BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS

1.19

FIGURE 1.25

A decaying sinusoidal wave.

Related Calculations. This concept of a dc component superimposed on a sinusoidal ac component is illustrated in Fig. 1.25. This gure shows the decay of a dc component because of a short circuit and also shows how the asymmetrical short-circuit current gradually becomes symmetrical when the dc component decays to zero.

STEADY-STATE AC ANALYSIS OF A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

Calculate the current in the circuit of Fig. 1.26a.

Calculation Procedure 1. Calculate Z Angular frequency 2 f (2)(3.1416)(60) 377 rad/s. But XL L; therefore, XL (377)(0.5) 188.5 . Also, XC 1/ C 1/[(377)(26.5) 10 6] 100 . Then Z R j(XL XC) R jXEQ, where XEQ XL XC net equivalent reactance. In polar form, the impedance for the series RLC circuit is expressed as Z Z .Z 100 j(188.5 100) 100 + j88.5 R 2 X 2 tan 1(X EQ/R) EQ 133.5 41.5 . The impedance triangle (Fig. )2 (88.5)2 tan 1(88.5/100) (100 1.26b) illustrates the results of the preceding solution. Apply KVL to the circuit: E VR jVL jVC VR jVX where VX VL VC net reactive voltage. 2. Draw the Phasor Diagram The phasor diagram of Fig. 1.26c shows the voltage relations with respect to the current as a reference.

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FIGURE 1.26 Series RLC ac circuit: (a) circuit with component values; (b) impedance triangle; and (c) phasor diagram.

3. Calculate I From Ohms law for ac circuits, I 120/133.5 0.899 A. Because I is a reference it can be expressed in polar form as I 0.899 0 A. The angle between the voltage and current in Fig. 1.26c is the same as the angle in the impedance triangle of Fig. 1.26b. Therefore E 120 41.5 V. Related Calculations. In a series RLC circuit the net reactive voltage may be zero (when VL VC), inductive (when VL VC), or capacitive (when VL VC). The current in such a circuit may be in phase with, lag, or lead the applied emf. When VL VC, the condition is referred to as series resonance. Voltages VL and VC may be higher than the applied voltage E, because the only limiting opposition to current is resistance R. A circuit in series resonance has maximum current, minimum impedance, and a power factor of 100 percent.

STEADY-STATE AC ANALYSIS OF A PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

Calculate the impedance of the parallel RLC circuit of Fig. 1.27a. Calculation Procedure 1. Calculate the Currents in R, L, and C In a parallel circuit, it is convenient to use the voltage as a reference; therefore E 200 0 V. Because the R, L, and C parameters of this circuit are the same as in

BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS

1.21

FIGURE 1.27 Parallel RLC circuit: (a) circuit with component values; (b) phasor diagram; and (c) impedance triangle.

Fig. 1.26a and the frequency (60 Hz) is the same, XL 188.5 and XC 100 . From Ohms law: IR E/R 200 0 /100 0 2 0 A. IL E/XL 200 0 /188.5 90 1.06 90 j1.06 A, and IC E/XC 200 0 /100 90 2 90 j2 A. But IT IR jIL jIC; therefore, IT 2 j1.06 j2 2 j0.94 2.21 25.2 A. 2. Calculate ZEQ Impedance is ZEQ E/IT 200 0 /2.21 25.2 90.5 25.2 . ZEQ, changed to rectangular form, is ZEQ 82.6 j39 REQ jXEQ. Figure 1.27b illustrates the voltage-current phasor diagram. The equivalent impedance diagram is given in Fig. 1.27c. Note that ZEQ can also be calculated by Z EQ 1 1 jX L

1 R

1 jX C

since ZL

jXL and ZC

jXC.

Related Calculations. The impedance diagram of Fig. 1.27c has a negative angle. This indicates that the circuit is an RC equivalent circuit. Figure 1.27b veries this observation

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because the total circuit current IT leads the applied voltage. In a parallel RLC circuit the net reactive current may be zero (when IL IC), inductive (when IL IC), or capacitive (when IL IC). The current in such a circuit may be in phase with, lag, or lead the applied emf. When IL IC, this condition is referred to as parallel resonance. Currents IL and IC may be much higher than the total line current, IT. A circuit in parallel resonance has a minimum current, maximum impedance, and a power factor of 100 percent. Note in Fig. 1.27b that IT IR jIX, where IX IC IL.

ANALYSIS OF A SERIES-PARALLEL AC NETWORK

A series-parallel ac network is shown in Fig. 1.28. Calculate ZEQ, I1, I2, and I3. Calculation Procedure 1. Combine All Series Impedances The solution to this problem is similar to that for the rst problem in the section, except that vector algebra must be used for the reactances. Z1 300 j600 j200 300 j400 500 53.1 , Z2 500 j1200 1300 67.4 , and Z3 800 j600 1000 36.9 . 2. Combine All Parallel Impedances Using the product-over-the-sum rule, we nd ZBC Z2Z3/(Z2 Z3) (1300 67.4 ) (1000 36.9 )/[(500 j1200) (800 j600)] 908 5.7 901 j90.2 . 3. Combine All Series Impedances to Obtain the Total Impedance, ZEQ ZEQ Z1 ZBC (300 j400) (901 j90.2) 1201 j490 1290 22.4 .

FIGURE 1.28

Series-parallel ac circuit to be analyzed.

BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS

1.23

4. Calculate the Currents I1 E/ZEQ 100 0 /1290 22.4 0.0775 22.4 A. From the current-divider rule: I2 I1Z3/(Z2 Z3) (0.0775 22.4 )(1000 36.9 )/[(500 j1200) (800 j600)] 0.0541 84.1 A. I3 I1Z2/(Z2 Z3) (0.0775 22.4 )(1300 67.4 )/ [(500 j1200) (800 j600)] 0.0709 20.2 A. Related Calculations. Any reducible ac circuit (i.e., any circuit that can be reduced to one equivalent impedance ZEQ with a single power source), no matter how complex, can be solved in a similar manner to that just described. The dc network theorems used in previous problems can be applied to ac networks except that vector algebra must be used for the ac quantities.

ANALYSIS OF POWER IN AN AC CIRCUIT

Find the total watts, total VARS, and total volt-amperes in the ac circuit of Fig. 1.29a. Recall that watts, VARS, and volt-amperes are all dimensionally the same, that is, the product of voltage and current. However, we use the designators of watts (W) to represent real power (instantaneous or average), volt-amperes-reactive (VARS) to represent reactive power, and volt-amperes (VA) to represent complex (or apparent) power.

Calculation Procedure 1. Study the Power Triangle Figure 1.30 shows power triangles for ac circuits. Power triangles are drawn following the standard of drawing inductive reactive power in the j direction and capacitive reactive power in the j direction. Two equations are obtained by applying the Pythagorean theorem to these power triangles: S2 P2 Q2 and S2 P2 Q2 . These equations can L C be applied to series, parallel, or series-parallel circuits. The net reactive power supplied by the source to an RLC circuit is the difference between the positive inductive reactive power and the negative capacitive reactive power: QX QL QC, where QX is the net reactive power, in VARS. 2. Solve for the Total Real Power Arithmetic addition can be used to nd the total real power. PT 500 700 W. P1 P2 200

FIGURE 1.29

Calculating ac power: (a) circuit and (b) power triangle.

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HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

FIGURE 1.30

Power triangles for (a) RC and (b) RL equivalent circuits.

3. Solve for the Total Reactive Power QX QL QC 1200 500 700 VARS. Because the total reactive power is positive, the circuit is inductive (see Fig. 1.29b). 4. Solve for the Total Volt-Amperes 2 S P T Q 2 (700)2 (700)2 X 989.8 VA.

Related Calculations. The principles used in this problem will also be applied to solve the following two problems.

ANALYSIS OF POWER FACTOR AND REACTIVE FACTOR

Calculate the power factor (pf) and the reactive factor (rf) for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.31. Calculation Procedure 1. Review Power-Factor Analysis

FIGURE 1.31

Calculating power and reactive factors of circuit.

BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS

1.25

The power factor of an ac circuit is the numerical ratio between the true power P and the apparent power S. It can be seen by referring to the power triangles of Fig. 1.30 that this ratio is equal to the cosine of the power-factor angle . The power-factor angle is the same as the phase angle between the voltage across the circuit (or load) and the current through the circuit (or load). pf cos P/S. 2. Review Reactive-Factor Analysis The numerical ratio between the reactive power and the apparent power of a circuit (or load) is called the reactive factor. This ratio is equal to the sine of the power-factor angle (see Fig. 1.30). rf sin Q/S. 3. Calculate the Power and Reactive Factors Z1 R jXL 100 j100 141.4 45 . I1 E/Z1 120 0 /141.4 45 0.849 2 90 (0 j2) A. 45 A. I1 (0.6 j0.6) A. I2 E/XC 120 0 /60 90 IT I1 I2 (0.6 j0.6) (0 j2) (0.6 j1.4) A 1.523 66.8 A. S E LT (120)(1.523) 182.8 VA. Power factor cos cos 66.8 0.394 or 39.4 percent; rf sin sin 66.8 0.92 or 92 percent. Related Calculations. Inductive loads have a lagging power factor; capacitive loads have a leading power factor. The value of the power factor is expressed either as a decimal or as a percentage. This value is always less than 1.0 or less than 100 percent. The majority of industrial loads, such as motors and air conditioners, are inductive (lagging power factor). Thus, power engineers often refer to capacitors or capacitive loads as sources of reactive power.

POWER-FACTOR CORRECTION
Calculate the value of the capacitor needed to obtain a circuit power factor of 100 percent (Fig. 1.32). Calculation Procedure 1. Calculate the Motor Current

FIGURE 1.32 Power-factor correction: (a) given circuit and (b) adding a capacitor (C) in parallel to improve power factor.

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HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS

S P/cos 1200/0.7 1714 VA. Hence, the motor current I is: I S/ E (1714 VA) (120 V) 14.29 A. The active component of this current is the component in phase with the voltage. This component, which results in true power consumption, is: I cos (14.29 A)(0.7) 10 A. Because the motor has a 70 percent power factor, the circuit must supply 14.29 A to realize a useful current of 10 A. 2. Calculate the Value of C In order to obtain a circuit power factor of 100 percent, the inductive apparent power of the motor and the capacitive apparent power of the capacitor must be equal. QL E I 1 cos2 where 1 cos2 reactive factor. Hence, QL (120)(14.29) 1224 VARS (inductive). QC must equal 1224 VARS for 1 (0.7)2 1714 0.51 100 percent power factor. XC V 2 /QC (120)2/1224 11.76 (capacitive). ThereC fore, C 1/ XC 1/(377)(11.76) 225.5 F. Related Calculations. The amount of current required by a load determines the sizes of the wire used in the windings of the generator or transformer and in the conductors connecting the motor to the generator or transformer. Because copper losses depend upon the square of the load current, a power company nds it more economical to supply 10 A at a power factor of 100 percent than to supply 14.29 A at a power factor of 70 percent. A mathematical analysis of the currents in Fig. 1.32b follows: IC QC/ VC (1220 VARS)/(120 V) 10.2 A (0 j10.2) A. (for motor) cos 1 0.7 45.6; therefore, IM 14.29 45.6 (10 j10.2) A. Then IT IM IC (10 j10.2) (0 j10.2) 10 0 A (100 percent power factor). Typically, power factor correction capacitors are rated in kVARS (kilo-VARS) and may be installed in switched banks to provide a range of pf correction.

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER IN AN AC CIRCUIT

Calculate the load impedance in Fig. 1.33 for maximum power to the load. Calculation Procedure

FIGURE 1.33

Finding value of ZL for maximum power transfer.

BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS

1.27

1. Statement of the Maximum Power Theorem The maximum power theorem, when applied to ac circuits, states that maximum power will be delivered to a load when the load impedance is the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance across its terminals. 2. Apply Thevenins Theorem to the Circuit ZTh Z1Z2/(Z1 Z2) (10 53 )(8 90 )/[6 j8) j8] 13.3 37 , or ZTh 10.6 j8 where R 10.6 and XL 8 . Then, ZL must be 13.3 37 10.6 j8 , where RL 10.6 and XC 8 . In order to nd the maximum power delivered to the load, ETh must be found using the voltage-divider rule: ETh EZ2/(Z1 Z2) (9 0 )(8 90 )/[(6 j8) j8] 12 90 V. Pmax E 2 /4RL; therefore Pmax (12)2/(4)(10.6) 3.4 W. Th Related Calculations. The maximum power transfer theorem, when applied to dc circuits, states that a load will receive maximum power from a dc network when its total resistance is equal to the Thevenin resistance of the network as seen by the load.

ANALYSIS OF A BALANCED WYE-WYE SYSTEM

Calculate the currents in all lines of the balanced three-phase, four-wire, wye-connected system of Fig. 1.34. The system has the following parameters: VAN 120 0 V, VBN 120 120 V, VCN 120 120 V, and ZA ZB ZC 12 0 .

Calculation Procedure 1. Calculate Currents IA VAN/ZA 120 0 /12 0 10 0 A. 10 120 A. IC VCN/ZC 120 120 /12 0 IN 10 0 10 120 10 120 0 A.

IB VBN/ZB 10 120 A. IN

120 120 /12 0 IA IB IC; hence,

Related Calculations. The neutral current in a balanced wye system is always zero. Each load current lags or leads the voltage by the particular power factor of the load. This system, in which one terminal of each phase is connected to a common star point, is often called a star-connected system.

ANALYSIS OF A BALANCED DELTA-DELTA SYSTEM

Calculate the load currents and the line currents of the balanced delta-delta system of Fig. 1.35. The system has the following load parameters: VAC 200 0 V, VBA 200 120 V, VCB 200 120 V, and ZAC ZBA ZCB 4 0 .

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FIGURE 1.34 A balanced three-phase, four-wire, wye-connected system: (a) circuit and (b) load-phasor diagram.

FIGURE 1.35

A balanced delta-delta system.

BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS

1.29

Calculation Procedure 1. Solve for the Load Currents IAC VAC/ZAC 200 0 /4 0 50 0 A, 50 120 A, and ICB VCB/ZCB 200 120 /4 0

IBA VBA/ZBA 50 120 A.

200 120 /4 0

2. Solve for the Line Currents Convert the load currents to rectangular notation: IAC 50 50 120 25 j43.3, and ICB 50 120 25 j43.3. nodes: IA IAC IBA (50 j0) ( 25 j43.3) 86.6 ICB ( 25 j43.3) ( 25 j43.3) 86.6 90 A, IC j43.3) (50 j0) 86.6 150 A.

50 j0, IBA 0 Apply KCL at load 30 A, IB IBA ICB IAC ( 25

Related Calculations. In comparing a wye-connected system with a delta-connected system, one can make the following observations: 1. When a load is wye-connected, each arm of the load is connected from a line to the neutral. The impedance Z is shown with a single subscript, such as ZA. 2. When a load is delta-connected, each arm of the load is connected from a line to line. The impedance Z is shown with a double subscript such as ZAC. 3. In a wye-connected system, the phase current of the source, the line current, and the phase current of the load are all equal. 4. In a delta-connected system, each line must carry components of current for two arms of the load. One current component moves toward the source, and the other

FIGURE 1.36 Relationships between phase and line currents in a balanced delta-connected system.

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current component moves away from the source. The line current to a deltaconnected load is the phasor difference between the two load currents at the entering node. 5. The line current in a balanced delta load has a magnitude of 3 times the phase current in each arm of the load. The line current is 30 out of phase with the phase current (Fig. 1.36). 6. The line-line voltage in a balanced, wye-connected, three phase source has a magnitude of 3 times the line-neutral voltage. The line-line voltage is 30 out of phase with the line-neutral voltage.

RESPONSE OF AN INTEGRATOR TO A RECTANGULAR PULSE

A single 10-V pulse with a width of 100 s is applied to the RC integrator of Fig. 1.37. Calculate the voltage to which the capacitor charges. How long will it take the capacitor to discharge (neglect the resistance of the pulse source)? Calculation Procedure 1. Calculate the Voltage to Which the Capacitor Charges The rate at which a capacitor charges or discharges is determined by the time constant of the circuit. The time constant of a series RC circuit is the time interval that equals the product of R and C. The symbol for time constant is (Greek letter tau): RC, where R is in ohms, C is in farads, and is in seconds. The time constant of this circuit is: RC (100 k )(0.001 F) 100 s. Because the pulse width equals 200 s (2 time constants), the capacitor will charge to 86 percent of its full charge, or to a voltage of 8.6 V. The expression for RC charging is: vC(t) VF(1 e t/RC), where VF is the nal value. In this case the nal value, VF 10 V, would be reached if the pulse had a width of 5 or more time constants. See the RC time constant charging table (Table 1.1). 2. Calculate the Discharge Time The capacitor discharges back through the source at the end of 200 s. The total discharge time for practical purposes is 5 time constants or (5)(100 s) 500 s. The expression for RC discharging is: vC(t) Vt(e t/RC), where Vi is the initial value. In this case, the initial value before discharging is 8.6 V. Table 1.2 shows the RC time constant discharge characteristics.

FIGURE 1.37

Pulse input to an RC integrator.

BASIC NETWORK ANALYSIS

1.31

TABLE 1.1 RC Time Constant Charging Characteristics % Full charge 1 2 3 4 5 63 86 95 98 99*

TABLE 1.2 RC Time Constant Discharging Characteristics % Full charge 1 2 3 4 5 37 14 5 2 1*

*For practical purposes, 5 time constants are considered to result in 100 percent charging.

*For practical purposes, 5 time constants are considered to result in zero charge or 100 percent discharge.

FIGURE 1.38 Output charging and discharging curves for the RC integrator of Fig. 1.37.

Related Calculations. curves.

Figure 1.38 illustrates the output charging and discharging

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hayt, William J., and Jack Kemmerly. 1993. Engineering Circuit Analysis, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Nilsson, James W., and Susan A. Riedel. 1999. Electric Circuits, 6th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Stanley, William D. 1999. Network Analysis with Applications, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.