DETERMINANTS With every square matrix A, we associate a number, called the determinant of A and denoted by |A| or det (A).

A determinant of order n is defined as

a11a12 .......a1j.......a1n
|A| = a21a22 .......a2j.......a 2n where aij is the general element.

an1an2 .......anj.......a 2n
Consider the equations a1x + b1y = 0, a2x + b2y = 0. These give

a1 b1

y x

a2 b2

a1 b1

a2 b2

a1b2 a2b1 = 0.

We express this eliminant as

a1 a2
b1 b2

b1 b2

= 0.

The expression a1b2 -a2b1.

a1 a2

is called a determinant of order two, and equals

A determinant of order three consisting of 3 rows and 3 columns is written as

a1 b1 c1

b c2 a2 b2 c 2 and is equal to a1 2 b3 c3 a3 b3 c 3

b1

a2 c 2 a3 c3

c1

a2 b2 a3 b3

a1 b2c3 c2b3

b1 a2c3 c2a3

c1 a2b3 b2a3 .

The numbers ai, bi, ci ( i =1,2,3 ) are called the elements of the determinant. The determinant, obtained by deleting the ith row and the jth column is called the minor of the element at ith row and jth column i.e. a ij. This new determinant is of order (n 1), and is denoted by Mij. The cofactor of this element aij is (-1)i+j (minor).

a1
i.e. Aij = ( 1)i+j Mij. In the third order determinant = a2

b1 b2 b3

c1 c 2 = a1A1 + c3

a3
b1B1+c1C1, A1, B1 and C1 are the cofactors of a1, b1 and c1 respectively, and A1 =

b2 c 2 b3 c3

, B1
c 2C2 c1C2 0

a2 c 2 a3 b3
or 0 if if i i

, C1

a2 b2 a3 b3

We can expand a determinant through any row or column. It means we can write

a2 A 2 b2B2 Also a1A 2 b1B2

a1A1 a2 A 2 j, j.

a3 A 3 etc.

ai A j biB j ciC j

These results are true for determinants of any order.

Properties of Determinants The following properties are true for determinants of all orders. However, we will provide proofs only for a third order determinant. (i) If rows be changed into columns and columns into the rows, then the values of the determinant remains unaltered, (i.e. if the corresponding rows and columns are interchanged) or |A| = |A |. Since the determinant can be expanded through any row or any column, the value of the determinant remains unchanged even if the rows and columns are interchanged. (ii) If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, the resulting determinant is the negative of the original determinant. (iii) If all the elements of a row (or a column) are zero, then the value of the determinant is zero. (iv) If two rows (or two columns) in a determinant have corresponding elements that are equal, the value of the determinant is equal to zero. (v) If each of the elements of one row (or columns) of a determinant is multiplied by k, then the new determinant is k times the original determinant. A common factor of any row or any column of the determinant can be taken out of the determinant as a factor. Note: Let A = (aij) be a square matrix of order n. Then kA = (kaij) |kA| = kn |A| since the factor k is taken out of the determinant from each of the n rows or n columns. (vi) If the corresponding elements of any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are proportional, the value of the determinant is zero. (vii) If each element in a row (or column) of a determinant is written as the sum of two or more terms then the determinant can be written as the sum of two or more determinants. (viii) If to each element of a line (row or column) of a determinant be added the equimutiples of the corresponding elements of one or more parallel lines, the determinant remains unaltered i.e.

a1 la2 ma3 b1 lb2 mb3 c1 lc 2 mc 3 a1 a2

= b1 b2

a 2 a3 b 2 b3 c2 la2 lc 2 c3 a2 c2 a3 b3 c3 ma3 mb3 mc 3 a3 m b3 c3 a3 b3 . c3 a2 b2 c2 a3 b3 c3

a3 b3 c3

lb2 b2

c1 c 2

a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 c1 c 2
= b1 b2

a2 a2 a3 l b2 b2 b3 c2 c2 c3

a2 a3 b 2 b3 c2 c3

c3 b3 c3

a1 a2 a3 c1 c 2

a1 a2 0 0 = b1 b2 c1 c 2

(ix)

If a determinant D vanishes for x = a, then (x a) is a factor of D, In other words, if two rows (or two columns) become identical for x = a then (x a) is a factor of D. In general, if r rows (or r columns) become identical when a is substituted for x, then (x a)r-1 is a factor of D. Product of Two Determinants We can write

a1b1c1 a2b2c 2 a3b3c 3

1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3

a1 a2 a3

1 1 1

b1 b2 b3

1 1 1

c1

1 1 1

a1 a2 a3

2 2 2

b1 b2 b3

2 2 2

c1 c2 c3

2 2 2

a1 a2 a3

3 3 3

b1 b2 b3

3 3 3

c1 c2 c3

3 3 3

c2 c3

Here we have multiplied rows by rows. We can also multiply rows by columns or columns by rows, or columns by columns. It follows from the fact that |A| = |A |. Moreover, |AB| = |A| |B| = |B| |A| where A and B are square matrices of the same order. Note: If = |aij| is a determinant of order n, then the value of the determinant |A ij|, where Aij is the cofactor of aij, is n 1. This is known as power cofactor formula. Special Determinants 1. Symmetric determinant The elements situated at equal distance from the diagonal are equal both in magnitude and sign, i.e. |aij| = |aji|. 2. Skew symmetric determinant All the diagonal elements are zero and the elements situated at equal distance from the diagonal are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. The value of a skew symmetric determinant of odd order is zero. 3. Circulant determinant: The elements of the rows (or columns) are in cyclic arrangement. 4.

1 a a2

1 b b2

1 c c2

(a b)(b c)(c a) .

5.

1 a a3 1 a2 a3

1 b b3 1 b2 b3

1 c c3 1 c2 c3

(a b)(b c)(c a)(a b c) .

6.

(a b)(b c)(c a)(ab bc ca) .

Singular and Non-singular Matrix:

A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if A determinant of the square matrix A: Unitary Matrix:

0, and a square matrix A is said to be

singular if A = 0. Here |A| (or det(A) or simply det A) means corresponding

A square matrix is said to be unitary if A A = I. Since A = A and | A A| = | A | |A|, | A | |A| = 1. Thus the determinant of unitary matrix is of unit modulus. For a matrix to be unitary it must be non-singular. Orthogonal Matrix: A square matrix A of order n is said to be orthogonal if AA = A A = In . Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix A is called idempotent if it satisfies the relation A 2 = A. Involutary Matrix: A matrix A, such that A2 = I is called an involutary matrix. Nilpotent Matrix: A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix if there exists a positive integer m such that Am = O. If m is the least positive integer such that A m = O, then m is called the index of the nilpotent matrix A Adjoint of a Square Matrix Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order n and let Cij be the cofactor of aij in A. Then the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of elements of A is called the adjoint of A and is denoted by adj A. Thus, adjA = [Cij]T (adj A)ij = Cji,

a11 a12
If A = a21 a22

a13 a23 a33

C11 C12 C13 , then, adjA = C21 C22 C23 C31 C32 C33

C11 C21 C31 C12 C22 C32 C13 C23 C33

a31 a32

where Cij denotes the cofactor of aij in A. Theorem: Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then A(adj A) = |A| In = (adj A)A Note: The adjoint of a square matrix of order 2 can easily be obtained by interchanging the diagonal elements and changing the signs of off diagonal (left hand side lower corner to right hand side upper corner) elements. Inverse of a Matrix A non singular square matrix of order n is said to be invertible if there exists a square matrix B of the same order such that AB = In = BA. In such a case, we say that the inverse of A is B and we write, A 1 = B, or A = B 1. Hence, A 1 is the inverse of A if AA 1 = A 1A = I. We know that A adj (A) = |A| In A 1A adj (A) = |A| A 1 I adj (A) = |A| A 1 adj A = |A| A 1.

The inverse of A is thus, given by A 1 = Properties of Inverse of a Matrix

1 . adj A. A

(i). Every invertible matrix possesses a unique inverse. (ii). (Reversal Law) If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then AB is invertible and (AB) 1 = B 1A 1. (iii).If A is an invertible square matrix, then A is also invertible and (A ) 1 = (A 1) . (iv).If A is a non singular square matrix of order n, then |adjA| = |A|n 1 (v). If A and B are non singular square matrices of the same order, then adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A) (vi).If A is an invertible square matrix, then adj(A ) = (adj A) (vii).If A is a non singular square matrix, then adj(adjA) = |A|n 2 A (viii)For any non singular matrix A and positive integer k, A k = (Ak) 1 = (A 1)k. Elementary Transformations or Elementary Operations on a Matrix: The following three operations applied on the rows (columns) of a matrix are called elementary row (column) transformations. (i). Interchange of any two rows (columns) If ith row (column) of a matrix is interchanged with the jth row (column), it will be denoted by R I Rj (CI Cj). (ii). Multiplying all elements of a row (column) of a matrix by a non-zero scalar If the elements of ith row (column) are multiplied by non-zero scalar k, it will be denoted by RI Ri (k) [Ci Ci (k)] or RI kRi [Ci kCi]. (iii).Adding to the elements of a row (column), the corresponding elements of any other row (column) multiplied by any scalar k. If k times the elements of jth row (column) are added to the corresponding elements of the ith row (column), it will be denoted by Ri Ri +k Rj (Ci Ci + kCj). Note: (i) An elementary row operation on the product of two matrices is equivalent to the same elementary row operation on the pre-factor. (ii) An elementary column operation on the product of two matrices is equivalent to the same elementary column operation on the post-factor. System of Simultaneous Linear Equations Consider the following system of n linear equations in n unknowns: a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + a2n xn = b2 . . . . an1 x1 + an2 x2 + + ann xn = bn This system of equations can be written in matrix form as

a11 a12 .............a1n a21 a22 .............a2n . . an1 . . .

x1 x2 . . . xn

b1 b2 . . . bn

. . an2 .............ann

n n

n 1

n 1

or AX = B The n n matrix A is called the coefficient matrix of the system of linear equations. Homogeneous and Non-Homogeneous System of Linear Equations A system of equations AX = B is called a homogeneous system if B = O. Otherwise, it is called a non-homogeneous system of equations. Solution of a System of Equations Consider the system of equations AX = B. A set of values of the variables x1, x2, ... , xn which simultaneously satisfy all the equations is called a solution of the system of equations. Consistent System If the system of equations has one or more solutions, then it is said to be a consistent system of equations; otherwise it is an inconsistent system of equations. Solution of a Non-Homogeneous System of Linear Equations: There are two methods for solving a non-homogeneous system of simultaneous linear equations. (i). Cramers Rule Consider a system of simultaneous linear equations in three variables namely x, y, z i.e. a1x + b1y + c1z = d1, (1) a2x + b2y + c2z = d2, (2) a3x + b3y + c3z = d3. (3) The following cases can arise: (1) D 0: In such a case, the system has precisely one solution (unique solution), which is given by CRAMER RULE i.e. x = D1/D; y = D2/D; z = D3/D. (2) D = 0 : and at least one of the determinants D1 ,D2 or D3 is non-zero, then the system is inconsistent . i.e. it has no solution. (3) D =0 and D1 =D2= D3 = 0, then the system has either infinite number of solutions (when the equations are dependent) or they have no solution (when they are independent). Homogeneous System: If d1 = d2 = d3 = 0, then the system is known as a system of homogeneous linear equations, and thus, D1 =D2 = D3 = 0 (value of a determinant is zero, if one column has all elements = 0). The trivial solution (x = 0, y = 0, z = 0) always exists and for the existence of non trivial solutions (infinite solutions) D = 0. If D 0, then the system has only the trivial or zero solution. x = 0, y = 0 and z = 0. It means that the system has non trivial solutions only if the matrix A, of the system AX = 0, is singular i.e. |A| = 0. Note: A system of three linear equations in two unknown i.e. a1x+b1y +c1 =0 a2x+b2y +c2 = 0 a3x+b3y +c3 = 0

a1
is consistent if a2

b1 b2 b3

c1 c 2 = 0. c3

a3