Digestive System ingests, digests, and absorbs food and defecates indigestible remains Anatomy of the Digestive System

m Alimentary Canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract; ingests, digests, absorbs, defecates; shorter than 9m Accessory Digestive Organs assist the process of digestive breakdown is various ways Alimentary Canal or Gastrointestinal Tract Mouth or Oral Cavity where food enters the digestive tract o Lips or Labia protect the anterior opening of the mouth o Cheeks form the lateral walls of the mouth o Hard Palate forms the anterior roof of the mouth o Soft Palate forms the posterior roof of the mouth o Uvula fleshy fingerlike projection of the soft palate extending downward from its posterior edge o Vestibule space between the lips and cheeks externally and teeth and gums internally o Oral Cavity Proper area contained by the teeth o Tongue muscle that occupies the mouth; attached by hyoid and styloid bones o Lingual Frenulum fold of mucus membrane, secures tongue to floor, limits posterior movements o Tonsils lymphoid tissue that protects from respiratory tract infections Palatine Tonsil sides of the pharynx Lingual Tonsil covers the base of the tongue Pharyngeal Tonsil roof of the pharynx Masticate the act of chewing

Pharynx common passageway for food, fluids, and air; moves food by peristalsis o Nasopharynx part of the respiratory passageway o Oropharynx posterior to the oral cavity o Laryngopharynx continuous with the esophagus Esophagus or gullet, moves food down to the stomach by peristalsis; 25cm long o Tunics of the GI Tract (from the esophagus to the large intestine) Mucosa innermost layer, moist membrane that lines the cavity, or lumen Surface Epithelium thin layer of cells on the surface Lamina Propria layer of connective tissue Smooth Muscle Layer thin layer of smooth muscle Submucosa found under the mucosa; soft connective tissue layer with blood vessels, nerve endings, lymph node, and lymphatic vessels Muscularis Externa made of an inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer Serosa outermost layer of the wall Visceral Peritoneum single layer of flat serous fluid producing cells Parietal Peritoneum lines the abdominopelvic cavity Mesentery a membrane extension connecting the GI tract Intrinsic Nerve Plexuses help regulate the mobility and secretory activity of the GI tract Submucosal Nerve Plexus Myenteric Nerve Plexus Subserous Nerve Plexus Stomach holds 4L of food, approximately 25cm long; when empty, collapses into itself o Cardiac Region region of the stomach nearest to the heart

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Cardioesophageal Sphincter where food enters the stomach from the esophagus Fundus expanded part of the stomach lateral to the cardiac region Body midportion of the stomach Pyloric Antrum narrowed area inferior to the body Pylorus terminal part of the stomach Pyloric Sphincter gatekeeper, valve connecting the stomach and the small intestine Rugae large folds of mucosa forming the inside of the stomach Greater Curvature convex lateral surface of the stomach Lesser Curvature concave medial surface of the stomach Greater Omentum extension of the peritoneum covering the abdominal organs Has lymph nodes and fat which insulate, cushion, and protect the abdominal organs Lesser Omentum double layer of peritoneum extending from the liver to the lesser curvature Gastric Cells and Glands
Gastric Glands secrete gastric juice Chief Cells secrete pepsinogens, protein-digesting enzymes Parietal Cells secrete hydrochloric acid, which activates the enzymes Mucus Neck Cells secrete mucus, protecting the stomach wall from the acid

 Enteroendocrine Cells produce gastric hormones such as pepsin o Chyme processed food which resembles heavy cream
Small Intestine bodys major digestive organ; extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve o Duodenum twelve finger widths long intestine, 5% of the length o Jejunum empty intestine, 40% of the length o Ileum twisted intestine, 60% of the length o Duodenal Papilla where the pancreatic juice and bile enter the duodenum o Hepatopancreatic Ampulla where the bile and pancreatic ducts join

Pancreatic Ducts passageway for pancreatic juice Bile Duct passageway for bile

o Small Intestine Structures increase absorptive surface area of the small intestine Microvilli tiny projections of the plasma membrane of the mucosa cells Villi fingerlike projections of the mucosa; has a capillary bed Lacteal modified lymphatic capillary in a villi Circular Folds also called plicae circulares, folds of mucosa and submucosa Peyers Patches local collections of lymphatic tissue found in the submucosa
Large Intestine absorbs water and eliminates indigestible food as feces o Cecum first part of the large intestine o Appendix potential trouble spot where bacteria accumulate and multiply o Colon main part of the large intestine Ascending Colon travels up the right side of the abdominal cavity Right Colic or Hepatic Flexure where the ascending colon turns Transverse Colon travels across the abdominal cavity Left Colic or Splenic Flexure where the transverse colon turns Descending Colon travels down the left side to enter the pelvis Sigmoid Colon S-shaped, last area of the colon Rectum temporary storage facility for feces Anal Canal ends at the anus which opens to the exterior Has an external voluntary sphincter made of skeletal muscle Has an internal voluntary sphincter made of smooth muscle Goblet Cells produce an alkaline mucus which lubricates and eases passage of feces Teniae Coli ribbons of the colon, muscularis externa reduced to three bands of muscle Haustra small pocket-like sacs caused when the large intestine partially contracts

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Accessory Digestive Organs Salivary Glands produce saliva, a mixture of serous fluid and mucus saliva bind the food together into a mass called bolus salivary amylase, an enzyme, begins starch digestion in the mouth o Parotid lie anterior to the ears o Submandibular lie below the mandible o Sublingual lie below the tongue

Teeth used for mastication or chewing o Deciduous Teeth begin eruption at 4 months and is complete at 2 years (20 teeth) The first teeth to appear are the lower central incisors They loosen and fall out around 6-12 years Permanent Teeth second set of teeth, reabsorbs roots of the milk teeth Incisors chisel-shaped, adapted for cutting Canines (eyeteeth) fanglike, for tearing and piercing Molars and Premolars (bicuspids) have broad crowns with rounded cusps (tips) adapted for grinding and crushing Parts of the Teeth

Crown exposed part of the tooth Enamel hardest substance of the body, contains calcium Gingiva also called the gums, hold the tooth in place Neck connects the crown to the root Root part of the tooth embedded in the jawbone Cementum outer covering of the root Periodontal Membrane ligament that holds the tooth to the jaw Dentin bonelike material, underlies the enamel, forms bulk of the tooth Pulp Cavity contains tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers Pulp supply nutrients to the tooth and provides tooth sensations Root Canal area where the pulp cavity extending to the root Pancreas soft, pink, triangular gland extending from the spleen to the duodenum produces alkaline enzymes that breaks down and neutralizes chyme secretes its enzymes into the duodenum Liver largest organ of the body o Falciform Ligament suspends the liver from the diaphragm and the abdominal wall o Bile yellow-green watery solution containing salts, pigments, lipids, and electrolytes emulsify fats by breaking down large fat globules into smaller ones o Common Hepatic Duct where bile leaves the liver and enters the duodenum via the bile duct Gallbladder small, thin-walled green sac which stores bile o Cystic Duct where bile enters the gallbladder

Functions of the Digestive System Ingestion placing of food in the mouth Propulsion food movement from one organ to the next o Peristalsis involuntary and involves alternating waves of contraction and relaxation

Mechanical Digestion mixing of food, preparing it for further degradation by enzymes o Segmentation single intestinal segments alternately contract and relax Chemical Digestion large food molecules are broken down to its building blocks by enzymes Absorption transfer of digested end products to the blood or lymph for absorption Defecation elimination of indigestible residues from the GI tract via the anus in the form of feces

Chemical Digestion: Building Blocks of Molecules Carbohydrates building block: monosaccharide (e.g. glucose, galactose, fructose) o Monosaccharide Glucose blood sugar, most important sugar, used directly in the blood Fructose fruit sugar, found mostly in fruits Galactose brain sugar, found mostly in milk Disaccharide Sucrose table sugar, made of glucose and fructose Maltose malt or beer sugar, made of glucose and glucose Lactose milk sugar, made of galactose and glucose Polysaccharide

Starch made of multiple glucose units Cellulose indigestible, acts as fiber which helps move food down Proteins building block: amino acids Lipids building block: fatty acids and glycerol

Summary of Functions of the Digestive System Ingestion o Via the mouth Propulsion o Swallowing via the oropharynx o Peristalsis via the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine Mechanical Digestion o Chewing via the mouth o Churning via the stomach o Segmentation via the small intestine Chemical Digestion o Via the small intestine Absorption o Via lymph vessels in the small intestine o Via blood vessels in the large intestine (mainly water) Defecation o Via the anus Activities of the Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus Food Ingestion and Breakdown o Food is physically broken down by chewing o Starch is chemically broken down into maltose by salivary amylase o Saliva is normally secreted when anything enters the mouth or food is thought of

Food Propulsion: Deglutination or Swallowing o Buccal Phase Bolus enters the pharynx by the action of the tongue o Pharyngeal-Esophageal Phase Tongue blocks off the mouth, soft palate closes off the nasal passages, larynx rises to allow it to be closed by the epiglottis Peristalsis occurs longitudinal muscles contract, then circular muscles contract o If we try to talk while swallowing, food might enter the respiratory tract and initiate the cough reflex o Once food reaches the cardioesophageal sphincter, it opens allowing food to enter the stomach

Activities of the Stomach Food Breakdown o Gastric juice is regulated by both neural (thinking of food) and hormonal (pepsin) factors o When pH is low and food is present, gastrin stimulates the stomach glands to produce for mucus, hydrochloric acid and enzymes

o Hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogen to pepsin, the protein digesting enzyme o Rennin, another protein digesting enzyme, works primarily on milk in infants o Only aspirin and alcohols are immediately absorbed in the stomach
o As the stomach expands, the stomach muscles activate churning the food inside Food Propulsion o Once the food is well mixed, peristalsis begins in the lower half of the stomach o The pylorus holds 30mL of chyme and allows only very small particles and liquids to pass o Each contraction only squirts about 3mL or less of chyme into the intestine o The rest of the 27mL is sent back for more mixing o The enterogastric reflex occurs when the duodenum is filled with chyme which slows down stomach activity and thus, it takes about 4-6 hours for the stomach to empty

Activities of the Small Intestine Food Breakdown and Absorption o It takes the food 3-6 hours to be completely digested o Brush border enzymes break down double sugars into simple sugars o Pancreatic Juice basic (pH 8), neutralizes chyme Pancreatic Amylase complete the digestion of starch Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase carry out half of protein digestion Lipase completely digest fats Nucleases digest nucleic acids o Secretin and Cholecystokinin stimulate release of pancreatic juice and bile o Bile is necessary for the absorption of vitamins ADEK Food Propulsion o Peristalsis moves the food down the small intestine

Hormones and Hormonelike Products That Act in Digestion Hormone Source Stimulus Action Stimulates release of gastric juice Gastrin Stomach Food in stomach Stimulates mobility of small intestine Relaxes ileocecal valve Histamine Stomach Food in stomach Activates parietal cells to secrete hydrochloric acid Inhibits secretion of gastric and pancreatic juice Somatostatin Stomach Food in stomach Inhibits emptying of stomach and gallbladder Increases output of pancreatic juice rich in bicarbonate Acidic chyme ions Secretin Duodenum Partially digested Increases bile output of liver foods in duodenum Inhibits gastric mobility and gastric gland secretion Increases output of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice Fatty chime Cholecystokinin Stimulates gallbladder to expel stored bile Duodenum Partially digested (CCK) Relaxes sphincter of duodenal papilla to allow pile and foods in duodenum pancreatic juice to enter the duodenum Gastric Inhibitory Duodenum Fatty chime Inhibits gastric mobility and secretion of gastric juice Peptide (GIP) Activities of the Large Intestine Food Breakdown and Absorption o The large intestine mainly absorbs water, some ions, and some vitamins o Food stays in the large intestine for another 12-24 hours o Resident bacteria metabolize the remaining nutrients releasing gases o Around 500mL of gas is made each day (e.g. methane, hydrogen sulfide) o Bacteria in the large intestine also create vitamin K and B o Feces contain undigested food, mucus, bacteria, and some water Propulsion of the Residue and Defecation o Peristalsis and mass movement contribute to large intestine movement o Mass movements are long, slow-moving, but powerful contractile waves that occur 3-4 times a day forcing the contents to the rectum o Typically, mass movements occur after eating o Fiber increases strength of colon contractions and softens the stool o Defecation reflex occurs when feces enters the rectum causing the rectum to contract and the anal sphincters to relax o When the feces arrives at the anus, the brain allows us to decide whether to open or remain closed the external voluntary sphincter Nutrition Is a substance in food that is used by the body to promote normal growth, maintenance, and repair Energy value of foods is measured in kilocalories (kcal) or calories (C) Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients Carbohydrates mainly come from plants o Starch grains, legumes, and root vegetables o Sugar fruits, sugar cane, and milk Lipids o Saturated fats meat and dairy foods o Unsaturated fats seeds, nuts, and vegetable oils o Cholesterol egg yolk, meat, and milk products

Proteins mainly from animals, e.g. meat, milk, eggs, legumes, nuts, cereals Vitamins act as coenzymes, which help enzymes in catalysis; found in all type of food

Minerals mainly found in legumes, vegetables, milk, and some meats o Required Minerals: calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, magnesium

Metabolism Refers to all chemical reactions that are necessary to maintain life Catabolism substances are broken down to simpler substances Anabolism larger molecules are built from smaller ones Carbohydrate Metabolism o Forms of Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport Chain Polysaccharide Digested by GI tract into monosaccharides Cellular uses Goes to capillary Glycogen and fat broken down for ATP formation Excess stored as glycogen or fat ATP

Fat Metabolism Lipids Digested by GI tract into fatty acids and glycerol Metabolized by liver Insulation and fat cushions to protect organs Cellular uses ATP

Fats build myelin sheaths and cell membranes

Protein Metabolism Proteins Digested by GI tract into amino acids Normally infrequent Cellular uses Structural Proteins (connective tissue, muscle proteins, etc.) Functional Proteins (enzymes, antibodies, haemoglobin, etc.)

ATP

Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism Detoxifies drugs and alcohol, degrades hormones, makes many substances vital to the body, and plays a central role in metabolism as it processes nearly every class of nutrient One of the few organs that can regenerate rapidly and easily General Metabolism o Glycogen large polysaccharide molecule made of glucose o Glycogenesis glycogen formation, binding of glucose to form glycogen o Glycogenolysis glycogen splitting, breaking of glycogen to form glucose o Gluconeogenesis new sugar formation, glucose formation from fats and proteins Cholesterol Metabolism o Cholesterol building block for steroidal hormones and vitamin D o Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL) bad, transport lipids to body cells o High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL) good, transport lipids from body cells Body Energy Balance Energy Intake energy liberated during food oxidation Energy Output energy used to do work, stored as reserves, or lost as heat Regulation of Food Intake o Body weight remains stable when energy intake and outflow are balanced o Obese people maintain total body energy content at higher than normal levels Metabolic Rate o Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) amount of energy the body consumes to fuel essential life activities Averages at 60-72 kcal/hr for a 70kg adult Thyroxine metabolic hormone, influences the BMR most o Total Metabolic Rate (TMR) amount of energy the body consumes to fuel ongoing activities Muscular work is the major body activity that increases TMR Homeostasis is achieved when the TMR is equal to the calories consumed If more calories are consumed, excess appears in the form of fat deposits If less calories are consumes, fat and proteins are used thus, losing weight Body Temperature Regulation o Hypothalamus bodys thermostat, regulates body temperature at 35.6-37.8 C o Heat-Promoting Mechanisms Vasoconstriction blood is rerouted to deeper tissues by constriction of blood vessels Shivering involuntary, shudderlike contractions of voluntary muscles Heat-Loss Mechanisms

Vasodilation blood is radiated from the skin surface by dilation of blood vessels Perspiration evaporation of sweat cooling the skin surface