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REPIRATORY SYSTEM

A. Contents: The respiratory system includes the passages that transport air to and from the lungs and the air sacs of the lung in which gas exchanges occur. Respiration is the entire process by which gasses are exchanged between the atmosphere and the body cells. Organs of the respiratory system The respiratory system includes the nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, trachea, bronchial tree and lungs. 1. The nose a. The nose is supported by bone and cartilage. b. Nosetrils provide entrances for air. 2. The nasal cavity a. the nasal cavity is a space behind the nose. b. It is divided medially by the nasal septum. c. Nasal conchae divide the cavity into passage ways and help increase surface area of mucous membranes. d. Mucous membranes filter, warms and moisten incoming air. e. Particles trapped in the mucus are carried to the pharynx by ciliary action and swallowed. 3. the sinuses a. Sinuses are spaces in the bones of the skull that open into the nasal cavity. b. They are lined with mucus membrane that is continuous with the lining of the nasal cavity. 4. The pharynx a. The pharynx is located behind the mouth and between the nasal cavity and the larynx. b. It functions as a common passage for air and food. c. I aids in creating vocal sounds. 5. The larynx a. The larynx is an enlargement at the top of the trachea. b. It serves as a passageway for air and helps prevent foreign objects from entering the trachea. c. It is composed of muscles and cartilage, of which some are single, some are paired. d. It contains the vocal cords, which produce sounds by vibrating as air passes over them. 1. The pitch of a sound is related to the tension on the cords.

2. The intensity of a sound is related to the force of the air passing over the cords. e. The glottis and epiglottis help prevent food and liquid from entering the trachea. 6. The trachea a. The trachea extends into the thoracic cavity in front of the esophagus. b. It divides into right and left bronchi. c. The mucous lining continues to filter incoming air. d. The wall is supported by cartilaginous rings. 7. The bronchial tree a. The bronchial tree consist of branched air passages that lead from the trachea to the air sacs. b. The branches of the bronchial tree include primary bronchi, lobar bronchi, tertiary or segmental bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli. c. Structure of the respiratory tubes 1. As tubes branch, the amount of cartilage in the walls decreases and the muscular layer becomes more prominent. 2. Elastic fibers in the walls aid the breathing mechanism. 3. The epithelial lining changes from pseudostratified and ciliated cuboidal and simple squamous. d. Function of the respiratory tubes include distribution of air and exchange of gasses between the alveolar air and the blood. 8. The lungs a. The left and the right lungs are separated by the mediastinum and enclosed by the diaphragm and the thoracic cage. b. The visceral pleura is attached to the surface of the lungs; parietal pleura lines the thoracic cavity. c. The right ling has three lobes and the left lung has two. d. A lobe is divided into bronchial segments. e. Each lobe is composed of lobules that contain alveoli, blood vessels and supporting tissues. Breathing mechanism Inspiration and expiration movements are accompanied by changes in the size of the thoracic cavity. 1. Inspiration a. The pressure in the lungs is reduced when the diaphragm moves downward and the thoracic cage moves upward and outward. b. Air is forced into the lungs by the atmospheric pressure. c. Expansion of the lungs is aided by the surface tension that holds the pleural membrane together.

d. Surfactant reduces surface tension within the alveoli. 2. Expiration a. the forces of expiration come from the elastic recoil of tissues and surface tension within the alveoli. b. Expiration can be aided by thoracic and abdominal wall muscles that pull the thoracic cage downward and inward and compress the abdominal organs. 3. Nonrespiratory air movements a. Nonrespiratory air movements are movements that occur in addition to breathing. b. They include coughing, sneezing, laughing, crying, hiccuping and yawning. Control of breathing Normal breathing is rhythmic and involuntary, although the respiratory muscles can be controlled voluntarily. 1. The respiratory center a. The respiratory center is located in the brain stem and includes parts of the medulla olongata and pons. b. The medullary rhythmical area includes two groups of neurons. 1. The dorsal respiratory group is responsible for the basis rhythm of breathing. 2. The ventral respiratory group increases inspiratory and expiratory movements during forceful breathing. c. the pneumotaxic area regulates the rate of breathing. 2. Receptors and nerve pathways Chemoreceptors and stretch receptors send sensory impulses to the respiratory center and alter its activity. The alveoli and the Respiratory membrane Alveoli carry on gas exchanges between the air and the blood. 1. The alveoli a. The alveoli are tiny air sacs clustered at the distal ends of the alveolar ducts. c. Some alveoli have opening into adjacent air sacs that provide alternate pathways for air hen passages are obstructed. 2. The respiratory membrane a. The respiratory membrane consist of the alveolar and capillary walls. b. Gas exchanges take place through these wall.

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