Geography of Crop Plants Geo 3315

Lecture Notes Part 1

Nigel J.H. Smith Department of Geography University of Florida Gainesville, FL 32611-7315 Tel. 392 0494

The Plant Domestication Process

Location
Former idea of origin of agriculture in fertile crescent of Tigris/Euphrates river basins some 10,000 years ago. This idea stems from a Temperate zone bias and the fact that the Middle East is better studied archeologically that most of the tropics. Also the Middle East (Southwest Asia) is mostly dry, thus preserving plant remains. Agriculture is more likely to have occurred earlier in tropics. The geographer Carl Sauer suggested that fisherfolk living in coastal areas of the tropics with hills providing a gentle slope would have been a good setting for the fist agricultural peoples. Hillsides that are lightly wooded can be more easily farmed than grasslands or floodplains, at least until plows are developed and water control measures are enacted. Very large trees can be ringed to kill them. Smaller trees can be cut and burned, the resulting ash providing fertilizer. Forest soils are more friable that those in grasslands, and therefore more easily worked. The greater biodiversity of tropics offers a greater range of plants for experimenting with in terms of plant domestication.

Triggering Forces
Common perception of population pressure triggering plant and animal domestication is probably incorrect. The late Carl Sauer at Berkeley and Andrew Moore of Yale University suggest the process may have been more experimental, conducted at a leisurely pace, with an abundance of food and gathering resources to allow gradual domestication.

Types of Plants First Domesticated

Earliest domesticated plants were probably supernatural/medicinals, rather than food plants. Earliest domesticated food plants may have been perennials, fruit and nut trees, such as peach palm, and root crops, rather than seed crops. Seed crops less likely to be first domesticated because: It takes several generations to improve the yield of seed crops once wild forms have been selected for domestication Seed crops are more vulnerable to storms and floods than root and tree crops

3 Seed crops need to be harvested within a relatively narrow window of opportunity, whereas root crops can be harvested over many months or even years in some cases.

Habitats where domestication took place

Refuse heaps Trails Temporary campsites Base camps (even today dooryards or home gardens in the tropics serves as staging areas for new varieties and crops)

Timing of Domestication and Duration of Domestication Process

Depends on definition. Agriculture, involving the planting of crops on a large scale in fields, did not first occur until some 10,000 years ago. But plant domestication probably reaches back into the Paleolithic, 20,000 years or more, a gradual process of experimentation/enrichment. The late Dan Lathrap, an archaeologist, suggested that antecedents of the Neolithic agricultural revolution go back at least 40,000 years.

Taxonomy of Domestication
Not all plants go through the same "stages". Plant domestication is a non-linear event; some crops revert back to the wild when abandoned. It is helpful to envisage plant domestication in terms of the degree of modification of habitat and reproduction of plant Another way to look at plant domestication is the level of investment by people in terms of time and labor they devote to a plant. Several definitions of agriculture and plant domestication can be found in the literature, much of it based on archaeological work in temperate areas, especially the Middle East where seasonally dry conditions help preserve plant remains. Two classifications, developed by scientists working in tropical America, are the most useful for the proposed research. In his studies of plants in Mexico, Bye (1993) considers three broad categories: gathering (plants or plant products are simply collected in the wild); incipient domestication (minor tending to plants that arise spontaneously as a result of human activity) and

4 agricultural domestication (farming that involves the creation of fields and selection of varieties). Clement (1999), working out of the central Amazon, elaborates on Byes classification thus: wild; incidentally co-evolved (which encompasses weeds that exploit areas disturbed by humans); incipiently domesticated (modest selection but phenotypes still within the range found in wild populations); semi-domesticated (significant modification by human selection through intervention/management); domesticated (crop with reduced genetic variability which can only survive in human-created environments).

Weeds as a Resource
Weed is a cultural term. Ralph Waldo Emerson, an American philosopher/naturalist of the 19th century, wrote: What is a weed? A plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered. A weed to one culture may be an important resource to another. Example: Teosinte and maize in Mexico. Some crops started out as weeds in fields of another crop, and eventually they were domesticated in their own right. Examples of this process include: Rye was initially a weed in wheat and barley fields, possibly tolerated and then domesticated Rice may have started as a weed in taro fields Weeds have long been a preoccupation of farmers. Take for example the New Testament parable about weeds in a wheat field. The parable is spoken to illustrate the destiny of individuals after death: The kingdom of heaven may be compared to a man who sowed good seed in his field; but while men were sleeping his enemy came and sowed weeds among the wheat, and went away. So when the plants came up and bore grain, then the weeds appeared also And the servants of the householder

5 came and said to him, Sir did you not sow good seed in your field? How then has it weeds? He said to them, An enemy has done this. The servants said to him, Then do you want us to go and gather them? But he said, No, lest in gathering the weeds you root up the wheat along with them. Let both grow together until the harvest, and at the harvest time I will tell the reapers, Gather the weeds first and bind them in bundles to be burned; but gather the wheat into my barn (Matthew 13:24-30).

Agrobiodiversity
Agrobiodiversity is that subset of biodiversity that is concerned with agricultural production: crop species and associated varieties (as well as livestock species and associated breeds). Three main types of crop varieties are grown by farmers: open-pollinated varieties, hybrids, and clones. Open-pollinated varieties: Varieties that self-pollinate, or receive pollen from neighboring plants of the same species, without human intervention. Many traditional varieties of cereal crops are grown in this manner. In the case of openpollinated maize varieties, traditional farmers maintain the integrity of their distinct varieties by separating them in space (i.e. with a sizable barrier of other vegetation or higher up on a mountain) or in time (i.e. by pacing the planting times of each variety so that they produce pollen in different months and thus do not contaminate each other). An example of open-pollinated maize where such precautions are not taken is Indian corn often sold in stores in the Fall for decorative purposes. Indian corn usually contains kernels of many colors, each the result of pollen from distinct maize varieties. Hybrids: Hybrid varieties are developed by crossing two inbred lines. The resulting increased yield potential is referred to as hybrid vigor or heterosis. Hybrid varieties are therefore generally higher yielding than traditional, openpollinated varieties. However, the farmers must purchase hybrid seed each planting season from a seed company or state seed production facility. Only the F1 (first generation) hybrid seed produces a uniform, high yield. If you plant seed

6 produced by F1 hybrids, the progeny will be highly variable and yields will be lower. Hybrids were first developed commercially with maize in the 1930s, and are now found among a variety of crops, especially vegetables and ornamental plants that are grown from seed. Clones: clones are cultivars that are propagated vegetatively. Most root crops are planted in this way. For example, potatoes are planted with small seed tubers, manioc is propagated by sticking stem cuttings in the ground, while sweet potatoes are planted with sections of the vine. Bananas are propagated by root shoots. A clone is an exact genetic copy of its parent and thus is highly uniform. Commercial fruit and nut tree varieties are also propagated vegetatively by grafting. The same applies to many ornamental bushes, such as roses and azaleas.

Plant Breeding
Yields of most of the major crops have increased several fold in this century. In previous centuries, the rate of yield increase was much slower. About half of the yield increase of major cereal crops in the 20th century is attributed to plant breeding, i.e. the genetic manipulation of plants. The other half of the yield increase is due to changes in agronomic practices, such as increased use of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. Some of the objectives of plant breeders include: Higher yield potential (e.g. exceptional response to fertilization; shorter stems so that more photosynthetic effort is put into seed production, known as the harvest index. A 50% harvest index means that half of the weight of the plant is the harvested portion, usually the seeds, fruit, or tubers) Disease resistance (genetic protection against certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi) Pest resistance (genetic protection against insects and other arthropods, such as mites) Daylength insensitivity (equatorial regions have consistent daylength and varieties developed for the long summer days of temperate areas may not develop seeds or fruits in the tropics) Tolerance to poor soils (e.g. saline, alkaline, acid, toxic levels of al) Tolerance to drought Tolerance to flooding (e.g. rice breeders are interested in traditional rice varieties of floodplain areas in Thailand because they grow very long stems to avoid submergence) Frost resistance Wind resistance (stronger branches, trunks, and/or root systems; of interest to growers of carambola or starfruit, among others)

7 Improved nutritional qualities (e.g. less saturated fats, higher levels of vitamins, protein). Example: peanut breeders at the University of Florida developed a new variety, called SunOleic 95R, in 1995 that has a healthier kind of oil than regular peanuts; it helps lower cholesterol levels in some women. Furthermore, it has a longer shelf-life than other peanut varieties. Higher sugar content: Breeders of certain fruits, such as orange, cantaloupe, blackberry, and apple are developing new varieties that are sweeter in order to compete better with snack foods and candy. For example, Sunkist launched Cara Cara in 2004, a variety sweeter than regular oranges. New, sweeter varieties of apple developed recently include Jazz, Pink Lady, and Pacific Rose. Improved agronomic characteristics (e.g. shorter, bushier kidney beans to facilitate mechanical harvesting in places such as Michigan) Improved post-harvest characteristics (e.g. longer shelf life, less damage during transportation) Efforts to render agriculture more "environment-friendly" as pushing the breeding agenda (i.e. greater emphasis on genetic resistance to pests, rather than reliance on pesticides) as well as the growing consumer demand for "organic" or "natural" products. Sales of "natural" products reached $12 billion in the U.S. market by 1998 and are growing by 20% annually. Hard to maximize all qualities at once, e.g. push to higher yield can mean less resistance to diseases, lower nutritional qualities.

Dipping into Plant Genepools

Three main genepools are recognized by plant breeders: the primary, secondary, and tertiary genepools (See Figure 1.2 on page 16 of the textbook). The primary genepool refers to plant material belonging to the same species. The secondary genepool is composed of plants in the same genus, i.e. near relatives. The tertiary genepool is unrelated species, such as an oak and a moss. Plant breeders dip first into the primary genepool when looking for traits. If they do not find want they want there, then they turn to the secondary genepool. Breeders are reluctant to do this, because of breeding barriers between species. The barriers to be overcome by breeders are even more difficult in the tertiary genepool, but advances in biotechnology are likely to facilitate widecrossing in the secondary and tertiary genepools. Primary Genepool

8 The primary genepool can be divided into several categories: Breeders' collections Traditional varieties Wild populations of the crop plant Each category can be envisaged as a line of defense. Thus within the primary genepool, the fist place to look for desirable traits is the breeders collections. PowerPoint #1: Traditional Varieties of Crops

Widecrossing using Genetic Engineering

Advances in genetic engineering are allowing more foreign genes to be incorporated into crops. In other words, conventional barriers to breeding are coming down. While this raises some legitimate concerns about impacts on human health and the environment, it does provides more tools for the plant breeders toolbox and underscores the importance of conserving as much biodiversity as possible.

The Issue of Intellectual Property Rights, Seed Companies and Compensation

The interdependence of nations on genetic resources has recently brought the issue of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) to the forefront of debate in international relations. The part of IPR that relates to genetic resources is Plant Breeders Rights (PBR). The placing of value on genetic resources is a double-edged sword. On the one hand anything of value is likely to be saved. But on the other hand, nations are now less willing to share genetic resources without some form of compensation. The issue of how to compensate nations, and farmers, for genetic resources is a complex issue that is still being debated. Compensation would be difficult for many modern varieties of cereal crops that trace their genes to dozens of countries. The issue of value and compensation for genetic resources of crops is being explored by the Undertaking on Genetic Resources under the aegis of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). One idea emerging from the on-going discussions about compensation for genetic resources is to find market-based incentives for maintaining traditional varieties of crops rather than government subsidies.

At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the issue of plant genetic resources was discussed and the Convention on Biodiversity was an outgrowth of that meeting, which was also known as the Earth Summit. The United States has not signed that convention in part because of concern for the proprietary rights of seed companies with respect to parental lines for hybrids. Although multinational seed companies, such as Pioneer Hi-Bred International and DeKalb, are sometimes cast as the villains in the debate over compensation for crop genetic resources, international seed sales account for a tiny fraction of their business. In most cases, seed companies simply do not sell seed in countries that do not enforce Plant Breeders Rights. More and more countries are signing legislation that recognizes Plant Breeders Rights, in part because of the decreased role of government in many of these economies and the emergence of privatelyowned seed companies in developing countries.

Tropical Forests and Indigenous Knowledge: Threatened Resources

Tropical forests are the most biologically diverse environments in the world and it is not surprising that they have been the source of so many crop plants. Over 200 perennial species, excluding medicinals and ornamentals, have been domesticated from tropical forest plants. The forested area of temperate and cold climates, particularly in northern Asia, is larger than the forest zones of the tropics, but they contain far fewer species and only a handful of crops, such as pear, apple, cherry, mulberry, and some timber species, are derived from them. Tropical forests of the Americas have given us such crops as: avocado, cacao, guava, papaya, passionfruit, peach palm, rubber, soursop, vanilla. Tropical forests of Africa have given us such crops as: arabica coffee, robusta coffee, oil palm. Tropical forests of Asia have given us such crops as: breadfruit, jackfruit, carambola (star fruit), clove, citrus, mango, and nutmeg. Forests throughout the tropics are under threat for a variety of proximate causes such as clearing for crops, pasture, timber, and construction of reservoirs for generating hydroelectricity.

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PowerPoint #2: Tropical Forests, forces of destruction, and indigenous knowledge Concomitant with the loss of tropical forests is the loss of indigenous or local knowledge as cultural groups become extinct or their lifeways change as they become increasingly integrated with markets. Unusual crops or varieties are often lost as a group succumbs to disease or other external pressures, or farmers adopt cash crops. Implications: Interdependence of nations on genetic resources. The fate of wild populations of arabica coffee in dwindling tracts of forest in southwest Ethiopia is of major concern to the economies of dozens of countries in Latin America and Asia. In situ conservation needs to be emphasized as a strategy for conserving agrobiodiversity and its associated indigenous knowledge.

Conserving Plants in Their Natural and Cultural Environments

Crop genetic resources are conserved by two main means: ex situ and in situ. Off site in ex situ collections, using frozen seed or whole plants growing in field genebanks (sometimes referred to as clonal repositories). Ex situ collections do not work well for many tropical perennials that do not produce orthodox seed (i.e., seeds that can be dried and frozen, and still remain viable. In such cases, accessions are kept in live field genebanks, but such operations are costly and can only capture a small range of the genetic variation of most perennials crops. In situ conservation in natural habitats (both on farm and in the wild) is therefore essential. The United States maintains large collections of crop (and animal) Germplasm at various locations in the country (see http://www.ars-grin.gov/) In situ Conservation: In situ conservation can be used for wild populations and near relatives of crops, and for traditional varieties. Advantages of in situ conservation: Allows plants to continue evolving in their natural settings. Is usually less costly than genebanks

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In situ conservation of wild populations and near relatives includes: National parks Biological or nature reserves Specialized gene parks National forests Indian reserves Extractive reserves Problems of in situ conservation of wild populations and near relatives: Parks and reserves are often not adequately protected from illegal activities Some reserves/parks are too small to maintain the integrity of ecosystems. Many tropical forest species depend on insects, birds, and bats for pollination and mammals and birds for seed dispersal. Removal of some trees from the delicate ecological web characteristic of tropical forests may destroy elaborate mechanisms for fertilization and dispersal. Many habitats and environments are not represented in parks/reserves Extractive reserves and national forests may suffer from over-exploitation of natural resources even though they are supposed to have management plans. In situ conservation of traditional varieties and crops of local importance: Idea is for farmers to maintain varieties that they would otherwise abandon in their fields or home gardens. This can be accomplished through: 1. Market-based incentives, i.e. finding specialty markets for varieties that would otherwise go out of production, such as heirloom tomato varieties in demand from upscale restaurants and consumers interested in different flavors and textures who are willing to pay more for them. 2. Eco-tourism with a focus on agrobiodiversity (tours of farms growing heirloom varieties). 3. Provision of credit for farmers to grow traditional varieties as well as modern varieties, such as hybrids. The idea that farmers should be paid or subsidized to grow varieties that they are no longer interested in is fraught with problems of how to administer effectively such programs. In practice, some farmers who adopt modern varieties also maintain at least some of their traditional varieties, even if the area devoted to the latter is reduced, because traditional varieties are appreciated for: 1. Better taste 2. Their use in ritual

12 3. Superior stalks or other material for building purposes (e.g. traditional wheats have superior stems for thatching buildings)

BASIC STAPLES
Bananas, plantains, and breadfruit

Bananas and Plantains

Introduction Bananas are considered a dessert fruit in industrial nations, but in many parts of the humid tropics bananas and plantains are an important source of calories. In equatorial Africa, for example, bananas and plantains are a major staple. Bananas are the No.1 selling fruit in the U.S., surpassing apples at No. 2. Americans spend $3.4 billion a year on bananas; bananas is clearly big business. Per capita consumption of bananas in the United States has jumped 43 percent since 1970. Banana is now the No. 1 fruit consumed in the U.S., beating out apples at the number 2 spot. In the mid-1990s, people in the U.S. were spending about $3.4 billion/year on bananas. Origins and Diffusion Edibility in Musa acuminata evolved several thousand years ago. Parthenocarpy, the ability to set fruit without pollination, arose with M. acuminata somewhere in its broad range stretching from the Malaysian archipelago to New Guinea. Seedless bananas were spotted by farmers and suckers were eventually removed for planting. The seedless trait was relatively easy to preserve since the crop is propagated vegetatively. Prior to the evolution of parthenocarpy, wild bananas were probably collected for snacks, but their ball-bearing sized seeds and small fruits evidently did not warrant domestication efforts. Only when seedless fruits arose spontaneously did farmers take up banana planting. Parthenocarpy may have developed at several places in M. acuminata's extensive range, and various cultural groups may have seized the opportunity to domesticate the sun-loving plant.

13 As domesticated forms of Musa acuminata spread north into the range of M. balbisiana, opportunities for spontaneous widecrossing were created. The distributions of both species overlap slightly along the interface between monsoonal and equatorial climates, but contact zones between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana increased dramatically as the former species penetrated drier areas as a result of human agency. Spontaneous crossing between the two species thus began, or at least accelerated, several thousand years ago. The resulting hybrids were more vigorous and higher yielding than domesticated M. acuminata, so the latter soon began losing ground. Plantains probably originated in southern India and are eaten boiled, steamed, or fried and are a basic staple in many parts of Africa and Latin America, such as in Venezuela. The Fei bananas: A separate evolutionary history Another line of banana domestication has led to the Fe'i group. Fe'i bananas developed parthenocarpy and sterility independently of Musa maclayi. A distinguishing characteristic of Fe'i bananas is that the fruit stalks generally protrude upwards, rather than hanging down. Starchy Fe'i bananas are boiled or baked before eating. Fe'i bananas originated in New Guinea and spread to the Philippines and the Pacific as those islands were colonized in prehistoric times. Fe'i bananas may have been a basic staple in New Guinea 9,000 years ago. Fe'i bananas are an essential component of feasts and other special occasions in the Society Islands where they are considered a prestige food. The rich orange colors of Fe'i bananas attracted the attention of Paul Gauguin, a French impressionist painter who visited Tahiti and the Marquesas (both part of the Society Islands in French Polynesia), in the late 19th century. The diffusion of bananas and plantains Europeans brought bananas to the New World. Portuguese voyagers brought banana from West Africa to the Canary Islands around 1500. The subtropical Canary Islands served as a staging ground for exchanging several crops between the Old and New Worlds. Bananas were taken from the Canary Islands on Spanish galleons to Santo Domingo in 1516. Once in the Caribbean, banana cultivation soon spread to other islands. Also, a few further introductions were made by colonial powers directly to Central and South America.

14 Cuisine Bananas are used for food in various ways in different regions: In parts of Southeast Asia, the terminal male flower is eaten as a delicacy. In the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and Cuba, unripe plantains are fried to make tostones. In Puerto Rico, some upscale restaurants are featuring nueva cocina criolla which emphasizes traditional, home cooking with some modern touches. For example, one dish called serenata includes various tropical tubers and green bananas. Also in Dominican Republic, very green (unripe) plantains are boiled, mashed, mixed with onions and eaten. This dish is called mangu. Mofongo is prepared in the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, and Cuba by boiling green plantains, mashing them, adding garlic and meat, and then frying them. Fried ripe plantains (platanos fritos) are popular in Venezuela. In Cuba and Puerto Rico, fried ripe plantains are diced and fried (maduros) Plantains are home-cooking items in many parts of tropical Latin America, but are also found in some upscale restaurants, especially those featuring nuevo cubano cuisine. For example, the Yuca Restaurant on south Miami Beach, Florida, offers the following dishes that contain plantain: Pltano maduro Marina (Marinas sweet plantain): Plantain stuffed with dried, cured beef, dressed in sour cream and salsa verde ($9). Pastel de Pltano y Yuca (plantain and manioc pastry): Stuffed with pork and piquant cachucha peppers ($10). El Dorado original cubierto con Platanitos triturados con Fuf de Pltano (Plantain-coated dolphin fish): Served with tartar and tamarind sauce ($23). Embutido de Pltano Maduro y Pato a la Parilla (Grilled sweet plantain and duck sausage): Served with penne pasta in Aejo Rum sauce with sun-dried tomatoes and Ricotta cheese ($16). Fried plantain chips and sweeter fried banana chips are sold in supermarkets in the U.S. Nutritional and Medicinal Value In addition to providing significant amounts of carbohydrate, bananas and plantains are also rich in potassium, a nutrient important for the proper functioning of the heart. In Central Africa, bananas are used extensively to make home-brewed beer, which contains vitamin B.

15 Recently, scientists have identified the active ingredient in plantain that stimulates cell growth in the stomach lining, a discovery that may help heal stomach ulcers. This discovery underscores the importance of ethnobotany for identifying new medicines and other valuable traits. Non-Food Uses Banana fibers in some areas are used to make a "natural" looking paper for note pads, envelopes, and writing paper. Banana Rainforest Note Pad, for example, is made by the Costa Rica Natural Paper Company. "A percentage of each sale goes towards a scholarship fund to support young leaders from Latin America to study sustainable agricultural development at Earth College" in Costa Rica. Farming Systems Bananas are ideal for small or large-scale agroforestry schemes. Indeed, over 90 percent of global banana production comes from small holdings. Bananas are also well suited to large, uniform plantations. Most of the export bananas are produced on large plantations. Banana trees in Calypso music: Dayo and Yellow Bird by Tyrone & The Clouds Extensive commercial plantings of banana are found in: Central America: particularly Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras The Caribbean: especially the Windward Islands South America: especially Ecuador and Colombia PowerPoint #3: Bananas & Plantains PowerPoint #4: Fe'i bananas Trade and Foreign Exchange Earnings Bananas are an important source of foreign exchange for several exporting countries. For example, the Philippines, Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Martinique, and Guadeloupe derive close to half their export earnings from bananas. Three multinational corporations, all headquartered in the U.S.A., account for about 2/3 of the world trade in bananas: Chiquita (formerly United Fruit), Dole (formerly Standard Fruit), and Del Monte.

16 Two points are worth emphasizing respect to the banana export trade and rural and urban poor in developing countries: The export trade provides substantial employment opportunities. Banana production and processing are labor intensive, requiring at least 1 person for every 2 ha of planting. Pests and diseases that attack commercial plantings also damage many traditional banana and plantain varieties, so resistance breeding can benefit smallholders as well as company and cooperative plantations.

Export bananas have been at the center of trade disputes between the U.S. and Europe in the last decade or so. In 1993, the European Union began protecting banana growers in former colonies, particularly in the Caribbean, parts of Africa, and the Canary Islands by imposing quotas on imports of bananas from Latin America. This measure has severely impacted U.S. corporations involved in the production and marketing of bananas, especially Chiquita. Chiquita alone suffered an estimated $1.3 billion in lost sales in the European market from 1993-2000. In 1997, the WTO (World Trade Organization) ruled in favor of the U.S., and in 1999 the WTO gave the green light for the U.S. to retaliate by imposing restrictions on the importation of certain European foodstuffs, especially cheese. Traditional Cultivars As bananas diffused across various soil and climatic zones, different cultures selected some of the new forms arising from spontaneous mutations. About 500 recognized varieties of banana and plantain are grown worldwide. The greatest diversity of traditional banana cultivars is found in tropical Asia, where the crop has the longest history. Filipinos relish over 75 banana cultivars tended on thousands of widely scattered islands. Some traditional varieties contain traits of potential interest to breeders; in Malaysia, one banana variety has a stalk over two meters long that contains an average of 2,000 fruits, more than five times the number of fruits typically found on export varieties. Genetic erosion of traditional varieties: Decline of aboriginal populations has led to the loss of unique varieties of banana and other crops. In Polynesia, for example, introduced diseases triggered a rapid decline of the human population on Tahiti from an estimated 140,000 at time of contact with Europeans to fewer than 5,000 within three generations.

17 Population thinning also occurred in some other parts of the Society Islands, such as Moorea, where forest-covered temple sites, known locally as maraes, attest to formerly dense farming communities in the interior valleys and along the coasts. History of the Export Banana Business Carl B. Frank started the first business dedicated to importing bananas to the U.S. in 1866. Before that time, bananas were rarely encountered in U.S. markets and were mostly a curiosity item. Mr. Frank's business was located in New York and he imported bananas from Panama. By 1899, however, over 100 firms in the U.S. were importing bananas. One of the main "players" in the banana business has been the United Fruit Company (now Chiquita brands), which was founded in 1899. The United Fruit Company acquired land for banana production in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Honduras, Guatemala, Panama, Jamaica, and Colombia. The company also operated a fleet of ships to take the bananas to the U.S. and Europe. In certain Central American countries, especially Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, banana corporations, particularly United Fruit, often dominated national politics in those countries. Such countries have been referred to as Banana Republics. Woody Allen starred in a film, Bananas, which pokes fun at such governments. From the 1860s to 1900, bananas traveled as deck cargo on sail ships, or by the 1870s as deck cargo on steamships. Around 1900, steamships with refrigerator holds were introduced, thereby reducing spoilage. Modern Cultivars and Disease Vulnerability Only a handful of cultivars dominate the banana export trade. There are many more commercial labels for bananas than there are commercial varieties. Export varieties are relatively thick-skinned, are cut when still green, and after being dunked in a chemical bath to retard browning caused by fungi and bacteria, are placed in plastic-lined cardboard boxes. In the cargo hold of ships, the bananas are chilled and kept ventilated in order to dispel ethylene gas that is given off by ripening fruits and promotes ripening. The bananas arrive at their destination port still green. Until the early 1960s, the Gros Michel variety dominated the banana export industry.

18 Gros Michel, known by various names in different regions, originated in Southeast Asia and was introduced to Martinique in the early 1800s and Jamaica around 1835. Gros Michel is now grown in limited quantities, and then only for local use. The demise of `Gros Michel' in the 1960s was triggered by Panama disease, caused by at least four races of Fusarium oxysporum f. cubense. Fungicide applications against this variable pathogen are ineffective. The Cavendish group of bananas appeared to be the answer to Panama disease because they are resistant. The Cavendish group also travels well and is high yielding. Cavendish bananas are a closely related group of cultivars all derived from a tall parent, Pisang masak hijau from Southeast Asia. The principal commercial cultivars of the Cavendish group are Dwarf Cavendish and Giant Cavendish. The narrow genetic base of export bananas renders them particularly susceptible to catastrophic outbreaks of disease. Commercial banana plantations are also especially vulnerable to the rapid spread of diseases and pests because the plants are planted closely together, usually between 1,600 to 2,000 banana plants per hectare, although densities reach as high as 4,400 plants/hectare. Breeding Programs and Challenges The first banana breeding programs began in 1922 at the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture in Trinidad and at the Banana Research Station in Jamaica. The United Fruit Company launched a banana breeding project at La Lima, Honduras, in 1959. Wisely, the company initiated the program by first sponsoring a germplasm collecting trip to centers of banana diversity in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Today, the banana industry appears to be on the eve of another major varietal turnover at least as dramatic as the demise of Gros Michel as a commercial variety because of the rapid spread of Panama disease in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Black Sigatoka, a devastating leaf disease caused by another fungus (Mycosphaerella fijiensis), is the culprit this time. Black Sigatoka was first detected in the Sigatoka Valley of Fiji in 1963 and reached Zambia by 1973 and Gabon by 1979, and is now widespread in banana growing areas of Africa, including Uganda where bananas are one of the basic staples.

19 The virulent new pathogen began damaging banana plantations in Honduras in 1972 and reached Costa Rica in 1980. By 1981, black Sigatoka had spread south to Colombia and Venezuela. Gros Michel and the Cavendish group of bananas are highly susceptible to black Sigatoka. Many traditional bananas and some plantains are also vulnerable to infestations of black Sigatoka. For example, black Sigatoka is drastically reducing the number of banana trees around Kampala, Uganda, an area known for its diversity of cultivars As might be expected, the price of bananas is climbing in Uganda, a worrisome trend considering the importance of bananas in the regional diet. Chemical control for black Sigatoka is expensive. In Central America and Colombia, fungicides need to be applied up to 45 times a year to control the disease. The steep rise in banana prices in the 1990s in U.S. stores is partly a reflection of the increased spraying costs to control black Sigatoka. To help combat the global threat of black Sigatoka, scientists are busy screening Musa germplasm for resistance to the disease. Some resistance found in wild species and some cooking bananas, but they also have undesirable traits from an agronomic and marketing viewpoint. A prototype banana variety has been genetically engineered to resist black sigatoka in a Belgian laboratory, but countries are reluctant to plant it because of controversies surround GM foods (The Wall Street Journal, 26 December 2002, p. 1) One scientist, Dr. Philip Rowe, is trying to find a successor to the Cavendish banana, and he feels he has at least a partial answer: Goldfinger. Goldfinger is a hybrid of bananas from Brazil and Southeast Asia (WSJ, 10 April 1995, p. 1). Goldfinger took years to develop because of difficulty of obtaining viable seed from cross-pollinated bananas. Dr. Rowe used to work for the United Fruit Company (now Chiquita), but now works for a Honduran agricultural research foundation. Goldfinger is resistant to a number of diseases and pests, but has met with resistance by the two main banana corporations exporting to North America: Dole and Chiquita Reluctance to take on Goldfinger stems from the judgement that it is not an acceptable dessert banana (it is considered by the companies to be too acidic and too starchy)

20 The Search for Novelty Consumers are apparently willing to try new banana varieties and some farmers are responding to emerging market opportunities. For example, one family farm, called Seaside Banana Gardens, located 12 miles from Santa Barbara, California, has 50 varieties of banana planted on just 11 acres (New York Times, 5 April 1995, p. B6). The varieties produced on this farm include such tempting selections as: Cardaba with salmon-colored flesh Ladyfinger with a hint of strawberry flavor Jamaican Red, gold-red color and complex flavor Blue Java, creamy texture, especially good for ice cream Ae Ae from Hawaii has green and white stripes Manzano has a crunchy texture and tastes like an apple when raw, and pineapple when cooked Harry and David, a mail-order catalogue company based in Medford, Oregon (tel. 800 547 3033) offers Ruby Crme Bananas at $21.95 for 2 lbs. 12 oz. (net weight; Summer 1998 catalogue), considerably more than regular bananas in a supermarkets (about 10 times more expensive!). The Ruby Cremes look a bit like Fe'i bananas, and are described in Harry and David's Summer 1998 catalogue thus: "Our Ruby Cremes have a complex character, a delicate flavor, ad a certain je ne sais quoi you must experience first-hand. We offer only the pick of the crop, tended by hand, then rushed, fresh and wonderful to anyone who appreciates the best life has to offer". This farm is exploiting a niche market for novel bananas: they sell for $7-15 a pound, much more than the standard issue Cavendish. The farm ships mail orders and is located at: 6823 Santa Barbara Avenue, Ventura, CA 93001; telephone is (805) 643 4061. Another company selling unusual varieties of banana is Going Bananas (goingbananas.com); based in Homestead, Florida, it has 75 varieties that can be order online.

To cater to growers supplying niche markets for novelty bananas, several companies sell a diverse array of banana plants online, including: Bananaplants.com This company sells such varieties as Ice Cream Banana; Cardaba (from the Philippines); Pisang Raja; Rajapuri; Red Iholena; African Rhinohorn (which

21 produces 3 lb bananas); Apple Banana; Goldfinger; French Horn; Monkey Finger; and the Rose Banana.

Breadfruit
The starchy fruits usually weigh between 1-5 kilograms. The cannon ball-sized fruits are baked, roasted, boiled, steamed, or fried. Breadfruit is an important food in parts of the tropical Pacific. Some Polynesians preserve surplus fruits by burying them in pits. Can be stored thus for a year, a food security measure. In pits, the breadfruit ferments and the paste is baked before eating. Breadfruit chips are now a common snack food in the Pacific. The carbohydrate-rich fruits are contain significant amounts of thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinamide, and vitamin C. One indication of the importance of breadfruit to the robust inhabitants of the Society Islands is the impressive number of times the tree or its fruit appear in the sensuous paintings of Paul Gauguin. Breadfruit is also featured on French Polynesia's twenty-franc coin. PowerPoint #5: Breadfruit Diffusion Originated in New Guinea. As people moved out from New Guinea and Southeast Asia to colonize the Pacific between 2000 BC and 800 AD, breadfruit went with them. Polynesian voyagers took suckers from roots as well as seeds. Important crop to take, because only Pandanus (screwpine) and cocount available as significant plant food sources in Polynesia before the arrival of people. Polynesians also took other vegetatively reproduced crops such as banana and taro. In Polynesia, perennial tree crops are the major sources of calories. Breadfruit was the centerpiece in the infamous mutiny of the H.M.S. Bounty. In 1789, King George III dispatched Captain Bligh to Tahiti to secure breadfruit trees for British possessions in the Caribbean, where the trees would serve as an abundant and cheap source of food for slaves.

22 But on the return voyage unrest grew among the deckhands in part because precious freshwater on board was being used to keep a thousand young breadfruit trees alive. One of the first acts the rebellious crew performed after taking control of the Bounty was to toss the breadfruit trees overboard. The crew returned to Tahiti to pick up supplies and wives, and then spent their exile in Pitcairn, a desolate island in the Pacific, where the ship was set fire and sunk. Bligh survived several weeks in a longboat after being cast adrift in the Pacific. He eventually returned to England. In 1997, 39 descendants of the mutineers were still living on Pitcairn Island, and they were the subjects of a recent book: Serpent in Paradise by Dea Birkett (Anchor Books, New York, 1997). Three Hollywood films made about this adventure: 1. Mutiny on the Bounty (1935), in black and white starring Charles Laughton and Clark Gable. 2. Mutiny on the Bounty (1962), starring Marlon Brando as Fletcher, the mutining first officer, Trevor Howard as Captain Bligh, and Richard Harris as one of the crew members. Excellent film, with strong story line involving breadfruit. After filming, Marlon Brando marries the Tahitian Princess and has several children by her. He buys an island in the Society Island chain near Tahiti. 3. The Bounty (1984), starring Anthony Hopkins as Captain Bligh. Depicts the tossing of breadfruit seedlings overboard, but does not otherwise mention breadfruit much, nor the water rationing on board that contributed to mutiny. Blighs second attempt to bring breadfruit to the New World succeeded. In 1792, young breadfruit trees were gathered on Tahiti and Timor and 333 of them planted in the St. Vincent Botanic Garden, the earliest botanic garden established by colonial powers in the New World. A further 347 young breadfruit trees were unloaded at Port Royal, Jamaica.

Film #1: Mutiny on the Bounty (1962) with Marlon Brando, Trevor Howard, and Richard Harris Non-Food Uses of Breadfruit In the Society Islands, breadfruit is used for a wide variety of medicinal purposes, including treatments for coughs, bronchitis, asthma, and ear problems. In Polynesia and Micronesia, the latex is used for caulking boats, and in some parts of breadfruit's range, the white sap is used in the preparation of sticky mixtures to trap birds.

23

Breadfruit's Origin and Near Relatives The origins of breadfruit are unclear, but it probably arose by spontaneous hybridization among two or more wild species of Artocarpus, possibly in New Guinea. Breadfruit is found wild in swamp forests bordering rivers of New Guinea. Wild breadfruit trees in the forests of New Guinea are often individually owned and cared for by villagers. Traditional Selections and Variation Some varieties produce fruit for up to five months, whereas others produce fruit all year round. Selection has been strong for seedless forms and these are propagated by planting suckers cut from the extensive surface roots. Seeded forms are propagated from seed or can be cloned by planting suckers. The roasted seeds provide a nutritious snack. Several hundred varieties of breadfruit are grown throughout the humid tropics, with the greatest diversity occurring in the Pacific. Competition from other crops and foodstuffs is prompting the decline of breadfruit in some parts of its range, especially the increasing habit of eating bread made from imported wheat flour.

Jackfruit
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is a near relative of breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) Whereas breadfruit originated in New Guinea, wild populations of jackfruit are found in the tropical forests of the Western Ghats in southwestern India. These highland forests are highly endangered and have largely been cleared for agriculture. Jackfruit has been introduced in many tropical regions for its fruit , which typically is the size of a basketball. Jackfruit bears starchy fruits on the trunk and large branches (cauliflory), rather than at the end of branches. Fruits vary considerably in shape and external color (brown to green) because they are backyard trees grown from seeds rather than commercial clones and therefore are genetically diverse PowerPoint #6: Jackfruit

24 Jackfruit is eaten in many forms: Locally, as fresh fruit. The fruits do not travel well for long distances, although growers in southern Florida are sending some fresh fruit to markets in New York by truck. As chips, e.g. Mt Say Kh Jack Fruit Chips from Vietnam, sold in ethnic food stores in the U.S.A. As a trail mix. Friedas in Los Angeles also sells dried slices of jackfruit for snacks. As canned fruit in syrup.

In the 1990s, some growers in Dade County in southern Florida started growing jackfruit for the U.S. market. Indian immigrants, particularly, have generated a niche market for this fruit in the U.S. Commercial growers of jackfruit in southern Florida can places orders for planting stock with: Garden of Delights in Davie, Florida, which sells jackfruit trees for commercial growers online (gardenofdelights.com). Fairchild Gardens, Miami, which stocks 20 jackfruit varieties.

BEVERAGES AND CANDY Coffee

Several species of the genus Coffea have been domesticated. The two most important are: arabica coffee and robusta coffee. Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica): Provides the best-tasting coffee. Occurs wild in highland parts of SW Ethiopia, Boma Plateau of SE Sudan, and extreme northern Kenya. It is found in forest in a relatively narrow altitudinal belt between 1,370-1,830 m. Only about 400,000 ha of forest containing wild coffee were left in Ethiopia in mid-1980s and the habitat for wild arabica coffee continues to shrink. Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora): Robusta coffee is not as good as arabica coffee in terms of quality, but it is adapted to the lowland tropics and is used in blends. Robusta coffee is found in cheaper coffees, particularly instant freeze-dried or powdered coffee. Occurs wild in Central Africa in the Congo River Basin.

25

History of coffee Ethiopians have been roasting coffee beans and make hot coffee long before it became a popular global beverage. Arabs are credited with first roasting coffee beans to make a beverage around 1300 in Yemen, but Ethiopians discovered coffee making. However, plantings were small and for domestic consumption. Coffee was (and still is) esteemed for its ability to augment mental powers. For thousands of years, arabica coffee was gathered in the wild and from home gardens in its area of origin. A few, small commercial plantings of coffee were established in Yemen in the 14th and 15th centuries (on terraces with irrigation), but it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that coffee was planted extensively. Ironically, it was European settlers, especially from Britain, that established coffee as a commercial crop in its home continent: Africa. In fact, the first commercial plantings of coffee in Africa were in central and southern Kenya, just south of the natural range of coffee. The drama of early pioneer life of European settlers who adopted coffee as their main cash crop has been captured in books and film. The trials and tribulations of English settlers planting coffee in Kenya in the early part of this century has been described in the book Flame Trees of Thika, which has also been made into a film (carried by PBS television in the U.S. in the 1980s). Film #2: Out of Africa (1985) with Meryl Streep and Robert Redford Emergence of Cafs Venetians brought coffee to Europe. Romans began drinking coffee around 1600; previously they drank tea from herbs, cider, and fruit juices. No caffee latte or espresso in Italy before 1625. Coffee houses or cafs in Europe were initially the gathering place for upper classes. France's first coffee house was established in the port of Marseilles in 1671, which obtained its coffee bean shipments from Alexandria, Egypt. The first caf in Paris was established in 1672. The Caf Procope in Paris has been operating continuously on the Rue de l'Ancienne Comdie since 1686. Customers of Caf Procope have included: Benjamin Franklin

26 Voltaire Robespierre Marat Napoleon Bonaparte Hugo Rousseau Balzac In England, a Lebanese entrepreneur opened the first coffee house in the country at the Angel Inn in Oxford in 1650, and others soon followed in Oxford. Tillyard's coffee house, Oxford, was instrumental in the formation of the Royal Society (equivalent to the National Academy of Sciences in the U.S.). London's first coffee house established in 1652 Two coffee houses in Change Alley, Cornhill, London, gave birth to the Stock Exchange A handbill printed in London in 1652 proclaimed that coffee: "Quickens the spirits and makes the heart litesome...is good against sore eyes..excellent to prevent and cure the dropsy, gout, and scurvy.." The term tipping originated in a coffee house: At the Turk's Head coffee house, Westminster, London, a box was marked T.I.P. (To Insure Promptness) British coffee houses frequented by such luminaries as: Milton (author of Paradise Lost) Sir Joshua Reynolds Adam Smith (political economist) Religious communities in some regions were opposed to the emergence of coffee houses. In Turkey, for example, Muslim leaders tried to suppress the opening of coffee house because they were thought to compete with attendance at Mosques. In Italy, some Catholics were opposed to the drink, but Pope Clement VIII (15921605) tried and liked coffee, and blessed it as a Christian drink. The Pope argued that there was no reason to let coffee trade fall into the hands of the infidels. Opposition in London came from tavern owners who did not like the competition. In London, some women became disturbed at the amount of time their husbands were spending in coffee houses. In England, women were excluded from coffee houses, except as servers. The petition drawn up by women in London in 1674 read as follows:

27 "The Womens Petition against coffee representing to public consideration the Grand inconveniences accruing to their sex from the excessive use of that drying, enfeebling liquor" The men's response in London in 1674: "The Mens Answer to the Womens Petition against coffee: vindicating their own performances, and the virtues of their liquor, from the undeserved aspersions latest cast upon them, in their Scandalous Pamphlet" Powerpoint #7: Coffee Contemporary Coffee Drinking Scene In Syria, coffee flavored with cardamom a perennial herb, native of India. In Mexico, coffee is often flavored with cinnamon. In Britain, coffee bars, not coffee houses, revived after 1950 with the introduction of espresso machines (mostly made by Gaggia in Italy). Espresso machines force nearly boiling water through ground, dark-roasted coffee. They also contain a small, narrow pipe that conducts steam, used in foaming milk. Espresso coffee has been catching on in North America since the 1980s. In the U.S., espresso coffee bars have really taken off in the last twenty years. Witness, for example, the emergence of Starbucks (based in Seattle, Washington) a major corporation which has gone nation-wide, including Orlando airport, and has recently opened up coffee bars abroad, such as in London.

28 Minneapolis-based Caribou Coffee is the second largest coffeehouse chain in the U.S. Caribou coffee (www.caribou-coffee.com) was founded in 1992. Caribous sales pitch: Life is short. Stay awake for it. Several bookstore chains, such as Barnes and Nobles and Border, now feature espresso coffee bars in their stores. Main kind of coffees served in coffee bars: Espresso is very strong, black coffee. Cappuccino is espresso coffee with frothy white with milk, named after the white habits of Capuchin monks. The frothy milk is produced by passing steam through milk. Sometimes topped with powdered chocolate or cinnamon. Caffe Latte is espresso coffee with warm milk Frappuccino cold coffee and milk flavored with vanilla. Starbucks sells a bottled version in food stores. Varieties Below were some coffees for sale in 1996 at Swings coffee house (established in 1916) near the White House in Washington, D.C.: Variety Jamaican Blue Mountain Hawaiian Kona Ethiopian Yergacheffe Ethiopian Mocha Harrar Kenya AA Sumatra Mandheling La Cuesta Nicaragua Costa Rican Tarrazu Mexican Altura Description Medium roast, wonderful body, worlds fines Medium roast, light body, striking character, aromatic Medium roast, very distinguished, moderate body Medium roast, fruity characteristics, acidic tones City roast, very rich, hearty, complex and delicate winey undertones City roast, very developed, long finish, low acid City roast, exclusive, light body, distinguished City roast, well balanced with exceptional flavor City roast, boasts a rich and well-balanced flavor, clean finish $/lb. 35.00 15.00 7.70 7.70 7.70 7.70 7.70 6.90 6.90

Note: City roast means a darker roast than medium. Barnie's (Florida) mail order catalogue included the following coffees: Variety Description Jamaican Blue Mountain Full body, low acidity, mellow Hawaiian Kona Light body, medium acidity, sweet

$/lb. 49.99 24.99

29 Puerto Rican Yauco Selecto Ethiopian Yergacheffe Costa Rican Tres Rios Bella Vista Haitian Bleu Kenya AA Tanzanian Peaberry Brazilian South Minas Mocha Lavado Sumatra Mandheling Java Kalistat Estate Papua New Guinea Mocha Java Colombian Bucaraamanga Full body, medium acidity, rich Medium body, spicy acidity, sweet Full body, high acidity, fine aroma Full body, low acidity, slightly sweet Full body, sharp acidity, slightly sweet Medium body, sharp acidity, flavorful Light body, medium acidity, light cup Heavy body, dry acidity, intense flavor Full body, low acidity, creamy aftertaste Full body, medium acidity, sweet Full body, nice balance of acidity & aroma Full body, medium acidity, mild flavor 16.99 10.99 9.99 9.99 9.99 9.99 9.99 9.99 9.99 9.99 9.99 8.99

Note: Body refers to "the strength and viscosity of the coffee in the mouth. Body is described in such terms as heavy, full, medium, or light". Acidity is "the coffee's burst of flavor or its snap in the mouth, mostly on the sides of the tongue. Acidity is described in such terms as soft, bright, winey, and intense". Aroma is "the enticing bouquet released by freshly-ground and brewed coffee. Aroma is described as sweet, fragrant, rich, bold, and mellow". Some of the premium coffees: Blue Mountain, Jamaica, limestone soils. Pure Blue Mountain coffee sells for $50/lb, and is exported to only 6 countries. Kona, Hawaii (volcanic soils) Mocha, named after a former port in Yemen. This coffee is famous for the chocolate nuance to its flavor. Mocha was cut off from the Red Sea by a sandbar in early 1800s. Mocha now known as Al Mukha.

Many companies are now selling roasted and ground beans online, such as: CoffeeAM.com (Woodstock, Georgia) Coffee Bean Corral (Phoenix, Arizona) Cuppers Coffee Company (Salt Lake City) E-Java.com (Auburn, California) FreshCoffeeNow.com (Atlanta) Gevalia.com (Gavle, Sweden) Godiva Illy (Naples, Italy)

30 Peets Coffee and Tea (Berkeley, California) Starbucks (Seattle) Special Role of Botanic Gardens The Amsterdam Botanic Garden (now part of the University of Amsterdam) received just two coffee plants from Java in 1706. Some seedlings from the Amsterdam Botanic Garden were also sent to the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, in 1714. From the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, coffee seedlings were sent to Martinique in 1720, but only 1 survived the journey. That one seedling started the coffee industry on Martinique. From Martinique, progeny sent to: Jamaica in 1730 (leading to development of Blue Mountain coffee) and Haiti (then Saint-Domingue) about the same time. Also, from Martinique coffee seedlings sent to many tropical American countries. From Amsterdam, seedlings from those plants were sent to Dutch Guiana (now Surinam) around 1713. The Edinburgh Botanic Garden obtained coffee seedlings from Amsterdam and sent seedlings to Malawi (then Nyasaland) in 1878. Coffee Producing Areas Best growing areas for coffee are tropical mountains (but not at high altitudes where hard frosts occur) with fertile soils, derived from volcanic ash or lava, or from limestone. Brazil is the biggest producer. Brazil accounts for 30% of coffee traded on world market. Most of the coffee in Brazil is grown in So Paulo State, at an elevation of 1,000 meters on rich alfisols (terra roxa) derived from weathered basalt. Other main producing state in Brazil is Paran. Much of the early wealth of So Paulo generated on large coffee estates (fazendas) starting in the late 1700s. Santos is the main export port for coffee produced in Brazil. Many of the coffee growing areas of Brazil are prone to frost damage. Major freezes, such as in 1974, can cause a jump in the world price of coffee because Brazil is such a large producer. Coffee the single most important source of (legal) foreign exchange for: Colombia El Salvador Uganda Burundi Rwanda

31 Ethiopia The Growing Market for Sustainable Coffees Sustainable coffees is a trade name for organic, shade, and fair trade coffees. Organic means grown without the use of artificial fertilizers and pesticides. Shade means coffee grown under shade trees, such as Gliricidia, which in addition to enriching the soil with nitrogen (because many of the shade trees are legumes and fix nitrogen through symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria), provide habitat for some birds and other animals. Shade coffee is thus regarded as biodiversity-friendly. Traditionally, much of the coffee grown in central America and Colombia has been under leguminous shade trees that help fix nitrogen and thereby enrich the soils. The trees have also provided habitat for wildlife, including migrating birds from North American that spend the winter in tropical climates. Now many coffee producers are moving to open-sun coffee production because yields are higher, especially when fertilizers are used. Some specialty coffees now advertise themselves as Bird Friendly Coffee, hoping to attract customers concerned with the environmental impacts of their consumption habits. Fair trade means coffee grown by small farmers organized in cooperatives that are guaranteed a minimum contract price. Yields may be lower with sustainable coffees or the cost of production higher, but they fetch a premium price in the market. The market for sustainable coffees globally was worth about US$500 million in 2001, but is growing. Breeding Challenges and Genetic Resources Latin American coffee plantations are based on few introductions, and Asian coffee plantations also rest on a narrow genetic base. Coffee rust, caused by a fungus (Hemileia vastatrix), is the no. 1 disease problem Coffee rust wiped out commercial coffee production on Sri Lanka after it appeared in 1869. Coffee rust reached Brazil in 1970 Various theories as to how it got to Brazil: 1. Inadvertently on a VARIG flight from Lagos to Rio de Janeiro 2. Wind dispersal of spores 3. Introduction on illegally introduced breeding material 4. Plot to undercut Brazilian coffee production By 1983 coffee rust had reached Colombia and Panama Sources of resistance to coffee rust:

32 Ethiopian coffee of particular interest But Ethiopia is not releasing coffee germplasm Illustrates the south-south tug of war over genes, rather than a North-South conflict. A major problem with resistance breeding for coffee rust is that at least 25 races identified by early 1970s, and by 1986, 33 races identified. In SW Ethiopia, the genepool of wild populations of arabica coffee are shrinking due to: Deforestation to create more space for crops, a result of population pressure. Natural and escaped man-made fires, especially during El Nio years when the climate is drier, as in 1998. Globally, coffee is a $55 billion a year business, so a lot rests on the long term safety of coffees genetic resources.

Checklist of place names for 1st map quiz:

Cities Amsterdam Paris Santos, Brazil Islands Canary Islands Cuba Dominican Republic Fiji Jamaica Java Madagascar Martinique New Guinea Puerto Rico Tahiti Countries Brazil Burundi Colombia

33 Costa Rica El Salvador Ethiopia Guatemala Honduras Jamaica Kenya Nicaragua Rwanda Uganda Venezuela Yemen