Chemistry Study Guide Ch. 1 vocab: 1.

chemistry- study of composition, structure, and properties, the processes of matter undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany these processes 2. chemical- any substance that has a definite composition 3. mass- measure of amount of matter 4. matter- anything that has mass and takes up space 5. atom- smallest unit of element that maintains the chemical identity of that element 6. element- pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler, stable substances and is made of one type of atom 7. compound- substance that can be broken down into simple substances (made from two or more elements chemically bonded) 8. extensive properties- depend on amount of matter that is present (ex. volume, mass, amount of energy) 9. intensive properties- do not depend on amount of matter present (ex. melting point, boiling point, density, conduct electricity, transfer energy as heat) 10. physical property- characteristic that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of the substance (ex. melting point, boiling point) 11. physical change- change in substance that does not involve a change in identity of substance (ex. grinding, cutting, melting, boiling) 12. change of state- physical change of a substance from one state to another (solid, liquid, gas) 13. solid- definite volume and shape 14. liquid- definite volume, but an indefinite shape 15. gas- indefinite volume and shape 16. plasma- high-temperature physical state of matter in which atoms lose most of their electrons, particles that make up atoms 17. chemical property- substances ability to undergo changes that transform it into different substances 18. chemical reaction/change- a change in which one or more substances are converted into different substances 19. reactants- substance that react in a chemical change 20. product- substance formed by chemical change 21. mixture- blend of two or more kinds of matter (heterogeneous) 22. solution- uniform throughout (homogenous) 23. pure substance- fixed composition and differs from a mixture (every sample of a given pure substance has exactly the same characteristics properties and composition) 24. groups/family- vertical columns of periodic table 25. periods- horizontal rows of periodic table 26. metals- good electrical and heat conductor, malleable, ductile, luster 27. nonmetals- poor conductors of heat and electricity 28. metalloid- semi-conductors of electricity, solids at room temp., less malleable, not as brittle as nonmetal (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te)

Rules

1. All non-zero digits are significant. For example: 123 (3 sig figs) 2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant. For example: 12.507 (5 sig figs) 3. Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. For example: 1.02 (3 sig figs) 0.12 (2 sig figs) 0.012 (2 sig figs) 4. If a number ends in zeros to the right of the decimal point, those zeros are significant. For example: 2.0 (2 sig figs) 2.00 (3 sig figs) {This signifies greater accuracy.} 5. If a number ends in zeros to the left of the decimal point, those zeros may or may not be significant. For example: If we make a statement that the weight of an object is 120 g, how do we convey our knowledge of whether the balance was accurate to 1 g or 10 g? Answer: The ambiguity can be removed by using exponential notation. The weight can be expressed as 12 x 101 g or 1.2 x 102 g if we wish to quote unambiguously to 2 sig figs, and 12.0 x 101 g or 1.20 x 102 g if we have a confidence level extending to 3 sig figs. Note: We cannot write 120.0 g since this requires known accuracy of 0.1 g. Calculations with numbers having different accuracies

Multiplication or Division: the result can have no more sig figs than the least accurate number. For example: If an object has mass of 29.1143 g and a volume of 25.0 cm3, then its density is given by Density = 29.1143 g = 1.164572 g cm-3 = 1.16 g cm-3 25.0 cm3 Addition or Subtraction: the result must be reported to the same number of decimal places as the number with the fewest decimal places. For example: 19.2 g 0.4745 g 127. g SUM = 146.6745 g = 147 g because one weight is known only to the nearest 1 g! Mass of element in grams x 1 mol/molar mass of element = amount of element in mol Amount of element in moles x 6.022x10^23 atoms/1 mol = # of atoms of element # of atoms of element x 1 mol/6.022x10^23 atoms = Amount of element in moles Amount of element in moles x molar mass of element/1 mol = mass of element in grams

% error = (estimate - actual) / actual x 100 Scientist: 1. Democritus- called natures basic particle an atom 2. Dalton- Daltons Atomic Theory: ~ All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms (true) ~ Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other prop.; atoms of diff elements differ in size, mass, and other prop. (untrue) ~ Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed (untrue) ~ Atoms of diff elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds (true) ~ In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged (true) 3. J.J. Thompson- concluded that all cathode rays are composed of identical negatively charged particles, called electrons 4. Rutherford- discovered the nuclues, using the tin foil experiment

5. De Broglie- concluded that electrons have a wave-like property 6. Planck- suggested that the object emits energy in small, specific packets called quanta

Quantum of energy is the min. quantity of energy that can be lost or gained by an atom

E = hv 7. Heisenberg- Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to determine simultaneously both the position and velocity of an electron or any other particle 8. Einstein- founded photons (particle of electromagnetic radiation having zero mass and carrying a quantum of energy E=mc^2 9. Bohr- Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

10. Schroedinger- Quantum theory describes mathematically the wave properties of

electrons and other very small particles According to the Schrodinger equation, electrons in atomic orbitals also have quantized energies Quantum numbers: Principal quantum number (symbolized by n, main energy level) Angular momentum quantum number (symbolized by l, shape) Magnetic quantum number (symbolized by m, orientation) Spin quatum number (2 possible values (1/2,-1/2), 2 fundamental spin states)
11. Mendeleev- created the periodic table in which he grouped the elements by similar

prop., and had listed the elements in order of increasing atomic mass Periodic law 12. Moseley- rearranged the table by atomic numbers Correctly stated periodic law: physical and chemical prop. of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers Subatomic particles: Electron -1 (charge) 0.0005486 (relative mass) Proton +1 (charge) 1.007276 (relative mass) Neutron 0 (charge) 1.008665 (relative mass)

Types of radioactive decay: 1. Alpha emission - 2 protons and 2 neutrons bound together and is emitted from the nucleus during some kinds of radioactive decay

2. Beta emission decay

- electron emitted from nucleus during some kinds of radioactive

3. Gamma rays - high-energy electromagnetic waves emitted from a nucleus as it changes from an excited state to a ground energy state.

The Bohr model depicts a nucleus of neutrons and protons with electrons orbiting in different energy levels or shells, this is proven to be inaccurate as in the quantum model you cannot pin-point position any sub-atomic particle - only a probability sphere can be generated to where it "might be". When using the quantum model remember to use the quantum uncertainty principle (Heisenberg Principle).

Atomic radii: Period- decrease Group- increase Ionization energy: Period- increase Group- decrease

Electron affinity: Period- decrease Group- increase Electronegativity: Period-increase Group- decrease Ionic radii: Period- increase Group- increase Why atoms bond: to decrease in potential energy, so atoms can create more stable arrangements of matter Ionic bond: bond formed by electrical attraction between cations and anions (1.7-3.3 or 50100%) Covalent bonding: bond from sharing of electron pairs between 2 atoms (0,3-1.7 or 5-50%) Non-polar covalent bond: bonding electrons are shared equally, resulting in a balanced distribution of electrical charge (0-0.3 or 0-5%) Polar-covalent bond: bonded atoms have an unequal attraction for shared electrons Metallic bonding: bond from the attraction between metal atoms and the surrounding sea of electrons Lewis Dot Structure:

VSEPR theory and molecular geometry

Intermolecular forces:

Dipole-dipole: forces of attraction between polar molecules Hydrogen bonding: hydrogen atom that is bonded to a highly electronegative atom is attracted to an unshared pair of electrons of an electronegative atom in a nearby molecule London dispersion forces: intermolecular attractions resulting from the constant motion of electrons and the creation of instantaneous dipoles Octet rule: Chemical compounds tend to form so that each atom, by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons, has an octet of electrons in its highest occupied energy level. Monoatomic ions:

Fixed Charge: Symbol Name H+ hydrogen + Li lithium Na+ sodium + K potassium Rb+ rubidium Cs+ cesium 2+ Be beryllium Mg2+ magnesium 2+ Ca calcium Sr2+ strontium 2+ Ba barium Ra2+ radium 3+ Al aluminum Ag+ silver Zn2+ zinc 2+ Cd cadmium

HClBrIS2Se2N3P3As3-

Symbol Name hydride Ffluoride chloride bromide iodide O2oxide sulfide selenide 2Te telluride nitride phosphide arsenide

Variable Charge (bold indicates common, stable state): V3+ Symbol Name 3+ V4+ Sc scandium (III) Ti2+ titanium (II) V5+ 3+ Ti titanium (III) Cr2+ Ti4+ titanium (IV) Cr3+ 2+ V vanadium (II) Mn2+

vanadium (III) vanadium (IV) vanadium (V) chromium (II) chromium (III) manganese (II)

Mn3+ Mn4+ Mn6+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Symbol Co2+ Co3+ Ni2+ Ni3+ Ni4+

manganese (III) manganese (IV) manganese (VI) iron (II) iron (III) Name cobalt (II) cobalt (III) nickel (II) nickel (III) nickel (IV)

Cu+ Cu2+ Sn2+ Sn4+ Au+ Au3+ Pb2+ Pb4+ Hg22+ Hg2+

copper (I) copper (II) tin (II) tin (IV) gold (I) gold (III) lead (II) lead (IV) mercury (I) mercury (II)

Polyatomic Ions: Symbol Name NH4+ ammonium NO3nitrate NO2 nitrite CrO42chromate 2Cr2O7 dichromate CNcyanide MnO4 permanganate O22peroxide 2SO4 sulfate SO32sulfite Symbols and names of acids: Binary Acid Names: Symbol Name HF (aq) hydrofluoric acid HCl (aq) hydrochloric acid HBr (aq) hydrobromic acid HI (aq) hydroiodic acid Oxoacid Names Anions: Symbol Name NO3 nitrate NO2nitrite 2SO4 sulfate SO32sulfite 3PO4 phosphate PO33phosphite CO32carbonate ClO4 perchlorate ClO3chlorate ClO2 chlorite ClOhypochlorite

Symbol CH3COOClO4ClO3ClO2ClOOHCO32HCO3PO43PO33-

Name acetate perchlorate chlorate chlorite hypochlorite hydroxide carbonate hydrogen carbonate phosphate phosphite

HPO42hydrogen phosphate

Oxoacids: Symbol HNO3 (aq) HNO2 (aq) H2SO4 (aq) H2SO3 (aq) H3PO4 (aq) H3PO3 (aq) H2CO3 (aq) HClO4 (aq) HClO3 (aq) HClO2 (aq) HClO (aq)

Name nitric acid nitrous acid sulfuric acid sulfurous acid phosphoric acid phosphorous acid carbonic acid perchloric acid chloric acid chlorous acid hypochlorous acid

Monatomic Cations: When combining with nonmetals, metal atoms tend to lose electrons to form positively charged species called cations. A. For metal atoms capable of forming only one ion (representative metals, Cd, Ag, and Zn), the ion formed is given the name of the metal followed by the word "ion" to indicate that it is a charged species. Examples: Na+ is called sodium ion and Mg2+ is called magnesium ion. B. For metal atoms capable of forming more than one ion (most transition metals, Sn, and Pb), the ions formed are given the name of the metal followed by the ionic charge, in Roman numerals and in parenthesis. This is followed by the word "ion" to indicate that it is a charged species. Examples: Fe2+ is called iron(II) ion and Co+ is called cobalt(I) ion. Monatomic Anions: When combining with metals, nonmetal ions tend to gain electrons to form negatively charged species called anions. For the name of the anion, the ending of the element name is replaced by ide. Examples: Oxygen becomes O2-, oxide. Chlorine becomes Cl-, chloride. Binary Ionic Compounds: Binary ionic compounds contain one type of monatomic cation and one type of monatomic anion and are named as follows: the name of the cation is followed by the name of the anion. Examples: NaCl is sodium chloride. CoCl2 is cobalt(II) chloride. Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions: These compounds are named the same way as the binary compounds are: the name of the cation is listed first followed by the name of the anion. Examples: Na2SO4 is a combination of the monatomic sodium ion with the polyatomic ion sulfate and is named sodium sulfate. NH4NO3 is a combination of the polyatomic cation ammonium ion and the polyatomic anion nitrate and is called ammonium nitrate. Forming Ionic Compounds: When writing the formula of an ionic compound the positive charges contributed by the cation must be balanced by the negative charges contributed by the anion so that the overall charge on the compound is zero. To do this, sometimes more than one cation and/or anion is required. Examples: Sodium chloride: Na+ and Cl- make NaCl (sodium chloride). Magnesium chloride: Mg2+ and two Cl- make MgCl2 (magnesium chloride). The two negative charges on the two chlorides balance the +2 on magnesium ion to give an overall charge of zero on the compound. Aluminum oxide: Two Al3+ and three O2- make Al2O3 (aluminum oxide) Binary Molecular Compounds: are compounds formed from the combination of two different types of nonmetals. The name of the first nonmetal is given first (preceded by a prefix if multiple atoms are present) then the name of the second nonmetal atoms is given (preceded by a prefix if needed). The ending of the second nonmetal is changed to ide. Acids: Acids are compounds that produce hydrogen ion in aqueous solution. This means they contain one or more hydrogen atoms that can be lost in water. For our purposes, the acidic hydrogen will be written at the beginning of the chemical formula for the acid. Binary Acids: These type of acids contain hydrogen and one type of nonmetal (Cl, F, Br, I, S). Binary acids are named as shown below. Hydro______ic acid. The name of the nonmetal in the acid goes in the blank. Example: HCl is hydrochloric acid. Chlorine is the nonmetal. Notice that only the beginning of the name (chlor) is used in the acid name.

Oxoacids: These acids are formed by the combination of polyatomic ions with hydrogen ions. When naming oxoacids, the ending of the polyatomic ion is changed according to the following rules. The ending ate is changed to ic and the ending ite is changed to ous. Oxidation numbers: 1. The convention is that the cation is written first in a formula, followed by the anion. For example, in NaH, the H is H-; in HCl, the H is H+. 2. The oxidation number of a free element is always 0. The atoms in He and N2, for example, have oxidation numbers of 0. 3. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion equals the charge of the ion. For example, the oxidation number of Na+ is +1; the oxidation number of N3- is -3. 4. The usual oxidation number of hydrogen is +1. The oxidation number of hydrogen is -1 in compounds containing elements that are less electronegative than hydrogen, as in CaH2. 5. The oxidation number of oxygen in compounds is usually -2. Exceptions include OF2, since F is more electronegative than O, and BaO2, due to the structure of the peroxide ion, which is [O-O]2-. 6. The oxidation number of a group 1 in a compound is +1. 7. The oxidation number of a group 2 in a compound is +2. 8. The oxidation number of a group 7 in a compound is -1, except when that element is combined with one having a higher electronegativity. The oxidation number of Cl is -1 in HCl, but the oxidation number of Cl is +1 in HOCl. 9. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all of the atoms in a neutral compound is 0. 10. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge of the ion. For example, the sum of the oxidation numbers for SO42- is -2. Chemical formulas are used to describe the types of atoms and their numbers in an element or compound. The atoms of each element are represented by one or two different letters. When more than one atom of a specific element is found in a molecule, a subscript is used to indicate this in the chemical formula. Examples: Carbon Dioxide > CO2 Ammonia > NH3 Sugar > C6H12O6 Rubbing Alcohol > C3H7OH Molecular masses: 1. Find what each elements masses are 2. Add them all together Percent composition: Mass of element in 1 mol of compound/molar mass of compound x 100 = % element in compound How to find Empirical Formula from a Molecular Formula: The empirical formula is the simplest whole numbers non-reducible ratio formula for a molecular formula or compound. The empirical formula of the molecular formula C4H6 is C2H3 (divided by 2) because it can't be divided by other numbers than 2 and still only contain integers. How to find Empirical Formula From Element Mass: We can determine the empirical formula (simplest formula) by using mass of each element in the compound data. A compound is composed of 5.045g of carbon, 0.847g of hydrogen,

and 3.36g of oxygen. Find the empirical formula for this compound knowing that H = 1 g/mole , O = 16 g/mole and C = 12 g/mole First, convert the grams of each element to moles: 5.045/12 = 0.42 mole C , 0.847/1 = 0.847 mole H , 3.36/16 = 0.21 mole O Divide each of the three mole figures by the lowest of the three in order to simplify the mole ratio. 0.21/0.21 = 1 mole O , 0.42/0.21 = 2 mole C , 0.847/0.21 = 4 mole H Well, that's 1 O , 2 C and 4 H The resulting SIMPLEST WHOLE NUMBER empirical formula : C2H4O How to find molecular formula from empirical formula: Step 1: Determine the molecular mass in grams. Step 2: Divide the molecular mass of the compound () by the molecular mass (g) of the empirical formula. Step 3: Round the quotient to the closest integer. Step 4: Multiply the rounded number by all the subscripts, using the product as the new subscripts. Example: A compound has an empirical formula of CH2 and a molecular mass of 42. Determine its molecular mass. Step 1: Carbon = 12 + Hydrogen = 2(1.01) Molecular Mass (g) = 14.02 Step 2: 42 14.02 = 2.999 Step 3: 3 Step 4: CH2 3 = C3H6 5 types of chemical reactions: 1. Synthesis reaction- A + X AX 2. Decomposition reaction- AX A + X 3. Single-displacement reaction- A + BX AX + B or Y + BX BY + X 4. Double-displacement reaction- AX + BY AY + BX 5. Combustion reaction- 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)