Pt-co pH Temperature (0C) Min 10 5.45 27.8 Max 155 7.73 30.6 790 192 St. Dev. 44.295723 0.637747 0.900617 198.5134 62.75703 WHO standard

Conductivity (mS/cm) 163 TSS (ppm) 6

Table 6: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer readings for Magnesium levels Concentration

Mean SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4 SP 5 SP 6 SP 7 SP 8 SP 9 SP 10 48.102 29.444 43.177 41.132 66.552 31.340 27.308 30.971 28.861 0.73

SD 1.7993 3.0172 0.5287 0.1337 0.0894 0.0681 0.0597 0.2685 0.0202 0.00536

RSD (%) 3.7 10.2 1.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.1 0.1

4.2. Discussion of the Physio-chemical parameters and Microbiological parameter

Temperature: Temperature is an important parameter in its affect on the solubility of oxygen in water and the sensitivity of organisms to toxic wastes, parasites, and diseases. Colder water can hold more dissolved oxygen. Significant increases in water temperature are caused by industrial discharges of warm water, by reduction of water flow where dams are operating or soil erosion. Temperature ranged from 27.8oC to 30.6oC, with SP 7 having the lowest value and SP 9 having the highest value. pH: The acidic and basic properties or the pH of water can affect plants and animals. pH ranges between 1-14, with 7 being neutral. Readings below 7 indicate acidic conditions, above 7 indicate basic conditions. According to the

Federal Ministry of the Environment, only SP 6 is not safe within the limit. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): DO is a measure of the amount of oxygen freely available in water. DO levels change over time and are affected by temperature and other environmental factors. Percent saturation is the percent of the potential capacity of the water to hold oxygen that is present.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): Biochemical oxygen demand is the measure of the amount of oxygen used to break down organic matter in the water. High levels of BOD mean high nutrient levels in the groundwater. Unpolluted, natural waters will have a BOD of 5mg/L or less. BOD values for the samples ranged from between 0.2 to 1.2mg/l. Suspended Solids: Suspended solids are an important part of water quality. High suspended solids can make water unusable in many ways. Pesticides and bacteria can attach to the suspended solids making it more readily transported. This is not usually expected to be high in groundwater, since water stored in the aquifer will have passed through ssoil strata which would have acted as a filtering medium. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): The total dissolved solids test measures the amount of particles that are dissolved in water. TDS values are higher in groundwater than in surface water. High levels in drinking water may cause objectionable tastes and have laxative effects. The quantity of TDS in a body of water depends on several factors which may include the type of soil and rock the water passes through and human activities. The major dissolved substances found in water that can cause the above problems are the positively charged

ions of sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium and iron and the negatively charged ions of chloride, bicarbonate, carbonate and sulphate. All samples fell below the WHO/FME standard of less than 1000mg/l. Alkalinity: Alkalinity is a measure of the quantity of compounds that shift the pH to the alkaline side of neutrality (above 7) or it is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acids. Alkalinity is important because it buffers pH changes that occur naturally during photosynthetic cycles, water exchanges and the addition of acids to water. Raising the alkalinity almost always raises the pH. If the alkalinity of water is too high, the water can be cloudy. Too high alkalinity raises the pH level. Iron: The high value of iron in the groundwater samples is expected, as it has noted in previous research that the groundwater of Lagos state in general have high iron content. The amount of iron in water affects the appearance of water, giving it a metallic taste. High concentrations of iron form reddish-brown ferric hydroxide sediments, coatings, and stains. Values gotten from the laboratory analysis of the water samples show that all are in excess of acceptable limits of iron levels. SP 1 had an exceedingly high iron concentration of 15.353mg/l. Cadmium: Cadmium can be found in very low concentrations in most rocks, as well as petroleum and coal and often in combination with zinc. Geologic deposits of cadmium can serve as sources to groundwater and surface water, especially when in contact with soft, acidic waters. It is considered a possible human carcinogenic substance. Cadmium may enter groundwater as a result of landfill leachates or various industrial applications. Cadmium levels in the samples were high, higher than the maximum permitted level according to WHO standards. The possible source of cadmium in the study area may be the

landfill in Festac town, as the sample well (SP 1) with the highest value is located around the vicinity of the landfill. Lead: According to the FME values, all the groundwater samples had permitted levels of groundwater. But according to WHO standards, the level of lead in the samples was high. Lead is a relatively minor element in the earths crust but is widely distributed in uncontaminated sedimentary rocks and soil (WHO, 1987). High concentrations of lead result from atmospheric input originating from its use in leaded petrol or from smelting operations. Chloride: The presence of chloride where it does not occur naturally indicates possible water pollution. Other sources of chloride are septic tank effluent, animal waste, and potash fertilizer (KCl). The normal range for groundwater is 35-125mg/L. At concentrations greater than 250 to 400mg/l the water will have a salty taste. High concentrations are corrosive to most metals. The chloride levels for SP1-10 are within permitted zones. Nitrates: Nitrate is one of the major anions in groundwater but concentrations can be greatly elevated due to leaching of nitrogen from animal waste, private septic systems, wastewater, flooded sewers, polluted storm water runoff, fertilizers, agricultural runoff, and decaying plants. The presence of nitrate in well water also depends on the geology of the land. Nitrate values for all samples were within safe limits. Potassium: Potassium was noticed in the wells at concentrations ranging from 16.958 to 62.681 mg/l. High concentrations of the element are attributed to diffusion of volatile substances from surface runoff, garbage and industrial effluent discharges; these being characteristic of highly urbanised areas.

Calcium: Calcium, as well as magnesium, is causes of hardness in water. When present in concentrations from 25 to 50mg/l this is considered normal for natural groundwater. Values of all samples taken fall below WHO limits. Magnesium: Magnesium is a relatively abundant element in the earths crust, hence, a common constituent of natural water. Magnesium concentrations as reads from the results in Table 6 range between 0.73 mg/l and 66.552mg/l. SP 10 shows the lowest concentration while SP 5 shows the maximum concentration of magnesium. The concentrations of magnesium in all samples fall below the maximum permissible value of 150mg/l.

Phosphates: According to the FME, levels above 5mg/l are considered characteristic of poor water quality. SP1 to 10 all fall well below excess levels of phosphate in groundwater. Fluoride: Fluoride occurs naturally in most soils and water. Excessive amounts of fluoride may cause crippling skeletal fluorosis, a serious bone disorder. Four of the samples, SP 2, 4, 5 and 6, had levels of fluoride higher than the acceptable standards of WHO, which state that levels above 1.5 g/l are unacceptable. Sulphate: Sulphate is a naturally occurring anion. Industries and utilities that burn coal release sulphur compounds into the atmosphere to become a part of the acid rain problem. Dissolved sulphate is derived from the dissolution of gypsum or the oxidation of sulphide minerals. At concentrations exceeding 500600mg/l, it imparts a bitter taste and may cause laxative effects in some individuals. WHO and FME approved standard for level of sulphates in

groundwater is 500mg/l. All levels of sulphate in the samples are within approved limits.

Faecal Coliform: Faecal coliform are bacteria that are found in the intestines of all animals. Faecal coliform bacteria may occur in ambient water as a result of the overflow of domestic sewage or non-point sources of human and animal waste. Runoff and excess soil moisture carry contaminants into shallow groundwater sources or through well defects. Coliform bacteria are most likely to be found during periods of wet weather when the soil is warm. The presence of faecal coliform is used as an indicator that there could be pathogenic bacteria in the water. No faecal coliform should be present in drinking water. The limit for swimming is 200 colonies per 100 ml of water. The presence of faecal coliform indicates contamination from septic systems and the unsanitary mode of waste disposal, such as defecation in streams. From the results of the water samples, there is a high level of faecal coliform in the groundwater of the area, though not high enough to be endangering to human lives.

4.3. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS Residents of the local government are well aware that their water is polluted; consequently, few people drink the water, although it is used for other domestic purposes. Runoff and excess soil moisture carry contaminants into shallow groundwater sources or through well defects. An open well without a well head is always potentially dangerous since the ground around it may slope towards the well allowing rain and spillage to wash into it. The use of unsanitary buckets and devices for collecting water also aids in contaminating the well.

The WHO has no definite range for conductivity. However, a value of 400s/cm was provided as a guide. The lack of a waste disposal system may be affecting the quality of groundwater in the area. Apart from proximity to waste disposal systems, a complex mix of interdependent factors such as the physical characteristics of rock formations, mode of construction and maintenance of wells are likely to affect groundwater quality at a given location. In individuals genetically susceptible to hemochromatosis, excessive amounts of iron accumulated in the body results in liver, pancreas and heart failure and dysfunction after long-time high exposures. It was observed during sampling that when clear water was first drawn, upon exposure to air, had brown particles due an iron precipitation; settle at the bottom of the container. In areas around the Amuwo canal, residents complained of salty or brackish water; soapy smell. TDS, chloride, sodium and sulphate pollution was present in this area. Other possible sources of groundwater contamination are failed septic tank systems which in most cases are located very close to well sources. Faecal contamination, in the study area, is by septic tanks and sewage plants. Indicator organisms such as coliform bacteria are used as pointers of recent faecal contamination due to their relatively short life span in the aquatic environment but they can be used as indicators of health risk (FEPA 1999). Coliforms are more resistant than many pathogenic bacteria; therefore their absence in water is a good indication of water safety. Unfortunately, there is a substantial presence of coliform bacteria in the groundwater of Amuwo Odofin LGA. Some pathogens often survive conventional water chlorination, and expensive filtration may be required to remove them.

4.4. Groundwater Remediation Groundwater remediation aims to reduce contaminant concentrations to below the threshold standard for the intended use. Groundwater Remediation is always complicated. Eldho (2002) states that prevention of groundwater pollution is not only better but also much cheaper than remediation and repair. According to DAntonio et al, (1991), strategies for groundwater remediation are dependent upon a number of factors that include the source of pollution (point or nonpoint), length of release, site characteristics (such as soil thickness and type, depth to groundwater), physical properties of the contaminant, potential flow paths and receptors, health and environmental risks posed by the contaminant, and the resources available to address the problem. In developed countries, remediation of non-point sources, such as urban or agricultural storm water runoff, may be possible through programs to minimize generation of contaminants. Aquifer protection techniques include implementation of best management practices during construction and operation, such as sediment control during construction, grass buffers around dolines, roughing filters on open ponds. For the restoration of the contaminated aquifers, remediation efforts are used at the contaminated source and plume to eliminate and extract the contaminants. The remediation of contaminated aquifers is very complex, as the process of movement of contaminants through the porous media is quite complex. The groundwater pollution remediation can be carried out either by onsite techniques or in-situ methodologies. Even though, in the recent times, many in-situ remediation methods have been developed, most of the remediation works are still done on-site by pump and treat method. But the pump and treat method is not very efficient and economic.

4.4.1. Programs of activities for Groundwater Remediation Groundwater remediation activities are addressed by different activities programs, depending if the contaminated groundwater is treated in place or extracted just before treatment. Non-discharge groundwater remediation systems are groundwater treatment systems that extract and treat contaminated groundwater. These include closed-loop groundwater remediation systems and typically use infiltration galleries or injection wells. Groundwater remediation systems that introduce substances directly into the subsurface are underground injection wells, which are regulated by the Underground Injection Control Program. Soil remediation is often a component of groundwater remediation strategies. 4.4.2. Groundwater remediation from Point sources Generally, point sources such as industrial effluents are best remediated as close to the source as possible to minimize the volume of water (and soil) to be treated and decrease remediation time. CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1. Conclusion It can be seen that the source of pollution in the case study is from individual sanitation methods. Residents of the study area are well aware that the groundwater in the area is polluted, but are not sure as to the exact extent. Consequently, other water sources are depended on for household consumption and well water is used mostly for cleaning and washing of objects.

Unfortunately, households whom are not able to afford getting their water elsewhere have to use the polluted waters drawn from the wells and boreholes. Most of the residents rely on boreholes, which they trust will yield cleaner water, as they assume that at a depth, the groundwater will be cleaner. But that is not the case always; the depth required for clean water is expensive to drill and most residents dont. Water from one such deep borehole was tested for faecal coliforms and had a value greater than what resulted from some of the sample wells. Close proximity of septic tanks to the septic tanks to the underground water reservoir may lead to pollution especially when the septic tanks are poorly constructed as shown in investigations by FEPA (1999) that suggested a standard for correct, septic tank placement to be about 15m away from the underground water reservoir.

5.2. Protection/Prevention of Groundwater pollution Achieving the crucial goal of prevention of groundwater contamination may at times be limited by the practicalities and restrictions of technology and economics. Given these considerations, the Ministry has to execute program specific technologies and management practices which have been demonstrated, in other countries, to minimize ground water contamination from all sources. The Ministry should also evaluate new technologies and management practices for groundwater quality protection, and should strive to put them into operation where it is demonstrated that it is practical and effective to do so.

In addition, groundwater protection plans must be developed for those actions for which such plans are a requirement of regulation. These plans should expansively describe precise performance requirements that, when implemented, will make certain that the source does not adversely affect groundwater quality. These plans should reflect any of the following:

Description of hydrogeology and groundwater quality at the site or area Education and training of personnel and the general public as to the efficient use and protection of groundwater quality, choosing nonhazardous products, reducing use of some chemicals, respecting the recycling programs of municipalities, ensuring a proper disposal of waste

Observation programs to show the effectiveness of specific protection practices and provisions to be made for regular inspection Performance-based practices directed toward preventing releases, spills, or leaks to ground water Use and value of the groundwater resource Reasonable recordkeeping requirements

5.3. Recommendations The following recommendations are made: 1. The Federal Housing Authority of Amuwo Odofin LGA should enforce building regulations in regards to the construction of septic tanks and water wells 2. There should be more awareness as to the maintenance of water supply structures such as wells.

3. A Central Sewage system, comprising of drains, pipes and a sewage treatment plant, should be constructed to provide for the local government. 4. Residents should be educated as to the protection of their wells and water supply. This should be adopted by all local governments in the state 5. That the Federal Ministry of the Environment should evolve and supervise sound water quality monitoring programmes for the country. Obviously prevention is the only regulation method for those chemicals which cannot be removed by water treatment methods from entering the water system. Education actually will be of the greatest aid in groundwater pollution remediation. High quality ground water is important for human consumption, industry and agriculture. Ground water can be vulnerable to the impact of human activities. Ground water pollution is not inevitable; careful management, strong protective measures, and restoration of polluted water is possible through the coordinated efforts of state and local government, industrial, commercial, and agricultural interests, and the public. In those cases where complete prevention of contamination is not possible due to demographics and the practicalities of technology and economics, the Federal Ministry of the Environment should consider the use and value of the resource in establishing protection measures.

REFERENCES: Akpata, T. V. I. & Nwachukwu, S. U., (1987). A practical approach to Microbiology Bedient P B, Rifai H S & Newell C J., (1999). Ground Water Contamination, Transport and Remediation. Second Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA,

Bujwad .H. (1981). Aspects of town development on ground waters; example of a small town, Quality of Groundwater: Proceedings of an International Symposium, Noordwijkerhout, The Netherlands: pg 83 Cohn .P.D, Cox .M & Berger .P.S, Health and aesthetic aspects of water quality: Chapter Two, pg 2.1-2.75 DAntonio, R.G., Winn, R. E., Taylor, J.P., Gustafson, T. L., Current, W.L. Rhodes, M.M., Gary Jr. G. W. & Zajac, R.A. (1985). Groundwater pollution: point sources; a waterborne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in normal hosts. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103: 88688 Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Water Supply Management, Doc. No. 383-0800-001, December 1996. Principles for Groundwater Pollution Prevention and Remediation, Authority : The Clean Streams Law Act of 1937, P.L D M Mackay & J A Cherry. (1989). Groundwater Contamination: Pump and Treat Remediation. Environmental Science Technology, vol. 23, no 6, pg 630-636. Draft Guidelines Groundwater Guidance, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Site Remediation section, September 1998 Eldho T. I., (2002), Remediation of Contaminated Groundwater. Scope of Onsite Pump and Treat Technology

EPA Water Quality Standards Handbook, 2nd edition, August 1994 Fried .J. Jean, (1987) Groundwater Pollution and Hydraulics,: Chapter One, pg 1-3 Iwugo K. O., DArcy .B. & Andoh R., (2003). Aspects of Land-based pollution of an African coastal megacity of Lagos, Diffuse Pollution Conference, Dublin, Kyei-Baffour, N., Ofori, E., and Takyi, E. M., (2005) Domestic water wells in peri-urban areas of Kumasi, Journal of the Ghana Institute of Engineers, Vol.3, No.1: pp 35-41 Lewis .C, (1996) The field guide to water wells and boreholes,. pg 22-25 Loehnert .E. P, (1981). Groundwater quality aspects of dug wells in southern Nigeria, Quality of Groundwater: Proceedings of an International Symposium, Noordwijkerhout, The Netherlands pg 147-149 Mendel .S. & Shiftan Z. L, (1985). Aspects of groundwater, pg 22-23 Pontius, Frederick W., (1990) Water Quality and Treatment P. Venugopaln Rao, (1981). Water Quality Aspects,: pg 42 R A Freeze & J A Cherry. (1979). Groundwater. Prentice-Hall.

Sangodoyin, Y. Abimbola, (1993). Considerations on contamination of Groundwater by Waste disposal systems in Nigeria, Environmental Technology, Vol. 14, pp 957-964. Publications Division Solpor Ltd., Sanjaygadhvi, J.P., (1991) Water Supply Engineering,: pg 207-209 Sobo, F. A, (2004). Documentation and Assessment of Thermal groundwater in Lagos state with particular reference to Ogba industrial area, Standard Operating Procedure for Microbiological and Chemical Analysis of Water, NAFDAC, reviewed 2001 and 2002

Tanwar .B. S, (1981). Groundwater pollution and its protection in India, Quality of Groundwater: Proceedings of an International Symposium, Noordwijkerhout, The Netherlands pg 1097-1100 Testing of Standard Methods for Pollution Monitoring (UNIDO GOGLME project) (1999) Training Course Manual for Water and Wastewater laboratory technicians, WHO Geneva, (1988)

Wood, P. J., Gunn, J. & Perkins, J. (2002). The impact of pollution on aquatic invertebrates within a subterranean ecosystem: out of sight, out of mind. Archive fur Hydrobiologie, 115: 22337 Worthington, S.R.H., Smart, C.C. & Ruland, W.W. (2002) Assessment of groundwater velocities to the municipal wells at Walkerton, Proceedings of the 55th Conference of the Canadian Geotechnical Society, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canadian Geotechnical Society

INTERNET SOURCES Basics of Groundwater: www.groundwater.com/groundwater basics.html Deep Draft Water Quality Monitoring Procedure:friends@chicagoriver.org North Carolina Division of Water Quality: www.gpu.htm

NSF Consumer Information Well Water.htm Public Information pamphlet-Bacteria and well water: American Ground water trust.htm Rhode Island Department of Health: www.health.ri.gov

APPENDICES

QUESTIONNAIRE ON QUALITY OF GROUNDWATER IN AMUWO ODOFIN LGA 1. What is your current address . 2. What is the source of your domestic water? Well water Borehole 3. What is the age of your source of water supply (well or borehole)? 0-5 years 5-10 years 10-15 years More 5. Would you describe the water as having any of the following Taste Odour Colour 6. Has there been any case of any septic tank leaking into your water supply? Yes No 7. Is your water salty to taste? Yes No

8. Do you protect your source of water supply? Yes No 8. What do you do use protect your water supply source? A well covering Other methods 9. When you fetch your water, is there a brown substance that settles down in the water after some time? Yes No To be answered by field sampler

Is there a well head Depth of well.. Presence and Description of Filter media in the well Colour of water.. Temperature of water (in oC). Proximity to Septic tank/other source of sewage disposal unit..

Fig. 1: Calcium graph, with slope 0.02009, from Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS)