INTRODUCTION Probability

Probabilities can be used to describe frequencies of outcomes in random experiments, but giving a non-circular definition of a frequency is a challenge. Probabilities can also be used, more generally, to describe degrees of belief in propositions that do not involve random variables -for example `the probability that 2050 will be the warmest year on record, assuming people don't change their lifestyle', or `the probability that the Hubble constant lies between 41 and 43, given measurements of the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect'. Degrees of belief can be mapped onto probabilities if they satisfy some simple consistency rules known as the Cox axioms . Thus probabilities can be used to describe assumptions, and to describe inferences given those assumptions. The rules of probability ensure that if two people make the same assumptions and receive the same data then they will draw identical conclusions. This more general use of probability is known as the Bayesian viewpoint. It is also known as the subjective interpretation of probability, since the probabilities depend on assumptions. Advocates of a Bayesian approach to data modelling and pattern recognition do not view this subjectivity as a defect, since in their view, you can't do inference without making assumptions. In this book it will be taken for granted that a Bayesian approach makes sense, but the reader is warned that this is not yet a globally held view -- the field of statistics has been dominated for most of the 20th century by non-Bayesian methods in which probabilities are only allowed to describe random variables.

Computation
The word computation has an archaic meaning (from its Latin etymological roots), but the word has come back in use with the arising of a new scientific discipline: computer science. Computation is a general term for any type of process, algorithm or measurement; this often includes but is not limited to digital data. This includes phenomena ranging from human thinking to calculations with a more narrow meaning. Computation is a process following a well-defined model that is understood and can be expressed in an algorithm, protocol, network topology, etc. Computation is also a major subject matter of computer science: it investigates what can or cannot be done in a computational manner.

Classes of computation
Computation can be classified by at least three orthogonal criteria: digital vs analog, sequential vs parallel vs concurrent, batch vs interactive. In practice, digital computation is often used to simulate natural processes (for example, Evolutionary computation), including those that are more naturally described by analog models of computation (for example, Artificial neural network). In this situation, it is important to distinguish between the mechanism of computation and the simulated model.

Computations as a physical phenomenon

A computation can be seen as a purely physical phenomenon occurring inside a closed physical system called a computer. Examples of such physical systems include digital computers, quantum computers, DNA computers, molecular computers, analog computers or wetware computers. This point of view is the one adopted by the branch of theoretical physics called the physics of computation. An even more radical point of view is the postulate of digital physics that the evolution of the universe itself is a computation - Pancomputationalism.

Mathematical models of computation

In the theory of computation, a diversity of mathematical models of computers have been developed. Typical mathematical models of computers are the following:

State models including Turing Machine, push-down automaton, finite state automaton, and PRAM Functional models including lambda calculus Logical models including logic programming Concurrent models including actor model and process calculi

SUMMARY
Problem: A spinner has 4 equal sectors colored yellow, blue, green and red. What are the chances of landing on blue after spinning the spinner? What are the chances of landing on red? Solution: The chances of landing on blue are 1 in 4, or one fourth. The chances of landing on red are 1 in 4, or one fourth. This problem asked us to find some probabilities involving a spinner. Let's look at some definitions and examples from the problem above.

Definition

Example

An experiment is a situation involving chance or In the problem above, the probability that leads to results called outcomes. experiment is spinning the spinner. An outcome is the result of a single trial of an experiment. An event is one or more outcomes of an experiment. Probability is the measure of how likely an event is. The possible outcomes are landing on yellow, blue, green or red. One event of this experiment is landing on blue. The probability of landing on blue is one fourth.

In order to measure probabilities, mathematicians have devised the following formula for finding the probability of an event.

Probability Of An Event
P(A) = The Number Of Ways Event A Can Occur The total number Of Possible Outcomes

The probability of event A is the number of ways event A can occur divided by the total number of possible outcomes. Let's take a look at a slight modification of the problem from the top of the page.

Experiment 1:

A spinner has 4 equal sectors colored yellow, blue, green and red. After spinning the spinner, what is the probability of landing on each color? The possible outcomes of this experiment are yellow, blue, green, and red. # of ways to land on yellow P(yellow) = total # of colors # of ways to land on blue P(blue) = total # of colors # of ways to land on green P(green) = total # of colors # of ways to land on red P(red) = total # of colors 1 = 4 1 = 4 1 = 4 1 = 4

Outcomes: Probabilities:

Experiment 2:

A single 6-sided die is rolled. What is the probability of each outcome? What is the probability of rolling an even number? of rolling an odd number? The possible outcomes of this experiment are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. # of ways to roll a 1 P(1) = total # of sides # of ways to roll a 2 P(2) = total # of sides = = 1 6 1 6

Outcomes:

Probabilities:

# of ways to roll a 3 P(3) = total # of sides # of ways to roll a 4 P(4) = total # of sides # of ways to roll a 5 P(5) = total # of sides # of ways to roll a 6 P(6) = total # of sides # ways to roll an even number P(even) = total # of sides # ways to roll an odd number P(odd) = total # of sides = = = = = =

1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 3 6 3 6 = = 1 2 1 2

Experiment 2 illustrates the difference between an outcome and an event. A single outcome of this experiment is rolling a 1, or rolling a 2, or rolling a 3, etc. Rolling an even number (2, 4 or 6) is an event, and rolling an odd number (1, 3 or 5) is also an event. In Experiment 1 the probability of each outcome is always the same. The probability of landing on each color of the spinner is always one fourth. In Experiment 2, the probability of rolling each number on the die is always one sixth. In both of these experiments, the outcomes are equally likely to occur. Let's look at an experiment in which the outcomes are not equally likely.

Experiment 3:

A glass jar contains 6 red, 5 green, 8 blue and 3 yellow marbles. If a single marble is chosen at random from the jar, what is the probability of choosing a red marble? a green marble? a blue marble? a yellow marble? The possible outcomes of this experiment are red, green, blue and yellow. # of ways to choose red P(red) = total # of marbles # of ways to choose green P(green) = total # of marbles # of ways to choose blue P(blue) = total # of marbles # of ways to choose yellow P(yellow) = total # of marbles = = = = 6 2 2 5 2 2 8 2 2 3 2 2 = 4 1 1 = 3 1 1

Outcomes: Probabilities:

The outcomes in this experiment are not equally likely to occur. You are more likely to choose a blue marble than any other color. You are least likely to choose a yellow marble. Experiment 4: Choose a number at random from 1 to 5. What is the probability of each outcome? What is the probability that the number chosen is even? What is the probability that the number chosen is odd? The possible outcomes of this experiment are 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. # of ways to choose a 1 P(1) = total # of numbers # of ways to choose a 2 P(2) = total # of numbers = = 1 5 1 5

Outcomes: Probabilities:

# of ways to choose a 3 P(3) = total # of numbers # of ways to choose a 4 P(4) = total # of numbers # of ways to choose a 5 P(5) = total # of numbers # of ways to choose an even number P(even) = total # of numbers # of ways to choose an odd number P(odd) = total # of numbers = = = = =

1 5 1 5 1 5 2 5 3 5

The outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are equally likely to occur as a result of this experiment. However, the events even and odd are not equally likely to occur, since there are 3 odd numbers and only 2 even numbers from 1 to 5. Summary: The probability of an event is the measure of the chance that the event will occur as a result of an experiment. The probability of an event A is the number of ways event A can occur divided by the total number of possible outcomes. The probability of an event A, symbolized by P(A), is a number between 0 and 1, inclusive, that measures the likelihood of an event in the following way:

If P(A) > P(B) then event A is more likely to occur than event B. If P(A) = P(B) then events A and B are equally likely to occur.

Biography
John Emmanuel M. De Leon or as most of his friends and relatives known him as Jm was born at Manila Sanitarium in Pasay City. He is the second eldest in the family , hes the only boy and he has two siblings. Marinea Mae De Leon (1st) and Johanna Charisse M. De Leon (3rd). Jm and his family live in Pasay City for almost eight years and move to Dasmarinas, Cavite in 2003 because they had a new house. Jm went to Immaculate Conception Academy (ICA) for 1 year before entering Saint Francis Academy. From 2004 up to the present. In there his mind opened to many different things like alcohol and other things. He also achieved many things In the school like being the SBO president of the high school department and became a CAT officer as well as being a basketball player at the same time. Hes dream is to become a successful engineer and have a stable life. He likes color Blue ..

Acknowledgement
I would like to acknowledge the following while Im doing the term paper: My mother for lending me her laptop Badz for being beside me while im doing it Donna Marycar for staring My Dad for supporting me The SUPER SENIORS batch for being always their for me My ate for being snobby And everything else that helped me

Conclusion
I have found out that Probability And Computation is use everyday in our lives and a Branch of mathematics that is important in solving different things and equations and has been a key factor in the math world. Truly it is a gift to us by the mathematicians that had discovered it.

Recommendation
I recommend this research to be read by the 3rd year and 4th year and wish that this research would be a help to them in the coming lessons.

Term Paper: Probability And Computation

By: John Emmanuel M. De Leon IV St. Gregory The Great