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OUR QUANTIZED WORLD:

ABOUT THE PHYSICAL MASS

Dezso Sarkadi
Research Centre of Fundamental Physics
RFP Hungary March, 2020.
dsarkadi@gmail.com
https://sarkadidezso.academia.edu/research#papers

In this paper, we assign a two-dimensional Euclidean mass vector to the scalar physical mass.
We give an alternative interpretation of the quantized electromagnetic field and the Bohr model of
hydrogen atom. The generalization of a quantized harmonic oscillator brings us to the concept of an
exponential oscillator whose energy spectrum is a simple geometric series. The concept of exponen-
tial oscillator presented here seems to be suitable for modeling both the micro-world and the macro-
world.

1. The concept of mass-vector

Quantization of the classical free electromagnetic field leads to so-called field-oscillators, whose energies
have the known formula
E(n, )   n 1/ 2 ;  n  0, 1, 2,... , (1.1)

where  is the frequency of the field-oscillator and n is the quantum number of excitation of the field-oscil-
lator of the given frequency  . A physical object of this energy is called quantized harmonic oscillator, which
is the result of canonical quantization of the harmonic oscillator of classical physics. The quantized harmonic
oscillator (QHO) is capable of emitting or absorbing quantum energy. QHO derivation is included in intro-
ductory physical textbooks and is characterized by zero-point energy, which is not emitted by QHO and is
not zero value at zero-point, indicating that the oscillator kinetic energy does not disappear at absolute zero-
point temperature.
Electromagnetic field-oscillators are formed by the thermal radiation of atoms and particles of the black
body. The masses of the emitting particles can be written as follows

1 1
m(n, )  n2   Dn22 ,  n  0, 1, 2,... . (1.2)
2 2

The variable  introduced here is called a massfrequency. The dimensioning factor D has unit value provid-
ing mass (energy) scale1. The quantized space oscillators are generated by radiating particles (Bohr frequency
condition)
E (n, )  m(n  1, )  m(n, )   n  1/ 2    n  1/ 2 2 ,  n  0, 1, 2,... . (1.3)

The energy of the emitted or absorbed light quantum (photon) as it is known

Erad ()      E (n  1, )  E (n, )  2 ,  n  0, 1, 2,... , (1.4)

which is independent of the excitation quantum number n. This formula is the definition of Transition Energy
(commonly known as Transition Energy). According to formula Eq. (1.2), the energy can also be given in the
frequency-square dimension, specifically, in the SI system, the unit of energy in the frequency-square unit

1 Joule    D0  D2  D 1 Hz 2 . (1.5)

1 In my paper I use the concept of energy or mass in the same sense.

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When writing the formula, we assumed that the lowest value (lower limit) of the frequency 0 was the Planck
constant. From this point onwards the dimensioning factor D will not be indicated separately. It can be seen
from the derivation that the mass of the emitting particle may even depend on an additive constant mass

1
m(n, )  n22  const.,  n  0,1, 2,... . (1.6)
2

By convention, the value of the additive constant is zero for objects having zero rest mass. For particles hav-
ing rest mass the additive constant will be different from zero.
A two-dimensional massfrequency vector may be assigned to the radiating particle

 1 
μ(n, )  (s, r )   n, r  ,  n  0, 1, 2,...; r  const.)  , (1.7)
 2 
whose square is
1
μ 2  m  s 2  r 2  n 2 2  r 2 ,  n  0, 1, 2,... . (1.8)
2

Thus, the radiating mass consists of two parts, one is the variable mass, called the self-momentum mass (this
is the mass s2), and the second is the constant residual mass (this is the mass r2). The residual mass is zero for
particles in the EM radiation field.
According to the result, the mass can be assigned a right-angled triangle whose diagonal is the mass-fre-
quency, one of the catches is the self-momentum frequency, and the other is the residual mass-frequency

Figure 1.1: The massfrequency triangle.

Figure 1.2: Energy scheme of the quantized harmonic oscillator [1.1].

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A prominent concept in quantum mechanics is the concept of transient energy, which for QHO is a constant:
 , which the oscillator can radiate or absorb. In Figure 1.2. the diagram summarizes the energy scheme of
a QHO (photon oscillator).

The mass-frequency vector can be interpreted as the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom [1.2]

2 R
m(n, )  μ2  2
 m0  2  m0 ,  n  1, 2, 3, ... , (1.9)
n n

where m(n, ) is the excited mass of the hydrogen atom, R is the constant energy of Rydberg and m0 is the
ground state mass of the hydrogen atom. The mass structure of the hydrogen atom

 R
s  , r  m0 ,  n  1, 2, 3, ... . (1.10)
n n
2
The self-momentum mass s of the hydrogen atom is the variable component, the residual mass r 2 is con-
stant, what is the ground state mass of the hydrogen atom. The energy of the emitted or absorbed quantum
(photon) as it is known

Erad (n )  n    m(n, )  m(n  1, )  n2 ,  n  1, 2, 3, ... . (1.11)

2. Primary physical interaction

The realization that the scalar mass can be traced back to the square of the length of a two-dimensional
Euclidean vector provides an opportunity for a simple mathematical description of physical interactions. The
interaction, which in most cases is related to mass, leads to a change in mass. The simplest way to understand
the interaction of two masses is to add the frequency vectors assigned to the masses

mr  r2   μa  μb    sa  sb    ra  rb   sr2  rr2 .

2 2 2
(2.1)

Of course, the resulting mass can also be written in the following form

 .
2
mr  ma  mb  2 ma mb cos   ma  mb (2.2)

where  is the angle enclosed by the frequency vectors. The bonding energy

Eb  2 ma mb 1  cos    0. (2.3)

The interaction between the mass and the electromagnetic field (photon) is taken into account so that the
frequency of the residual mass of the photon is zero, and the frequency of its self-momentum is different
from zero
mr   sa  sPh   ra2 .
2
(2.4)

A similar equation can be written for the interaction of mass and photon

mr  ma  EPh  2 ma EPh cos . (2.5)

Application example: Electro-weak interaction, calculation of the lepton masses [2.1, 2.2].

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3. The concept of the exponential oscillator
According to the theoretical model of black body radiation, both the black body and the cavity formed
by the black body consist of a set of quantized harmonic oscillators. There is a thermodynamic equilibrium
between the black body wall and the cavity, the number of quantized harmonic oscillators at a given fre-
quency ω in the black body wall and its cavity and thus their total energy can be considered the same at a
given temperature. At each frequency, there is a continuous exchange of energy between the cavity and the
wall of the black body. The number of QHOs (and thus their total energy) is determined by Planck's radiation
law as a function of frequency and temperature (this is a function of radiation energy density)

2 
  , T   2 3  / kT
. (3.1)
c e 1

The total radiant energy at a given temperature is an integral of the energy density function by frequency


2 
0 2c3 e/ kT 1 d   T ;   1,380649 10 J / K ,
4 23
(3.2)

where  is the famous Stefan-Boltzmann constant [3.2].

To our knowledge, the elements and their isotopes can only be formed by the very high temperature
synthesis of neutrons (or hydrogen atoms). Atoms in the full periodic system appear to be formed only by
the high-temperature explosion of supernova stars. In its short life, the supernova loses a tremendous amount
of mass (energy), mainly due to electromagnetic and neutrino radiation. The synthesis, or nuclear bonding,
of atoms (nuclei) is created through this complex radiation, providing the "mass defect" characteristic of at-
oms (nuclei). It was a few years ago that the idea that the bonding energy of the nuclei could be combined
with the radiation of the high-temperature black body of supernova stars was born in my mind. Planck's law
of radiation is valid to electromagnetic radiation, which assumes the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution due
to a single spin of a photon. At very high temperatures, the half-spin neutrino radiation also closely follows
the Maxwell-Boltzmann statistic.
The essence of the radiation model is that each atom behaves as a unique quantized harmonic oscillator
at very high temperatures. The frequency of atomic oscillators is determined by the mass of the atom. The
highest excitation level of the atom is represented by the loose set of neutrons. The lowest energy state of the
atom (zero point) is the bound state of the atom having “A” number of bound constituents (neutrons and
protons) at ordinary temperatures. In the radiation model, the separation energy curve of the atoms in the
full periodic table corresponds to the radiation curve of a sufficiently high temperature black body if the
radiation frequency is chosen proportional to the square root of the atomic masses.
The realization of the radiation nuclear model determined the atomic masses with remarkable accuracy:
with two fitting parameters, the accuracy of the model reached the accuracy of the five-parameter Weizsäcker
liquid drop model [3.3, 3.4].
The nuclear energy spectra of the nuclei do not correspond to those of either the quantized harmonic
oscillator or the hydrogen atom. Figure 3.1. shows the energy scheme of the 116Sn tin isotope, which shows
the characteristic of the mass oscillator. The figure assumes two types of potentials, the left-hand energy
scheme merely assumes the (strong) interaction potential of the neutrons, which is most similar to the mass
oscillator energy scheme. The right energy scheme in addition contains the repulsive potential of protons.
The following concept of mass oscillator reflects the energy scheme of the nucleus. The transient energies
of a mass oscillator are not constant, as is the case with a quantized harmonic oscillator. The transient energies
decrease exponentially with the excitation quantum number

M n  DM 2 1  Qn   D4M 1  Qn  ; (n  1, 2, 3, ...),
(3.3)
M n1 / M n  Q  const.; 0  Q  1.

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Figure 3.1.: Energy scheme of mass-oscillator similarity for nuclear energy scheme
(shell model of nuclear physics) [3.5].

The definition of the exponential oscillator (3.3) contains the square of the atomic mass, the fourth power of
the atomic frequency. According to my many years of research, the concept of the exponential oscillator made
it possible parallel to interpret both gravity and nuclear interaction. The lowest energy (g.s.) state of an ex-
ponential oscillator
M 02  M 2 1  Q  , (3.4)

from which using the formula of a decreasing infinite geometric series

M 2  M 02 / 1  Q   M 02 1  Q  Q2  ...Q  . (3.5)

It follows that the highest excitation state of an atom is the resting mass of the atom. Especially in the case of
the hydrogen atom (proton) and neutron, the highest excitation states correspond to their resting mass. In
the case of heavier atoms, the excitation states of the protons or neutrons that form the nucleus are reduced,
thus ensuring the bonding of the atoms.
Radiation spectrum of the exponential oscillator

M 02
En  Qn M 2 =Qn =M 02  Qn +Qn1 +...Q  ; (n  1, 2, 3, ...). (3.6)
1 Q

According to my many years of research, the dimensionless parameter Q of the exponential oscillator is a
universal constant
Q  2 / 9. (3.7)

The parameter Q is closely related to the fusion temperature of atom formation (atomic masses are cal-
culated in Dalton [3.6, 3.7])

1  Q  1  2 / 9  exp(1 Da / kT fus )  T fus  5.436... 1013 K . (3.7)

This is the temperature required for nuclear fusion of the atoms of the full periodic system, about 54 trillion
degrees Kelvin. Details of the new mass oscillator-based core model can be found in my works [3.6, 3.7].

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4. Gravity interaction
In gravitational interaction, the mass is at the second power, that is, the mass frequency at the fourth
power. The known form of gravity corresponds to the special case of an exponential oscillator. The gravita-
tional self-energy of the mass M can be written as (R is the gravitational radius of the mass)

1 M2 16 M
2
Eb   G  Q , (4.1)
2 R R

where the radiation spectrum of the exponential oscillator (3.6) is taken into account.
According to my recognized hypothesis "QFIZIKA" [5.6, 5.7], the numerical value of the gravitational con-
stant in the SI system is equal to the power of the dimensionless Q = 2/9, approximating

G  2Q16 SI  6.67408... 1011 m3 kg 1 s 2 , (Q  2 / 9). (4.2)

The primary purpose of introducing an exponential oscillator was to interpret the nuclear spectrum of
atoms. It can be seen that the theoretical model of the exponential oscillator contains, in a special case, the
known macroscopic gravitational interaction. On this basis, it can be concluded that nuclear interaction is a
microscopic form of the phenomenon of macroscopic gravity.

5. The Titius-Bode rule

What may have happened in the small, seems to have been realized in the big way. It turned out that the
mechanism of mass oscillator operation can be clearly demonstrated in the tendency of the macroscopic Solar
system [5.1, 5.2, 5.3]. The Titius-Bode Rule, or Bode Rule, is the observation that the orbits of the Solar system
planets follow one another in simple geometric series. The same is obtained in the energy scheme of a mass
oscillator, the mass levels (energy levels) of a particle can be given by geometric series.
Planetary orbits Kepler’s III. law [5.4] defines with great precision, whose simple form (neglecting the
mass of planets besides the mass of the Sun) is as follows

an32n  GM , n  2 / Tn , (n  0, 1, 2...), (5.1)

where an is the major axis of the planet, Tn is the orbital time of the planet, G is the gravitational constant of
Newton and M is the mass of the Sun. Given that gravity is considered to be a second order interaction, the
energy of the entire Solar system is proportional to the orbital frequency square 2n , special the 02 , which is
the orbital frequency square of Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun

a0302  GM , 0  2 / T0 , (n  0, 1, 2...). (5.2)

Like the hydrogen atom, the excitatory states of the solar system have larger circulatory rays. In the case of
second order interactions, the energy of the Solar system depends on the Q parameter in addition to the
planetary masses

an3n2   a0Qn/3   0Qn/2   GM , n  2 / Tn , (n  0, 1, 2...),

3 2
(5.3)

whereby the rays of the planets actually increase in geometric sequence

an  a0Q  n /3 , (n  0, 1, 2...). (5.4)

According to my investigations so far, both for gravity and strong interaction (nuclear forces), the parameter
Q is seemed of universal value, close to the 2/9 rational number [5.5, 5.6]. Accordingly

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  9 / 2   1.65096...
1/3 1/3
Q (5.5)

According to the Titius-Bode rule, the planetary distances increase by 2 power base, but this is just a rough
approximation as the power base value given here. I fitted the formula Eq. (5.4) to the known planetary
distances, so called in astronomical units. The Earth-Sun distance in this system is exactly one unit, so the
formula for Earth-distance

an3  a0Qn/3  Q3Qn/3  1, a0  Q3 , Q  2 / 9. (5.6)

I have fitted the Q-based exponential function to the most important planets (Figure 5.1). Mean and standard
deviation of Q values for orbits of planets

2
1 N  Qcalc  Q 
Q  0.230905...  2 / 9  0.222...,    Q   11 %.
N 1 n1 
(5.7)


Figure 5.1: Fitting the planetary distances of the solar system

with the exponential function Eq. (5.4).

The most important finding for this section is that the planetary distances of the solar system are approx-
imately exponentially quantized. This fact corresponds to the concept of mass oscillator introduced in this
work, which also seems suitable for describing the energy spectrum of atoms (nuclei). This is further evidence
that a certain quantized behavior of nature exists for macroscopic objects.
According to the current, not widely accepted official explanation, the Titius-Bode rule is based on grav-
itational trajectory resonances. The real physical background of exponential quantization puts the T-B rule
in a new light. Obviously, more research is needed, the opportunities are there; partly from the orbits of the
solar system's planetary moons and partly from the newly discovered exoplanets [5.7].
In my nuclear physics research, I also rely on the concept of mass oscillator, my results can be found in
[3.6, 3.7]. The nucleus appears to be the same exponentially quantized physical system as the Solar system.

References
[1.1] https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Energy-Levels-of-the-one-dimensional-harmonic-oscil-
lator_fig1_228531722
[1.2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model
[2.1] https://www.academia.edu/41287029/A_LEPTON_TÖMEGEK_SZÁMÍTÁSA_Hungarian_
[2.2] https://www.academia.edu/41350450/CALCULATION_OF_THE_LEPTON_MASSES
[3.1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation
[3.2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan–Boltzmann_law
[3.3] https://www.academia.edu/40512492/FORMATION_OF_ATOMS
[3.4] https://www.academia.edu/40415311/AZ_ATOMOK_KELETKEZESE_Hungarian_
OUR QUANTIZED WORLD: ABOUT THE PHYSICAL MASS Dezso Sarkadi dsarkadi@gmail.com RFP Hungary March, 2020.
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[3.5] https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/nuclear-binding-energy
[3.6] https://www.academia.edu/40538950/MASS_OSCILLATOR_MODEL_OF_ATOMIC_NUCLEI
[3.7] https://www.academia.edu/40481233/AZ_ATOMMAG_TOMEGOSZCILLATOR_MODELLJE
[5.1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titius–Bode_law
[5.2] https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titius–Bode-szabály
[5.3] https://www.academia.edu/38791886/Bode-Titius_Rule_The_Nature_of_Gravity
[5.4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion
[5.5] https://www.academia.edu/41592749/ARANYMETSZÉS_A_FIZIKÁBAN_Hungarian_
[5.6] https://www.academia.edu/38787561/The_Golden_Section_in_Physics
[5.7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoplanet

OUR QUANTIZED WORLD: ABOUT THE PHYSICAL MASS Dezso Sarkadi dsarkadi@gmail.com RFP Hungary March, 2020.