6.6 Reproduction 6.6.1 Draw and label diagrams of the adult male and female reproductive systems. 6.6.

2 Outline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle, including FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), oestrogen and progesterone. Follicular phase / Pre-ovulatory phase From day 0 pituitary gland secrets FSH which targets the ovaries, causing development of the follicles and stimulating the secretion of the hormone oestrogen by the ovarian tissue. Oestrogen targets uterus, causing the development of its inner lininga tissue known as the endometrium Day 7-14, the levels of oestrogen increase in the blood. High oestrogen levels inhibit the further secretion of FSH by the pituitary gland. However by this stage, one follicle within the ovaries has become dominant and it is only this follicle and its enclosed secondary oocyte which will mature to ovulation High blood oestrogen level stimulates the pituitary gland to secret another hormone, LH (Luteinising Hormone). LH rises dramatically before day 14. Raise of LH cause the mature follicle to burst + release the secondary oocyte and the cells around it. This is Ovulation. Luteal Phase / Post-Ovulatory phase LH causes ovulation. Mature follicle release its content Burst follicle degenerates to become the Corpus Luteum. The Corpus Luteum secretes Progesterone hormones Progesterone targets the uterus endometrium, maintaining the vascular tissue of the endometrium in preparation for successful fertilization and implantation of the zygote. High progesterone levels inhibit the pituitary glands release of FSH, preventing any further development of ovarion follicles High progesterone levels inhibits the release of LH from the pituitary gland, preventing the chance of further release of oocytes from the ovary By day 28 the corpus luteum has completely degenerated. Fall in progesterone level The endometrium can not be maintained, menstruation occurs from day 0-5. The inhibition of FSH + LH section is lifted + the cycle starts again

If fertilization is successful the above final stage does not occur. 6.6.3 Annotate graph showing hormone levels in the menstrual cycle, illustrating the relationship between changes in hormone levels and ovulation, menstruation and thickening of the endometrium. 6.6.4 List three roles of testosterone in males. 1) Prenatal development of genitalia 2) Development of secondary sexual characteristics 3) Maintenance of sex drive 6.6.5 Outline the process of in vitro fertilization (IVF) 1) Drug injection once a day for 3 weeks, to stop the normal menstrual cycle 2) Large doses of FSH injected once a day for 10-12 days to stimulate the ovaries to develop many follicles 3) HCG injected 36 hours before egg collection, to loosen the egg in the follicles and to make them mature 4) Man provides semen by ejaculating into a jar. The sperms are processed to concentrate the healthiest ones 5) Eggs extracted from the follicles using a device inserted through the wall of the vagina 6) Each egg is mixed with sperm in a shallow dish and kept overnight in an incubator 7) The dishes are checked to see if fertilization has worked 8) 2 or 3 embryos are selected and placed, via a long plastic tube, into the uterus 9) A pregnancy test is done to see if an embryos have implanted 10) A scan is done to see if the pregnancy is continuing normally, the heart should be visible beating 6.6.6 Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF Against: - No evidence of difference between children born as a results of IVF from naturally conceived children - inheritance of infertility - spare embryos are sometimes killed or left to death - artificial process that contrast to natural concept occurring as a result of an act of love - infertility should be accepted as the will of God and it is wrong to try to circumvent it by using IVF to have a child For: - infertility could often be due to environmental factor, hence no inheritance - embryo killed during IVF experiences no pain, as they dont have nervous system yet - suffering due to genetic diseases could be reduced if embryos were screened before being transferred to the uterus - parents willing to go through the process of IVF have strong desire for children

infertility for parents who have desire for children is a great suffering

11.4 Reproduction 11.4.1 Annotate a light micrograph of testis tissue to show the location and function of interstitial cells (Leydig cells), germinal epithelium cells, developing spermatozoa and Sertoli cells. 11.4.2 Outline the processes involved in spermatogenesis within the testis, including mitosis, cell growth and the two divisions of meiosis and cell differentiation. Spermatogenesis happens in the testes which are composed of a mass of narrow tubes (seminiferouos tubules). The spaces between those tubules (interstices) are filled with cells called interstitial cells, as known as Leydig cells. Stages in Spermatogenesis: 1) Cells in the germinal epithelium divide by mitosis to generate an endless supply of diploid cells 2) The cells formed by Mitosis are displaced inwards and grown large enough to divide by Meiosis 3) The enlarged cells carry out the 1st division of Meiosis having the chromosome 4) The x2 haploid cells carry out the 2nd division of Meiosis 5) The four cells become attracted to Sertoli cells which feed them as they develop into spermatozoa 11.4.3 State the role of LH, testosterone and FSH in spermatogenesis LH: secreted by pituitary gland at puberty. LH stimulated Leydig cells in the testes to secrete testosterone. FSH: secreted by pituitary gland. It stimulates the primary spermatocytes to commence Meiosis I. Testosterone: secreted by Leydig cells stimulate secondary spermatocytes to undergo Meiosis II and cell differentiation (by Steroli cells). Through negative feedback, high level of testosterone also inhibits further secretion of FSH. 11.4.4 Annotate a diagram of the ovary to show the location and function of germinal epithelium, primary follicles, mature follicle and secondary oocyte. 11.4.6 Draw and label a diagram of a mature sperm and egg.

11.4.7 Outline the role of the epididymis seminal vesicle and prostate gland in the production of semen. Sperm formed in the seminiferous tubules (in the testes) (through lumen to) epididymus: sperms are stored and gain motility (sexual arousal) millions of sperm cells move from the epididymus into the vas deferens near the bladder seminal vesicles (pair of glands) add fluid which is high in concentration of sugar fructose (high energy carbohydrate) source of energy for sperms (70% of fluid in semen is added by seminal vesicles) same area, prostate gland adds more fluid that is alkaline to help sperm survive in vagina (30% fluid from prostate gland) 11.4.8 Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis including the number of gametes and the timing of the formation and release of gametes. Spermatogenesis Oogenesis Cell division Chromosome number Number of gametes Timing Release of gamete Mitosis + Meiosis Haploid Spermatozoa One (2n) germinal epithelium cell produces 8(n) spermatozoa Starts at puberty Copulation Mitosis + Meiosis Haploid Ovum One (2n) germinal epithelium can produce 2 x haploid (n) ovum. Up to 4-6 polar bodies. Starts before birth delayed until puberty. Completed with fertilization. Ovulation

11.4.9 Describe the process of fertilization, including the acrosome reaction, penetration of the egg membrane by a sperm and the cortical reaction. 1) The sperm membranes have chemical receptors that can detect chemicals released by the egg, allowing directional swimming towards the egg. 2) Hydrolytic enzymes from the sperms acrosome are released (1st acrosome reation) to digest a path through the follicles granulosa cells 3) Lashing their tails, sperm reach the outer zona pellucida. One sperm head binds to the special receptors which are here 4) The 2nd acrosome reaction occurs, releasing enzymes which digest a path through the zona pellucida (a coat of glycoprotein). The sperm penetrate through it 5) Head of the sperm fuses with microvilli surrounding the secondary oocyte and penetrates its cytoplasm. 6) Lysosome of the oocyte releases enzymes which react with the glycoproteins after penetration by the sperm. This cause the Cortical reaction, the hardening of zona pellucida, forming the fertilisation membrane around the oocyte, impermeable to other sperms entry. 7) The sperm loses its tail and the sperm nucleus swells (its chromatin becomes less tightly coiled) 8) The male sperm nucleus fuses with the female ovum nucleus. This is the act of fertilization.

9) The new nucleus has 2 sets of chromosomes (one from the ovum, one from the sperm). The cell is now Diploid and known as the Zygote. 11.4.10 Outline the role of HCG in early pregnancy HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin): secreted by the outer layer of cells of the blastocyst, the Trophblastic cells. Similar to LH, it helps to prevent breakdown of the corpus luteum. Corpus luteum continues to secrete progesterone and oestrogen. Thus the endometrium of the uterus continues to build rather than break down. One of the early signs of pregnancy is the absence of a period and the presence of HCG in urine. 11.4.11 Outline early embryo development up to the implantation of the blastocyst. Fertilization occurs in the upper oviduct. As the zygote is transported down the oviduct by ciliary action, mitosis and cell division commence. The process of the division of the zygote into a mass of daughter cells is known as cleavage. This is the first stage in the growth and development of a new individual. The embryo does not increase. When the embryo reaches the uterus it is a solid ball of tiny cells called blastomeres, no larger than the fertilized egg from which it has been formed. Division continues and the blastomeres organise themselves into a fluid-filled ball, the blastocyst. 11.4.12 Explain how the structure and functions of the placenta, including its hormonal role in secretion of oestrogen and progesterone, maintain pregnancy. Placenta: disc shaped structure, composed of maternal (endometrial) and fetal membrane tissues. Maternal and fetal blood circulation are brought close together over a large surface area created by the microvilli of the chorionic villi cells, but do not mix. Placenta and fetus are connected by arteries and a vein in the umbilical cord. Responsible of exchange of material between mother and fetus, takes over the role from the chorionic villi after 12 weeks of pregnancy. Diffusion and active transport across the placenta: - -respiratory gases diffusion, O2 from maternal to fetal haemoglobin, CO2 from fetal to maternal haemoglobin, 10% of mothers blood goes through the placenta per circuit of the body - water through osmosis, glucose through facilitated diffusion, ions and amino acid actively transported - excretory products, diffusion - antibodies, confer passive immunity to the fetus (through diffusion) Placenta also acts as a barrier to Bacteria but not all viruses. The placenta as endocrine gland - initially producing additional sex hormone, HCG - HCG is initially secreted by blastocyst, but later gets entirely taken over by placenta - HCG maintains the corpus luteum as an endocrine gland (secreting oestrogen and

progesterone) for the first 16 weeks of pregnancy - When the corpus luteum eventually does break down, the placenta itself secretes oestrogen and progesterone increasingly through out the rest of the pregnancy - In the last 3 months oestrogen increases faster than progesterone - Immediately prior to birth the progesterone level declines and the oestrogen level increases 11.4.13 State that the fetus is supported and protected by the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid 11.4.14 State that materials are exchanged between the maternal and fetal blood in the placenta 11.4.15 Outline the process of birth and its hormonal control, including the changes in progesterone and oxytocin levels and positive feedback. Birth is a positive feedback hormonal mechanism. 1st stage: beginning of contractions to the full (10cm) dilation of the cervix. Membranes of the amniotic fluid rupture, lubricating the vagina. 2nd stage: strong uterine contractions of a minute in duration separated by two to three minute intervals propel the foetus down the birth canal. Abdominal muscles relax in synchrony with the uterine contractions. 3rd stage: delivery of the baby. Umbilical cord clipped and cut. The placenta in expelled through the vagina. Fall of progesterone leads to secretion of oxytocin: - which relaxes connective tissue (polric girdle in particular) - stimulates uterus contraction - more secretion as a result of cervix stretch (positive feedback) - rhythmic contractions of uterus from top of uterus - secondary function: stimulates milk production