Filters

Classification on the basis of technology 1. Passive filters Passive linear filters are implemented as combinations of resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C). These are collectively known as passive filters, because they do not depend upon an external power supply and/or they do not contain active components such as transistors. Inductors block high-frequency signals and conduct low-frequency signals, while capacitors do the reverse. A filter in which the signal passes through an inductor, or in which a capacitor provides a path to ground, presents less attenuation to low-frequency signals than high-frequency signals and is a low-pass filter. If the signal passes through a capacitor, or has a path to ground through an inductor, then the filter presents less attenuation to high-frequency signals than low-frequency signals and is a high-pass filter. Resistors on their own have no frequency-selective properties, but are added to inductors and capacitors to determine the time-constants of the circuit, and therefore the frequencies to which it responds. 2. Active Filters Active filters are implemented using a combination of passive and active (amplifying) components, and require an outside power source. Operational amplifiers are frequently used in active filter designs. These can have high Q factor, and can achieve resonance without the use of inductors. However, their upper frequency limit is limited by the bandwidth of the amplifiers used. Classification based on Design Methodology 1. High Pass Filter A high-pass filter is an LTI filter that passes high frequencies well but attenuates (i.e., reduces the amplitude of) frequencies lower than the filter's cutoff frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency is a design parameter of the filter. A high-pass filter's task is to offer easy passage of a high-frequency signal and difficult passage to a low-frequency signal. This filter has no output voltage from DC (0 Hz), up to a specified cut-off frequency (cutoff) point. This lower cut-off frequency point is 70.7% or -3dB (dB = -20log Vout/Vin) of the output voltage allowed to pass. The frequency range below this cut-off point is generally known as the Stop Band while the range above it is called the Pass Band. The phase angle of the output signal at cutoff is +45o. The cutoff frequency or -3dB point can be found using the formula:

The capacitive and inductive implementations of a high pass filter are given below:

Figure 1 Capacitive High Pass Filter

Figure 2 Inductive high-pass filter.

Figure 3 Frequency response of a high pass filter We can see above that capacitive high-pass filters insert a capacitor in series with the load while inductive high-pass filters insert a resistor in series and an inductor in parallel with the load. The former filter design tries to block the unwanted frequency signal while the latter tries to short it out. A very common application of a passive high pass filter, is in audio amplifiers as a coupling capacitor between two audio amplifier stages and in speaker systems to direct the higher frequency signals to the smaller "tweeter" type speakers while blocking the lower bass signals or are also used as filters to reduce any low frequency noise or "rumble" type distortion. When used like this in audio applications the high pass filter is sometimes called a "low-cut", or "bass cut" filter.

2. Low Pass Filter A low-pass filter is a filter that passes low-frequency signals but attenuates signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. It is sometimes called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter when used in audio applications. A low-pass filter is the opposite of a high-pass filter. The Low Pass Filter has a constant output voltage from DC (0Hz) up to a specified Cutoff frequency (cutoff) point. This cut-off frequency point is 0.707 or -3dB of the voltage gain allowed to pass. The frequency range "below" this cut-off point cutoff is known as the Pass Band as the input signal is allowed to pass through the filter, and the frequency range "above" this cut-off point is known as the Stop Band as the input signal is blocked or stopped from passing through. The cut-off frequency or -3dB point, can be found using the formula, c = 1/(2RC). The phase angle of the output signal at cutoff is -45o. There are two basic kinds of circuits capable of accomplishing this objective, and many variations of each one: The inductive low-pass filter (Figure 4) and the capacitive lowpass filter (Figure 5).

Figure 4 Inductive Low Pass Filter

Figure 5 Capacitive Low Pass Filter

Figure 6 Frequency Response of a Low Pass Filter

Inductive low-pass filters insert an inductor in series with the load; capacitive low-pass filters insert a resistor in series and a capacitor in parallel with the load. The former filter design tries to block the unwanted frequency signal while the latter tries to short it out. Applications of passive Low Pass Filters are in audio amplifiers and speaker systems to direct the lower frequency bass signals to the larger bass speakers or to reduce any high frequency noise or "hiss" type distortion. When used like this in audio applications the low pass filter is sometimes called a "high-cut", or "treble cut" filter. 3. Band Pass Filter A Band-Pass Filter is a circuit that only allows a certain range or band of frequencies to pass, while attenuating or rejecting signals whose frequencies are either below a lower cut-off frequency or above an upper cut-off frequency. A simple band-pass filter may be obtained by combining a low-pass filter and a high-pass filter. The range of frequencies that a band-pass filter allows to pass is referred to as the pass band. An ideal band pass filter would have a completely flat pass-band (e.g. with no gain/attenuation throughout) and would completely attenuate all frequencies outside the pass-band. Additionally, the transition out of the pass-band would be instantaneous in frequency. But in practice, no band pass filter is ideal. The filter does not attenuate all frequencies outside the desired frequency range completely; in particular, there is a region just outside the intended pass-band where frequencies are attenuated, but not rejected. This is known as the filter roll-off, and it is usually expressed in dB of attenuation per octave or decade of frequency. Generally, the design of a filter seeks to make the roll-off as narrow as possible, thus allowing the filter to perform as close as possible to its intended design. Often, this is achieved at the expense of pass-band or stop-band ripple. The bandwidth of the filter is the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies.

What emerges from the series combination of these two filter circuits is a circuit that will only allow passage of those frequencies that are neither too high nor too low.

Figure 7 Capacitive Band-Pass Filter

Figure 8 Inductive band-pass filter.

Figure 9 Response of a Band-Pass Filter 4. Band Stop Filter A Band-Stop Filter is a circuit that allows most frequencies to pass, but blocks or attenuates a certain range or band of frequencies. It is also known as a 'bandelimination' filter or a 'band-rejection filter'. The band-stop filter is the opposite of the band-pass filter. The range of frequencies that a band-stop filter blocks is known as the stop band, which is bound by a lower cut-off frequency f1 and a higher cut-off frequency f2. A special type of band-stop filter, known as the 'notch filter', is one whose stop band is very narrow, thus creating a 'notch' in the frequencies allowed to pass. The notch filter is therefore a band-stop filter that has a high Q factor. Combining several notch filters together forms a 'comb filter', which is a filter that has multiple stop bands. An ideal band-stop filter is one whose stop band is completely rejected by it, while allowing all other frequencies to pass unchanged (neither gain nor attenuation). In an ideal band-stop filter, the transition of the response from outside the stop band to within the stop band and vice versa is instantaneous. Of course, an ideal band-stop filter doesn't exist in the real world, i.e., complete attenuation within the stop band can not be achieved while frequencies outside the stop band undergo some level of attenuation.

Also called band-elimination, band-reject, or notch filter, this kind of filter passes all frequencies above and below a particular range set by the component values. It can be made out of a low-pass and a high-pass filter, where we connect the two filter sections in parallel with each other. (Figure 10)

Figure 10 System level block diagram of a band-stop filter.

Figure 11 Twin-T Band-Stop Filter

Figure 12 Response of a Band-Stop Filter

The low-pass filter section is comprised of R1, R2, and C1 in a T configuration. The high-pass filter section is comprised of C2, C3, and R3 in a T configuration as well. Together, this arrangement is commonly known as a Twin-T filter, giving sharp response when the component values are chosen in the following ratios:

Given these component values, the frequency of maximum rejection (the notch frequency) can be calculated using the formula: