Coastal Engineering

Coastal/Offshore Engineering
Coastal/Offshore engineering requires the engineer to have knowledge of
nearshore/offshore oceanography and marine geology.

Coastal engineering projects include:

- reclamations - gas pipeline installations

- bridge construction
- water pipeline installations
- new port development
- bored tunnels
- dredging of access channels
- communication cable installations
- jetty construction
- new airport
- siltation studies
- seawall construction

Offshore engineering projects include:

- oil/gas drilling exploration

- oil/gas pipeline installation
- construction of oil/gas platform
OIL and GAS EXPLORATION SURVEYS
Oil/Gas Exploration Surveys
The exploration for oil and gas, which may be quite time-and effort-intensive
and rely on the collection and detailed analyses of extensive geologic
information, involves a number of activities, including the following:

- surveying and mapping surface and subsurface geologic features with

techniques such as seismic reflection to identify areas where oil and gas
may accumulated
- determining a geologic formation’s potential for containing commercial
quantities of economically producible oil/gas
- identifying the best locations to drill an exploratory well to test the
hydrocarbon traps
- drilling exploration and delineation wells to determine where hydrocarbons
are present and to measure the area and thickness of the oil/gas bearing
reservoir or reservoirs
- logging and coring wells to measure the permeability, porosity, and other
properties of the geologic formations encounted and
- completing construction of wells and site facilities deemed capable of
producing commercial quantities of oil/gas.
There are 5 sequential phases in a typical offshore oil and gas development:
- seismic surveys
- exploration
- development
- production
- decommissioning

Seismic Surveys
Today, the single most important way
of locating oil/gas is by means of
seismic surveys with the assistant of
gravitational/magnetic field surveys.

By using powerful computers to

process seismic data, geologist and
geophysicists can build up an accurate picture of where there are
hydrocarbon source rocks, migration paths, seals, traps and reservoir
rocks. The chances of successfully locating oil/gas have improved from 1
in 10 to better than 1 in 2 wells today. Human judgement and high skills
are still essential to assess the data in spending 10s of millions of dollars
on oil exploration drilling.
Structural traps
The structural trap is formed by the folding of rock layers into a dome and is
known as anticline trap. It is virtually a ‘buried hill’. Hydrocarbons may
migrate into this structure from all sides, accumulating in the top where roof
formation brings migration to an end
A fault trap
A fault trap is formed when a fault plane interrupts the direction of migration
of hydrocarbons. The accumulation occurs when the oil/gas is prevented
from proceeding up-dip by fine-grained material in the fault itself, or by an
impermeable layer adjacent to the reservoir on the other side of the fault.
Stratigraphic Traps
STs are defined as those in which the reservoir is sealed due to depositional
or alteration processes rather than structural movements. They are more
difficult to find, but usually provide some of the largest fields in the world.

A common stratigraphic trap is a buried coral reef which is sealed by the

surrounding claystones and shales.
Seismic surveys provide 3D image of subsurface geological structures. They
are primary used to identify the “area of closure”, which act as hydrocarbon
traps.

Interpretation of seismic data

requires judgement and
experience. Until drill holes are
completed to confirm it, the
seismic surveys only provide
indication of probable
conditions.

Supplementary geophysical
data are obtained from gravity
and geomagnetic surveys.
These data allow identification
of anomalies or variation from
regional averages and
subsequently improve the 3D
picture.
Gravity Surveys
GSs aim to detect large-scale subsurface structures by means of the
disturbance they produce in the earth’s gravitational filed at ground level. It
involves measuring the force of gravity. Variation of gravity are caused by
changes in the mass of subsurface rocks. Satellite gravity data has been
used extensively for oil/gas exploration.
Magnetic Surveys
Most rocks have a weak magnetism which is partly induced by the earth’s
magnetic field and partly permanent. Thus a magnetic survey measures
local variations in magnetic field. Sedimentary rocks are nearly non-
magnetic compared to basement rocks, volcanic and igneous rock. Thus a
magnetic anomaly generally indicates a lack of sediments and the survey
technique is used to rule out areas of no interest for the petroleum explorer.
They are useful in outlining the regional framework of sedimentary basins.

The most common technique for a complete coverage of magnetic survey is

by air – generally flying at height of 80 meters above sea. As with gravity,
image enhancement and contrasting colouration can now produce visually
strong maps of the structural elements of an area under study.
Successful discovery of recoverable hydrocarbon reserves may lead to the
development of the oil and gas field. Pre-production development activities
include the following:

- detailed geophysical surveys

- local geological hazard evaluations

- engineering design of the well system

- engineering design of the production and offloading facilities

- fabrication, transportation and installation of these facilities.

All the above activities require geophysical and geotechnical surveys of the
proposed location/site.
Exploration and Development
Sea floor and subsurface data are required for the following objectives:
- to optimise the design of the subsurface seismic program and to aid in
interpretation of survey results
- to assess regional and site-specific geohazards
- to optimise the selection of drilling rigs and placement of drill holes
- to define design parameters for sea floor installations
- to assess the environmental impacts of exploration of offshore oil/gas

The techniques used to map and interpret

the features and characteristics of the sea
floor and subsurface include:
- swathe/multibeam bathymetry
- side scan sonar
- acoustic seabed classification
- high resolution seismic reflection
profiling
- visual observations
- seabed sampling
- laboratory testing and in situ
measurement
Swath Bathymetry
The most significant advancement in seabed mapping technologies has
been the multibeam surveys for both precise water depth measurement
and mapping of sea floor morphological features.

The widespread application of multibeam techniques has been facilitated

by the combination of accurate positioning through GPS, high-speed digital
data acquisition systems and advancements in digital data processing
techniques.

With achievable swath widths on the order 5-10 times water depth, high-
resolution bathymetric maps with complete coverage can be readily
developed.

Swath systems have also provided valuable information for the mapping
and interpretation of surficial morphological features, and for the accurate
assessment of submarine slope stability.
Side Scan Sonar
SSS systems have long been the traditional method for imaging the sea
floor for purposes of surficial morphological assessment. It uses a wide-
angle beam to measure the acoustic reflectivity of the sea floor, providing
information on texture in addition to morphology.

SSS systems do not give accurate depth, however horizontal resolution is

much higher, allowing better resolution of seabed morphology. Recent
improvements in transducers and system electronics have led to
significant increases in signal quality. With digital systems and
sophisticated processing software, it greatly improves the data
presentation such as scale-corrected mosaics of the sea floor.
Acoustic Seabed Classification
Both sidescan sonar and multibeam systems provide measurements of
acoustic backscatter, or seabed reflectivity. The backscatter acoustic
characteristics/properties can be used to determine the material composition
of the seabed (eg. soft mud, sand and gravel, bedrock etc.).
The acoustic seabed classification system analyze a suite of characteristics
of the return signal to statistically group the surveyed seabed into a number
of distinct classes.

Each classes represents a

unique combination of
physical and biological
characteristics. Maps of the
survey area can then be
developed showing the
spatial extent of each
classes.

Seabed classification can be used as a preliminary survey tool to select

sites for in situ seabed investigations, and as a reliable method for
mapping seabed diversity by the scientific community.
High Resolution Seismic Profiling
Multibeam and SSS systems give 2D, plan view of the sea floor. Seismic
profiling methods are used to view the seabed as 2D, vertical slices,
allowing subsurface definition of features such as faults, historic failure
surfaces, and sub-bottom horizons

These methods use low-frequency acoustic signals so as to allow signal

penetration into the seabed. High resolution seismic typically use higher
frequency than those used in deep seismic, permitting the near-surface
structures to be mapped in greater detail, but reducing the penetration.

The major advancements have

been in the digital processing
of the signal, allowing for easier
interpretation of reflectors and
sub-bottom features.
Visual Observations
Visual observations are invaluable for a number of uses, including the
ground-truthing of geophysical survey information.
Seabed images can be collected from frame-
mounted cameras dropped over the side of a
ship, from still or video cameras mounted on a
fish (ROV, AUV, UUV).

Shallow sampling near sea floor is generally

carried out using weighted core tubes dropped
from a distance above the seafloor.

For deeper sampling, a casing is lowered from

a drill-ship for seabed drilling to the required
depths.
Initial Planning
The aim is to ensure that the site survey is planned correctly and efficiently
and that maximum use is made of available data. The following prompts
may aid in this review:

- is there any possibility of a change of surface location then any planned

survey may need to be expanded to include alternative locations

- are there restrictions limiting the time of the year that certain survey
activities can be undertaken

- is there a history of shallow gas, other restrictions to drilling, leg

penetration problems, and the presence of boulders within the shallow
geological sequence

- an examination of 2D and 3D exploration seismic data may indicate

areas of potential shallow gas accumulations, fault, potential leakage
paths for deep sourced over pressured gas etc. In deep water surveys
gas hydrates may effect the type of survey commissioned.
- the review may also help to determine the areal extent for the planned
site survey coverage both to ensure that potential problems are
adequately surveyed

- an examination of nearby existing site survey data and reports may

indicate where problems can be expected, help to determine optimum
survey instrumentation and techniques, and contractor expertise.

- the type of drilling rig will determine the nature and extend of the site
survey and optimum instrumentation. Jack-up drilling rigs require detailed
shallow soils information.

- a review of in-date Admiralty Charts should show existing infrastructure

and other features (wrecks, cables etc).

- the water depth will dictate the geophysical instrumentation

Geophysical Surveys

General Requirements
i) Location co-ordinates
The coordinates are expressed in terms of degrees, minutes and seconds of
latitude and longitude are required. The coordinates should be given to at
least 2/3 decimal places of precision and should also include details of the
datum and projection used.

ii) Location of Water Depth

The water depth at the location, refered to chart datum (CD) or lowest
astronomical tide (LAT) is required.

iii) Survey Line Spacing

The line spacing should meet the survey needs and local foundation
conditions. For independent leg drilling units (jack-up), where the seabed
topography and/or shallow soils are complex then a narrower spacing may be
necessary.

For floating rigs, where anchors are to be deployed, the survey area should
encompass the expected limit of any anchor plus 1 km.
iv) Bathymetric Survey
A bathymetric survey with line spacing not greater than 100 m should be
supplied for an area of 1 km squared centred on the proposed location. For
independent leg units with large foundations, interlining is to be performed
within an area 200 m x 200 m centred on the location with line spacing not
exceeding 25 m.

v) Seabed Surface Surveys

Seabed surface survey shall be completed utilizing side scan sonar, swathe
bathymetry and high resolution echo sounder techniques. The survey should
be of sufficient competency to identify obstructions and seabed features and
should cover the immediate area of the intended location (1 km square).

Each jack-up rig site survey should include a magnetometer survey to

identify any buried pipelines, cables or other metallic debris located below
the mudline. A magnetometer survey may less crucial for semi-submersible
installations, however should the presence of the above hazardous objects,
the survey should be performed.
Seabed surface surveys can become out-of-date, particularly in areas of
construction/drilling activity or areas with mobile sediments. As a general
rule, seabed surface surveys should be re-run at every 6 months.

vi) Shallow Seismic Surveys

The aim is to reveal the near-surface geological structure and indicate and
indicate reflectors which may represent a change in soil characteristics. This
Requires the correlation of the seismic data with soil borings in the vicinity.
Shallow seismic data may also reveal any shallow gas that may be present
at a particular location.

The seismic survey should be capable of providing information to a depth at

least 30 m below mudline. The report should include at least 2 vertical
cross-sections passing through the drilling location showing all relevant
reflectors and allied information.

Line spacing should not be greater than 100 m. the survey shall be
interpreted by the competent persons. Every effort should be made in the
interpretation to comment on the soil types and strengths, which will require
correlation with a borehole.
Geotechnical Investigations
i) Requirements
This data acquisition is recommended if
- no soils data is available,
- the location foundation conditions are known to be potentially hazardous
- and where the shallow seismic data cannot be interpreted.

The number of boreholes should account the lateral variability of the soil
conditions, regional experience and the geophysical investigation. When a
single borehole is made, the preferred location is at the centre of the leg
intended location.

A borehole may not be required if there is sufficient historical data in close

proximity to the proposed jack-up location.

The borehole should comprise a minimum of one borehole to a depth

equal to 30 m. All layers shall be adequately investigated, such that the
geotechnical properties of all layers are known, analyzed by a competent
person. Additional laboratory testing to determine the cyclic/dynamic
behavior and shear moduli may be required.
Correlating seismic with well log data
Drilling a well provide “ground truth” to a seismic interpretation
ii) Sampling/Testing
The site investigation should comprise undisturbed soil sampling. If anchor
holding is critical then consideration should be given to obtaining and
testing soil samples at specific anchor locations.
Bottom Sampling and Shallow Coring
Bottom samples are obtained by dropping a weighted tube to the ocean
floor and recovering it with an attached wire line. Shallow coring is
performed by conventional rotary drilling to obtain a near-surface sample.

Deep Stratigraphic Tests

It means “drilling which invloves the penetration into the sea bottom of more
than 50 feet of consolidated rock or a total of more than 300 feet”. These
wells are drilled primarily to gather geological information.
 Grab

Piston Core
Geophysical Site Survey Requirements

1) Jack-Ups
Essential 1 km x 1 km survey (centred on prospect) including

- BATHYMETRY (echo sounder and swathe/multibeam techniques)

- SITE CLEARENCE / SIDE SCAN SONAR SURVEY

(conventional or swath, ROV survey, scanning radar imagery or divers
- depending on field experience)

- MAGNETOMETER SURVEY (buried metallic objects)

- SUB-BOTTOM PROFILING & SHALLOW GAS SURVEY

(pinger, boomer, sparker, airgun etc.)

- DROP CORES / GRAB SAMPLES

(to assist in geophysical intepretation
2) Semi-submersibles
Essential survey over mooring line spread area, including

- BATHYMETRY (echo sounder and swathe/multibeam techniques)

- SIDESCAN SONAR SURVEY (conventional or swathe)

- SUB-BOTTOM PROFILING & SHALLOW GAS SURVEY

(pinger, boomer, sparker, airgun etc.)

- MAGNETOMETER SURVEY
(buried metallic objects) – if considered necessary

- DROP CORES / GRAB SAMPLES

(to assist in geophysical interpretation)
Recommended Survey parameters
- Position control
Accuracy should be better than ± 5 m.
- Survey speed
should be maintained between 3.5 – 4.5 knots in order to obtain optimum
side scan sonar and seismic data quality
- Side scan sonar frequency
for obstruction identification should be not less than 100 kHz
- Side scan sonar range
for obstruction identification should not exceed 200 m for standard 100
kHz systems. The maximum range selected for 500 kHz should not
exceed 100 m.
- Side scan sonar height above seabed is recommended 10-15% of the
selected range.
- Magnetometer sensitivity
to be better than 1 Gamma at a sampling interval of 1 second or less.
sufficient cable should be available to ensure that the sensor can be
deployed at least 4 times the vessel length astern.
Offshore Oil Drilling & Production
Following seismic and data analysis, an exploration and delineation drilling
program is developed. A local geophysical survey and geotechnical
investigation is undertaken around the drilling locations to identify the
geological and environmental hazards and risks, before finalizing the
actual location.

In order to drill through

thousands of metres of
rock, we need a large
amount of equipment that
is packaged and called a
‘platform’ or ‘drilling rig’.

Exploratory drilling and

production can be carried
out from various platforms;
jacket barge (fixed
platform), jack-up rig, semi-
submersible unit and drill
ship.
Fixed Platforms
Ideal for shallow water (< 50
m). This consists of a jacket
and deck. The jacket, or
framework of steel legs, is
placed on the seabed and
anchored by driving huge
“nails” through the legs into
the seabed. A crane barge is
then used to install a deck on
the jacket as a platform for
the drilling apparatus.
Jack-Up Platforms
The special design of jack-up platforms means they can be used in water
about 100 m. The platform is towed into position with its legs raised. Once in
position, the legs are lowered until they reach the seabed and then the
platform is cranked up to the required height above the waves. Once drilling
operations are completed, the legs are cranked up again and the structure is
towed to another site.
Semi-Submersible Platforms
When working in deep water, it is difficult to build a structure that will sit on
the seabed, so a semi-submersible platform is used. Once it has been
towed to the site, built-in ballast tanks are filled with water and the platform
sinks down by about 25 m, enough to minimize the effect of swell and
stabilize the structure. The only limitation on the use of this platform is the
length of the anchor chain required.
Drilling Vessels
Specially-built ships equipped with dynamic positioning apparatus can drill
in water more than 2000 m deep. GPS navigation systems and underwater
acoustic positioning systems placed on the seabed send continuous signals
allowing the vessel to be accurately positioned relative to the well. The ship
uses multiple thrusters to maintain its position by counteracting the effect of
wind, swell and currents.
Details of Resolution and Approximate Penetration of Different Geophysical
Data Acquisition Methods
Details of Possible Soil Surveys for a Jack-Up Installation
Marine Pipeline Route Surveys

Oil and Gas Pipelines

The ability to transport produced hydrocarbons has always been an
important factor in the successful development of oil and gas field.
Historically, pipelines have been the most common means used to transport
crude oil from offshore to the shore.

Normaly pipelines with diameters ≥ 8 inches or regardless the size but may
constitue a hazard that are installed in water depths < 200 ft are to be burried
of at least 3 ft below the mudline.

The purpose is to reduce the movement of pipelines from the external

damage that could result from anchors and fishing gear, to reduce the risk of
fishing gear becoming snagged, and to minimize interference with the
operations of other users. If pipelines to cross a fairway or anchorage waters,
it must be buried to a minimum depth of 10 ft (across a fairway) and 16 ft
(across an anchorage area). Deeper buried than the minimum is
recommended.
Route Surveys
Pipeline installation activities can be difficult both in terms of route selection
and construction. The sea bottom surface can be extremely
irregular/rugged which may caused terrain-induced pressures within the
pipe. It can also result in unacceptable long lengths of unsupported pipeline
(spanning), which could lead to pipe failure from bending stress.

In selecting a satisfactory route for offshore pipeline, a field hazards survey

should be performed to identify potential hazards such as sunken vessels,
piling, wells, manmade structures etc. The bottom topographic and geologic
features and soil characteristics should be determined.

Data on normal and storm winds, waves and current, and marine activity
should be obtained where available. In areas where soil characteristics will
be a factor in design, on-site samples should be acquired.

After analyzing survey data, the designer chooses a route that minimizes
pipeline length and avoids areas of seafloor geologic structures and
obstructions that might cause excessive pipe spanning, unstable seaflor,
and potential benthic communities.
The route of an pipeline should be thoroughly analyzed using the data from
available charts, maps, other sources of relevant information, and a field
hazards survey.

Whenever practical, the selected route should avoid anchorage areas;

existing underwater objects such as sunken vessels and pilings; active
faults; rock outcrops; and mud slide areas.

The selection of route should take into account the installation methods
applicable and should minimise the resulting stresses. The route of the
pipeline should be shown on maps of an appropriate scale.

The following are other factors that should be considered when selecting the
route:

- type and intensity of shipping and the presence of anchoring zones

- type and intensity of fishing activity
- presence of fishing grounds and other sensitive areas
- presence of other pipelines, installations or wellheads
- presence of regularly dredged areas and dumping grounds
Therefore a geophysical survey will need to be performed along the
proposed route of the marine pipeline to collect information on:

- seabed topography and bathymetry

by echo-sounding or swathe bathymetry. The latter is particularly
important in sand wave areas or other areas of generally uneven
seabed.

- seabed features and obstructions

by methods such as side scan sonar

- profiling of uppermost 5 m, or so, of seabed

by means of reflection seismic techniques (sub bottom profiling).

- detection of existing cables, pipelines and other metallic obstructions

by means of a towed magnetometer, however, note is made that not all
metallic objects may be detected, in particular small fibre optic cables.

- seabed soil information (soil type, grain size, boulders etc.)

- environmental and oceanographic data

As a general rule, the width of the survey corridor is between 500-1000 m,
centred on the proposed pipeline route. The actual width is influenced by
factors such as water depth, seabed features and the need to provide a
degree of flexibility in routing.

Shore approach corridors to be around 500 m wide, whereas areas in

deeper water with undulating topography may need corridors of 1000 m to
allow re-routing based on detailed engineering, to minimize the number of
potential free-spans for example.

If the geotechnical survey is to be performed it is to collect some soil

samples by grab or gravity core to aid the immediate interpretation of
surface and sub-bottom profiling data.

The geotechnical investigation will normally be performed on completion of

the geophysical survey, and after the route has been determined. This
allows for sample and test locations to be more effectively targetted to
identify soil strata changes, clarify apparent anomalies or investigate
specific seabed features.
 GeoBAS Survey
BAS (burial assessment survey) is used to provide continuous
quantitative information for the first few metres of soil below seabed.
Available method include seismic refraction systems.

Geotechnical Survey
The goetechnical survey will typically encompass:
- coring and sampling for material identification, description and
subsequent laboratory testing
- in situ testing for accurate stratification

Data coverage
The spacing of soil sampling and testing locations will depend on the
lateral variability in the ground conditions revealed by the geophysical
survey phases.
-
Factors that should be considered include:
- Trenching requirements including
depth of trench, method of trenching, trench side stability
- method of backfilling
- surface features or obstructions for example sand waves, boulders etc.
- size, purpose, location and foundation type of any seabed structure
Geophysical Surveys
Total water depth is needed to determine external water pressure on the
pipe and wave effects on the bottom sediments. The trenching, laying and
burying methods will also be dependent on water depth. The seabed
topography will influence the support conditions of the pipe, the formation
of free spans and the stability of the seabed itself.

Seismic profiling is necessary to define the extent and variations of the

various soils deposits along the pipeline route. The equipment used should
give good resolution for the shallow layers down to about 10 m depth for
definition of erodable material, applicability of trenching methods and
stability of the pipeline itself.

Geophysical Equipment
The geophysical equipment used for pipeline route surveys should include
as a minimum:

- echo-sounder (single-beam or multi-beam)

- sidescan sonar
- sub-bottom profiler
- magnetometer
Seabed/Geotechnical Properties
All the geotechnical properties which are necessary for evaluating the
effects of relevant loading conditions are to be determined for the seabed
deposits, including possible unstable deposits.

In areas where the seabed material is subject to erosion, special studies of

the current and wave conditions near the bottom may be required for the on-
bottom stability calculations and the assessment of pipeline span.

Special investigation of the seabed material may be required to evaluate

specific problems, as for example:

- problems with respect to excavation and burial operations

- possibilities of mud slides or liquefaction as the result of repeated loading

- implications on external corrosion

Geotechnical Equipment
The most commonly tool is vibrocore sampling. If seabed soils are soft,
gravity cores may be used.

Vibrocorer Sampling
Comprises a steel tube with inner plastic liner which is vibrated into the
seabed by an electric motor. Depth of penetration can be up to 8 m.
Limitations include sample disturbance in very soft/loose soils and limited
penetration in hard seabed and limited to water depths of 800 m.

Gravity Corer
Similar to vibrocorer, but with weights rather than vibration causing
penetration.

Grab Sampler
A simple device, which recovers a sample of seabed soil. It can be used on
hard seabed where gravity cores may not recover any material.

Rock Corer
A seabed mounted rotary coring system. They are hydraulically powered
from the ship.