LMGEC2033

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
III
GEC 2033
A REFERENCE FOR STUDENTS
ZALINA BINTI KEMAT

(BAC. (Hons) HUMAN SCIENCE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE &
LITERATURE UIA)
KHAIRULNIZAM BIN SHUIB

(BAC. (Hons) MASS COMMUNICATION UiTM)
COMMUNICATION SKILLS III (GEC 2033)
Acknowledgement
We would like to express our gratitude and thanks to ALLAH the
Bestower of Gift who has given us ideas and strength in our way of
completing this module. We would also like to gratefully acknowledge the
contributions of several people who have assisted us in the preparation of
this module. First I would like to thank our Academic Deputy Rector, Madam
Fatimah Binti Sarkawi for her utmost support for us.
Second, to our beloved college directors, Mr Mohd Rusli Bin Ab

Wahab and Mr Ramli Bin Mohd Jawi for providing us with facilities to help
completing this module. Not to forget to our mentor Madam Aidahani Bin
Ahmad and Mr Taufik Bin Alias who have encouraged us in our mission of
compiling, updating and producing this learning module.
Last but not least, to all colleagues who have directly or indirectly
helped in the preparation of this learning module. May ALLAH bless all of
you.
Thank you.
Zalina Kemat
Khairulnizam Shuib
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Preface
Having appropriate skills in communication is currently in high
demand in today’s job market. After the completion of Communication Skills
1 and 2 which are offered in the earlier semesters, Communication Skills 3 is
now the continuation in providing ‘soft skills’ to students.
Comprises of four main chapters in this module which are Mass

Communication, Public Relations, Research Skills and Job Interview, this
subject offers students a fundamental concept in each area.
The purposes of this module are to help students understand some

concepts in communication and also apply the appropriate skills in producing
communication materials, completing a research paper and also preparation
for job interview.
Students are expected to acquire knowledge in mass

communication, printed media, research methods and job interview in which
various skills can be achieved by designing printed materials such as
notices, advertisements, press release, invitations, articles etc.
They will also be exposed on the tips for successfully attending a job
interview which requires them to attend a Mock Interview that will give
benefit and exposure for them before completing their studies.
This module perhaps can be a useful tool for undergraduates to

equip themselves with sufficient skills especially in communication in order to
be among the choice of future employers.
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Contents
CHAPTER 1 MASS COMMUNICATION
1.1 Objectives, learning outcomes and outline 6

1.2 Advertisements 7
1.3 Leaflets 11
1.4 Notices 15
1.5 Questionnaires 18
1.6 Press Release 21
1.7 House Journals 26
1.8 Invitations 29
CHAPTER 2 PUBLIC RELATIONS

2.2 Definition and Concept 35
2.3 Public Relations and Advertising 42
2.4 Qualities Needed By the PR Practitioner 51
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH SKILLS

3.2 Steps in writing 60
3.3 Editing: An Essential Ingredient 64
3.4 Edit for Clarity 65
3.5 Edit for Conciseness 74
3.6 Edit for Coherence 79
3.7 Edit for Convention of Standard English 84
3.8 Edit for Consistency and Accuracy 94
3.9 Research Methodologies 103
3.10 Developing Research, Choosing and Limiting the Topic 106
3.11 Methods for Gathering Sources 107
3.12 Research Outline and Thesis Statement 111
3.13 Requirement for a Thesis Statement 113
3.14 Taking Notes, Quoting and Paraphrasing 118
3.15 Literature Survey (Review) 122
3.16 Survey and Questionnaires 123
3.17 Finding and Analysis 126
3.18 The Written Report – Integral Parts 128
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3.19 Parenthetical 130

3.20 Footnotes and Endnotes 132
3.21 What is Bibliography 134
CHAPTER 4 JOB INTERVIEW

4.2 Understanding Words and Expression in Advertisements 139
4.3 Common Abbreviations Used in Job Advertisement 142
4.4 Application Letter 143
4.5 Writing a Covering Letter 144
4.6 Application Forms and Resume (CV) 147
4.7 Contents in CV 149
4.8 Interview Preparation 152
4.9 Sample of Thank-You- Letter 153
4.10 Expected Questions during an Interview 154
4.11 Characteristics of an Interviewee 155
4.12 Interviewer (Points for interviewer) 156
APPENDICES
Sample of Interview Assessment Form 157

Sample of Application Form 158
Sample of Letter of Acceptance and Letter of Refusal 159
Sample of Job Offer Letter 161
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MASS COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER
OBJECTIVES
1. To show students the correct format in designing mass
communication materials such as notices, press
releases, advertisements, bulletins, leaflets and
brochures.
2. To understand the reasons why mass communication

materials are produced.
3. To show the correct guidelines in designing the

materials.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the chapter, students will be able to:
1. Design the mass communication materials correctly.
2. Explain the reasons of having the materials as part of

communication method.
3. Fully utilize the guidelines given in designing the

materials.
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
This chapter will discuss on the following topics:
1. Advertisement – Reasons of Having Ads, Types of Ads

and Guidelines in Designing Ads
2. Leaflets – The purpose and Guidelines in Designing
3. Notices – The purpose and Guidelines in Designing
4. Press Release – Definition, Reasons, Writing Skills and

Format/Layout
5. House Journals – Category of Information and Writing An

Article
6. Invitations – Details in Formal Invitation and Reply

Invitation
1.2 ADVERTISEMENTS
1. Purpose of Advertisement
Various kinds of advertisement may be placed in newspapers or

magazines for a variety of reasons:
• to advertise vacant jobs

• to promote products or services
• to announce special events or functions
• to publicizes changes in the organisation
2. Types
The ‘Classified Advertisements’ sections of newspapers enable quick

reference to a wide range of advertisements which are categorised
according to subject.
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In line advertisements the information is run on from line to line

often using the same typeface throughout, with no special layout.
Charges are made by the line, normally with a minimum charge for
three or four lines. In such advertisements, an opening should be
made which catches the reader’s attention, and then as much
abbreviated information as possible should be contained in as few
lines as possible.
Example of line advertisement:
Beautiful carved oak dining set includes table with pull out extensions,
buffet and 6 chairs. Dining table is 38"W X 60"L X 30"H, extends to 94"L.
Buffet is 67"L X 20"W X 36"H. Call 206-363-4966 or 206-427-6879 for
more information. Best offer.
Acer Ferrari 4005WLMi . Operating System: MS Windows XP Professional.

Hard Drive Capacity: 100 GB . Processor Name: Mobile AMD Turion 64
ML-37 . Processor Speed: 2.0 GHz . Memory (RAM): 1 GB Primary Drive:
DVD+/-RW . Screen Size: 15.4 inches (1680 x 1050). Operating System:
Windows XP Professional . Graphics Card: ATI Radeon x700 (128MB
Dedicated Memory). Networking Options: 802.11g, Built-in Bluetooth.
Primary Optical Drive: Slot Loaded DVD+/-RW.. Card Reader: 5 in 1 Card
Reader. Modem/LAN: 56K, 10/100/1000 Base T BT. Flash Card Reader: 5-
in-1 card reader - Multimedia Card , Secure Digital card, Memory Stick ,
Memory Stick PRO or xD-Picture Card . Ports: DVI, VGA, 4 USB 2.0, IEEE
1394 Firewire, RJ-11 Phone Jack, RJ-45 Gigabit Network Jack, Audio Out,
Mic In, Port Replicator.
Display advertisements may use a variety of typefaces and

sizes, and may be illustrated with artwork or colour. Charges are
based on the number of column centimeters, often with a minimum
size. Information can be displayed within the advertisement to attract
attention to special features.
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Example of display advertisement
Jurudata Services Sdn Bhd

As one of Malaysia’s leading ICT companies, Jurudata Services (part of
Sapura Group of Companies) maintains the highest standards in delivering
cost-effective, value-added solutions & services to both local and global
organizations. Join us today and discover the opportunities that will put you
ahead.
System Engineer
(Kuala Lumpur - Kuala Lumpur)
Responsibilities:
• Provide consultancy services in Microsoft Windows Server systems

such as Windows Server 200x, Exchange Server 200x;
• Data migration / deployment / administer / training of Windows

Exchange Server 2007, Windows Office Communication Server 2007
Requirements:
• Candidate must possess at least a Bachelor's Degree, Post Graduate

Diploma or Professional Degree in Engineering
(Computer/Telecommunication), Computer Science/Information
Technology or equivalent.
• Required skill(s): Windows Server, Exchange Server, Active Directory.
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• Required language(s): English, Bahasa Malaysia
• Working experience in the field of unified communication is preferred
• Preferably Junior Executives specializing in IT/Computer -

Network/System/Database Admin or equivalent.
For further enquiries and interested applicants, please send your resume to:
Miss Ang Ley Yen, Human Resource Manager, Lot 2-5B, Incubator 2,
Technology Park Malaysia, Lebuhraya Puchong Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur
67000
Tel/fax: 03-2323565/03-2323567
3. Designing advertisements
Designing an advertisement is actually an exercise in summarizing. It

is important to pick out the main points, features, advantages, or
whatever is relevant to the theme of the advertisement. (In
assignments, you will be required to read a passage and then pick out
the relevant points to design a suitable advertisement for a specific
purpose.)
It is essential to try to ensure that your advertisement will be

‘seen’ on the page of the newspaper or magazine. If it is
displayed unattractively, it will not achieve this objective.
Here are some general guidelines to follow when designing
an advertisement:
• Use a company logo, prominently displayed.

• Whatever is being advertised (whether it is a job, product or special
event) display a headline prominently in capitals, spaced capitals
or bold type.
• Use your initiative to break up the information; perhaps various
points should be listed (use an asterisk or bullet point to display
each point on a new line).
• Use spacing to advantage, giving special items prominence.
• Try to achieve a progressive display, categorizing information,
leading finally to action required by the reader.
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• Your advertisement should be eye-catching and you should aim to

ensure that it stands out from other advertisements which will be
placed along side it.
1.3 LEAFLETS
1. Purpose
Organizations often produce leaflets or brochures to publicize

goods, services or special events/promotions, or maybe just giving
information. Such leaflets may take the form of a single page, or could
perhaps be designed as a folded document – A 4 size folded once or
twice, to make a 4-page or 6-page leaflet.
Here are some examples:
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12
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2. Designing leaflets
Front cover
• The front cover should give specific details of what the leaflet
contains.
• Keep it brief and to the point. Do not overload it with information
which should be inside the leaflet.
• Use different size print, and colour if possible, to give headings
emphasis.
• Display the information effectively.
Inside pages
• Consider carefully the information which needs to be included in
the main body of the leaflet. Break it up according to different
aspects of the main theme.
• Use sub-headings.
• Use bullet points or asterisks rather than long, rambling
paragraphs.
• Use straightforward, simple language and short sentences.
• Aim for an effective and attractive display.
Final page
• Reach some kind of conclusion, or action section if appropriate.
• Give full details where a response is required – what to do, name,
address, telephone number.
• If a portion is to be completed, give simple headings and ensure
sufficient space is left for completion. (Refer to Unit 13 on form
design).
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ASSIGNMENTS
1 Your employer has the following to say to you.

Design an appropriate advertisement:
‘We need someone, male or female, who is reasonably

intelligent – a couple
of GCE A levels would be necessary. Must not be too young
though, probably between 25 and 35. Ability to type would be
helpful but not essential, as we do have the services of Mary.
What she needs is lots of common sense, and the ability to
work on her own. I’m talking about the person to assist Mr.
Jones in the Sales Department. He really needs an Assistant
who can cope while he is away so much. Good telephone
manner and diplomacy are essential for the job. If you’re rude
to the customers, you’ve had it. Good old- fashioned politeness
– that’s what we want. Usual knowledge of office practice of
course. Good salary, 4 weeks holiday, luncheon vouchers’
Design an advertisement in not more than 25 words.
2 Design a 6-page leaflet giving full details about the courses

available at your school or college.
3 Your company will be moving to another site next month. Write a

leaflet which can be distributed to customers informing them of the
date of the move, the new address, for how long – if at all – it will
affect the smooth running of the business, and any other
information you think is required.
4 Your boss at Newton Furniture, Mrs. Sue Fowler, says to you, ‘You
are following an evening study course and I would like some of our
junior staff to do the same. The company will pay the tuition fees
and traveling expenses of staffs that enroll for a recognized course.
Would you mind drafting a leaflet which I can give to staff, detailing
the advantages they would gain from a course of evening study?
Obviously the staff with qualifications will stand a better chance of
promotion than those without any.’
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1.4 NOTICES
Many companies have notice boards posted around the offices

which serve as a means of mass communication. Unlike a memo,
however, there is no direct line of communication from the writer of the
notice to the people who read it. This means the writer may not know
if the notice has been understood or if it has secured co-operation.
A notice board system should be well-organized, with one

person in charge of each board. His/her responsibilities will include
removal of obsolete notices, sectioning off under appropriate sub-
headings, perhaps using a colored tape, and retaining ‘dead’ notices
for a short while in case of queries.
1. Purpose
Notices can serve a number of purposes:

• to announce social events
• to report on matters of general interest to employees
• to inform staff of new procedures
• to advertise posts for internal appointment
• to remind staff of procedures
2. Designing notices
You need to ensure that your notice is ‘seen’, and acted upon where
necessary. Long, rambling paragraphs will not achieve this aim.
Your notice must contain the essential information attractively
displayed so that it secures attention, and co-operation. The following
guidelines may be useful:
• Use different size print to emphasize headings.

• Use sub-headings to break up the main information logically, if
appropriate.
• Use asterisk/bullet points for displaying individual points on
separate lines.
• Display the notice attractively, using the A5 or A4 paper effectively.
Leave spaces between headings and different sections
consistently.
• Include the name of the person issuing the notice at the bottom,
together with date of issue and a reference.
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Examples
Attention To all KPTMBP’s

Students
Election Day will be held on Tuesday, 9 August 2005

from 10.00am until 3.00pm.
All students are required to vote for their favorite

candidates.
How to vote??
i. Go to level 4
ii. Take your vote paper and sign your attendance
iii. You can only vote for ONE candidate.
iv. PUT YOUR VOTE PAPER IN THE BOX
PROVIDED
v. You have completed your responsibility as
KPTMBP’s student.
Please be aware that attendance will be taken and strict

action will be imposed to those who fail to vote.
STUDENTS WILL BE FINE RM20 FOR

FAILING TO VOTE.
Any enquiry, please come and see Madam Zalina at Level 1 or Madam
Jihadah at Level 2.
Issued by:
Students’ Affair Executive
12 July 2005
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ASSIGNMENTS
1 The company for which you work has recently installed a

computer network with a workstation in each department.
Many of the staffs are unaware of how easily the floppy disks
can be damaged, with the result that some have had to be
replaced within the first week.
Prepare a notice for display in all departments on the correct
use and care of floppy disks. (Five points must be mentioned).
2 In two weeks time new car parking arrangements will take

effect in your company, and the Managing Director wishes a
notice to be placed on all company notice boards outlining
arrangements. Staffs are to park only in the areas indicated on
the plan which will be placed alongside the notice. Red permits
will be issued to all staff with cars within the next few days.
These permits must be displayed on their cars at all times.
Staff expecting visitors should inform such visitors that they will
be required to report to the security gate on arrival. They will
be issued with green permits and directed to the visitors’ car
park. The security guard should be given advance notification
of any expected visitors. The notice should also stress that
unauthorized parking will lead to problems for the many large
lorries which deliver raw materials and collect goods from your
factory.
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3 Your company, Brook Stationary, has been informed that the

Cotter Road Sports and Social Club will be available for renting
from the beginning of August this year. It has facilities for many
indoor and outdoor sports and a large club house, which is
ideal for social activities. Richard Smith, the Office Manager,
tells you that Brook’s directors are willing to rent it if there is
sufficient demand from the staff for such facilities, and asks you
to draft a notice to be placed on the staff notice board in the
canteen giving this information and asking staff for their
reactions to this proposal. Draft the notice.
1.5 QUESTIONNAIRES
Questionnaires are a special type of form. They are designed to
record opinions or suggestions form different groups of people. They
are widely used in business for a variety of reasons:
• To research the preferences of consumers
• To investigate public attitudes to major issues
• To request the opinions of staff on internal issues.
1. Types of question
1. Closed questions require particular answers. The most basic closed
questions are those requiring yes/no answers:
-- Have you bought any drinks from
the college vending machines during
the past month? Yes/No
Do you feel a vending machine for

snacks should be provided? Yes/No (please
delete)
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2. Multiple choice questions are those giving a list of responses to

be ticked. This type of question needs planning carefully to ensure
complete coverage of possible answers:
Which of the following drinks have you bought?
Coffee Seven-Up
Tea Coke
Chocolate Orange
(Please tick)
3. Rating or preference questions ask for an opinion, and gradings

are provided for ticking :
What is your opinion on the quality of the drinks?
Good Average Poor
Coffee
Tea
Chocolate
Seven-Up
Coke
Orange
(Please tick)
4. Open question invites comment:
What additional items would you like to be available from college vending
machines?
Drinks
Snacks
Always ensure that sufficient space if left for open answers. Where
general comments are requested allow more than one line.
Remember that you may need to write a report as a result of
the findings from your questionnaire, so you must be able to present
the results in tabular or diagrammatic form.
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ASSIGNMENTS
1 You have been asked to research whether or not it would be

feasible to introduce a system of Flexi time in your company.
Design a short questionnaire to find out if staff would welcome
such a change of times and routines. Write a covering
memorandum also.
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1.6 PRESS RELEASES
1. Definition
A press release is an announcement made to the press
and other media about anything which is considered to be
newsworthy. It can obtain useful free publicity for those who
issue the press release.
However, 90 percent of press releases issued are thrown

straight into the editor’s waste paper basket – only 5-10 per
cent is used. With this in mind, special techniques must be
adopted when compiling press releases.
2. Reasons
Some reasons why a company may send a press
release to the media are:
• Relocation of offices
• Introduction of new products
• Purchase of new buildings
• Move to new premises
• Changes in top personnel
3. Writing Style
The following writing style is suggested:
• Headline: Compose an interesting, snappy
headline that tells the story
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• Opening: Write a good opening paragraph to

grab the editor’s attention. Give the main gist of
the message.
• Middle: Build the rest of the article around
short self-contained paragraphs. Use the third
person as though you are the newspaper editor
talking about your company as a third party.
• Closing: It is often useful to include a
quotation from a key person. Otherwise use a
conclusion or summary as appropriate.
4. Format
The Structure
Think of a pyramid, and when writing a press release,
try to build it in a similar way.
The
peak
opening
paragraph
should give the
gist of the
message
quickly but
briefly
Central paragraphs should be

short and self-contained, so that
they can be cut out if necessary
without ruining the sense or flow.
Finish by concluding or mentioning a

quotation by a key person.
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Wording
• Although you will be writing on behalf of a company, remember

that it should be worded so that it can appear in a newspaper
with as little change as possible. Therefore, do not write as if
the company is ‘speaking’, but as the newspaper would ‘speak’
if they were telling the story – i.e. third person.
• Do not let the press release sound like an advertisement or an
invitation.
• Editors will not read flat, vague, dull, boring or long-winded
press releases. An examiner would have to, of course, but you
would be marked down for poor style, even if your format were
perfect.
• Use short sentences in self-contained paragraphs.
• Write in a snappy, crisp, punchy style.
• The W5 of press releases:
What? - What is happening?
Who? - Who is doing it?
Where? - Where is it happening?
When? - When is it happening?
Why? - Why is it happening/newsworthy?
Layout
A press release is a formal communication from an
organization, so it should be presented on letter headed paper.
The following format is then recommended:
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PRESS RELEASE
UPP/SOH/SBM(01)
January 5, 2005
PUBLICATION DATE: FEBRUARY 14, 2005
Planning A Job Search?

The Times, They Are A Changing
Planning to look for a new job soon? To be effective in your job search, you need to
recognize that the world of employment has changed dramatically in the last few years.
Research has projected that 32% of all advertising budgets for recruitment in the year
2000 will be spent on the Internet.
Quest (http://www.QuestCareer.com) has launched a Web site offering online career

transition assistance. Job seekers can visit this site to receive assistance in their job
search by reviewing resume writing tips (http://www.QuestCareer.com/tips.htm), a
resume before-and-after example http://www.QuestCareer.com/resume_make_over , and
useful career articles. Job seekers can receive further assistance by hiring Quest to
provide resume marketability critiques, resume writing services, guidance in selecting a
career, job interview help, or ongoing career transition assistance and support.
Offering these career transition services via the Internet allows Quest to assist job
seekers throughout the world by working with them via e-mail. Telephone consultations
are also offered for those job seekers who prefer this approach. “Our online approach to
providing career transition assistance allows our career transition consultants to work
one-on-one with job seekers while providing job seekers with the ability to receive job
search assistance at times that are convenient to their schedules,” said Ann Hackett,
president and founder of Quest. “Through our affiliate partners, we can provide job
seekers visiting our site with additional online tools -- career assessment tools, a career
bookstore, a resume distribution service, and access to salary surveys -- to offer them a
truly one-stop shop for online career transition assistance.”
Contact:
Ann Hackett
ahackett@QuestCareer.com
Phone: 952-929-4197
FAX: 952-929-4588
5417 Grove Street
Edina, MN 55436
http://www.QuestCareer.com
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An embargo date is the date on which you wish the

information to be published; this acts as a prohibition from
publishing the information before the date stated. You may use
‘Embargo date: …’, ‘Not to be published before/until …’ or
‘Publication date….’
At the end of the first page it is usual to include ‘- more – ‘to

show that a second page follows. The word ‘– end – ‘is usually printed
after the final line of the press release.
ASSIGNMENTS
1 Read each of the following releases, all saying the same thing
in a different way. Discuss the merits or otherwise of each one.
(Only one of them is satisfactory).
a) Shipton residents will be delighted to hear that Harry’s
Health Store is opening a new branch in their area on 14
August. We promise you free gifts and special offers, as
well as competitions. Radio Personality, Simon Wright, will
be there too, so don’t miss this opportunity to meet him!
b) Radio DJ, Simon Wright, will open Harry’s Health Store’s
new Shipton branch on Saturday 14 August. This follows
the success of Harry’s Health Stores since they started
business in February. There will be demonstrations and
talks by local experts throughout the day. Competitions,
special offers and free gifts have also been organised. The
fun starts at 9.00 am.
c) Following the opening of his 3 health stores since February,
Harry’s Health Store with open a new branch in Shipton on
14 August. Competitions and free gifts will be arranged and
Radio personality, Simon Wright, will open the store.
2 You are secretary to the Public Relations Manager at the Hyatt

Hotel in your town. She wishes you to draft a press release
about the new service concepts in the hotel which will gain a
new perspective with the opening of the new Regency Suites
wing of the hotel. She asks you to prepare a press release and
gives you the following notes which should be included:
Regency Suites wing: opens early 1991.
New service concept: aimed at the corporate traveler.
Personalized services: a wide range to be expected.
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Business Centre: vital for businessmen on the move;

extension of operations to 24 hours/7 days; complete range
of secretarial services – fax, letters, telexes, reference
library, personal computer, private offices, conference
room/lounge.
Housekeeping and laundry services: 24-hour service. Late
arrivals catered for; requests for stationery, extra pillows,
and suit pressed.
Hotel’s airport representatives: greet guests on arrival, meet
during departure. Two limousines plus fleet of 14 others –
all times – city tours/business trips.
Professional concierge team: answer queries – provide
information; from dinner reservations to theatre shows or
shoe-makers!
Extra services – hotel positioning itself as a top deluxe
hotel – perfect choice. 148 Hyatt hotels and resorts around the
world. Prepare the press release.
1.7 HOUSE JOURNALS

1. Category of information
Good company/staff relations can often be the result of the regular
production of a company magazine (sometimes called an in-house
journal or newsletter), which is circulated to all staff. Such magazines
may be published monthly or quarterly, and they contain a variety of
information, such as:
• new policies/procedures
• updates on products/services
• births/marriages/deaths
• promotions
• sports/social news
• contributions from employees
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2. Writing articles
The same basic writing skills are needed here as when writing press
releases.
The following guidelines may be helpful:
• Use reported speech, third person.
• Write in an interesting, snappy, readable style
• Build the article logically:
 Headline: catch the reader’s attention.
 Intro/lead: give the main gist of the article (who? what? where?
when?)
 Give full particulars in the main body, without being long-winded
or boring.
 Use short sentences and a crisp style.
 Use short, self-contained paragraphs, each n a different aspect
of the main theme.
 Round it off nicely. Perhaps use a quotation.
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ASSIGNMENTS
1 You are an assistant to the editor of your company’s staff
magazine, and have been informed that one of your employees is
leaving shortly. Using the following as a basis, write an article for
the magazine:
Doreen Tan – joined Personnel 1982 – promoted to Secretary
1984; popular staff member – cheerful – outgoing – conscientious
– helpful (quote from employer); upgraded qualifications – evening
course for PSC; 4 months ago met Tony Ong (new rep) – love at
first sight; quickly engaged; leaving for Canada in 2 months’ time,
wish every happiness.
2 One of your employees has just won a local sporting competition.

Write an article for the staff magazine, making up appropriate
details as you think fit. Include name, job, department and/or
branch, nature of competition, what it entailed, and the prize
he/she won.
3 Your Financial Director is due to retire shortly, after 30 years with

your company. Write an article for the staff magazine to mark
his/her retirement. Include details of his/her career in the
company, plans for retirement, plus any other details you feel
would help to make the article interesting.
4 You are organizing the company’s annual dinner and dance. Write
an article announcing the necessary details, and including details
of how staff can register.
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5 Write an article for your company’s magazine, which is read by all

employees, tactfully criticizing some aspect of the company (e.g.
its salary structure, its promotion policy, its office organization) and
making suggestions for its improvement.
1.8 INVITATIONS
Many companies organize special functions to publicize a

certain event, such as the opening of a new branch office, the
introduction of new goods or services, or the retirement of a senior
executive. A secretary will be expected to know how to prepare
invitations to such functions, or how to reply to invitations when an
employer simply gives an instruction to accept or refuse.
1. Formal invitations
These are typed on A5 or A6 good quality paper or card. Often they

are specially printed. In the following example, note:
• no salutation or complimentary close are used.

• the address of the sender is placed at the bottom left.
• RSVP is placed at the bottom right. This is French and stands for
‘Repondezs’il vous plait’, which means ‘Please reply’.
• the name of the invitee is hand written on a printed line.
The acceptance or refusal of a formal invitation is prepared in a

similar formal way. However, there is no need for the use of a dotted
line for the insertion of the name.
30
It is courteous to give a reason if an invitation is refused.
Sample of Invitation Letter:
The Directors of
Harrison Enterprises Ltd
Request the pleasure of the
company of
Miss Sylvia Loh

at their Annual Celebrations
to be held at
Celebrities Ballroom
Merlin Hotel
Scotts Road
Kuala Lumpur
at 7.30 pm for 8.00 pm
on Friday 12 July 2008
The Directors
Harrison Enterprises Ltd
Rent House
21 Kent Road
Kuala Lumpur RSVP
31
Sample of Accepting Invitation:
Miss Syliva Loh
Thanks the Directors of

Harrison Enterprise Ltd
For their kind invitation to their
Annual Celebrations
to be held at
Celebrities Ballroom
Merlin Hotel
Scotts Road
Kuala Lumpur
at 7.30 pm for 8.00 pm

on Friday 12 July 2008
and has much pleasure in accepting the invitation
23A Chestnut Way

Kuala Lumpur 2 June 2007
32
Informal invitations
Informal invitations may be presented in the form of a letter.

Remember to reply in a similar manner.
12, Jalan Mawar

Taman Melawati
53100
Kuala Lumpur
2 August 2007
Eileen and Norman

We are pleased to announce our Golden Wedding Anniversary on Saturday 4
September. A celebration cocktail and buffet evening will be held at our home at 7.30
pm, and we have pleasure in inviting you to attend.
We both hope you will able to join us.
Jackie and Steven
ASSIGNMENTS
1 Your company will be opening its new branch in a nearby town

next month and is arranging a cocktail reception to mark the
occasion. Prepare an invitation which can be printed to send to
a number of special clients.
2 As one of the clients receiving the invitation in (1), prepare a

reply accepting.
3 Doctor Anthony Long of Orchard Medisave Pte Ltd received an

invitation also, but will be overseas on a business trip so cannot
attend the cocktail reception. Prepare his reply.
33
4 As secretary of a local kindergarten, write a letter to parents

inviting them to attend Open House one afternoon next month.
Children’s work will be on display and teachers will be available
for informal discussions. Refreshments will, of course, be
served.
5 Send a reply from a parent accepting the invitation in (4).
34
PUBLIC RELATIONS
CHAPTER
OBJECTIVES
1. To understand concepts and principles in Public
Relations.
2. To understand the roles of Public Relation to

organizations.
3. To differentiate between Public Relations and

Advertising.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. List the criteria for good Public Relations Practitioners
2. List the differences between Public Relations and

Advertising.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Definition, Concept and Principles of Public Relations
35
2. Public Relations and Advertising : The Differences
3. Qualities of Public Relations Practitioners
2.2 PUBLIC RELATIONS
Let us analyse the well-known definition of the (British) Institute

of Public Relations which reads:
1. Definition of Public Relations
Public relations practice is the deliberate, planned and

sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding
between an organization and its public.
This is an excellent definition because it can apply to any sort of

organization, commercial or non-commercial, anywhere in the world.
Therefore it is worth remembering in its whole and in its parts.
The three words deliberate, planned and sustained are
important. They support what has been said so far in this chapter.
They mean that PR should not be haphazard but should have a well
defined purpose. The PR programs should be planned, not ‘played by
ear’. And the PR effort should be continuous, not spasmodic, or even
36
seasonal, which might be justified with an advertising campaign. It

should be a sustained effort. It should not be what is sometimes
called ‘a fire-fighting exercise’ – that is, a rescue operation in times of
trouble. A lot of trouble, such as public criticism, takeover bids or
industrial strikes, results from lack of information and understanding,
which implies an absence of sustained PR effort. There have been
cases of famous companies nearly being taken over because their
shareholders did not realise how good these companies were, while
strikes have occurred because workers have listened to rumours
instead of being told the facts.
The results of PR activities are seldom quickly forthcoming and
time is needed for continuous activity to build up knowledge
appreciation and response. A corporate identity, for instance, does not
come about overnight, however brilliant the design of the symbol or
however striking the colour scheme – nor does understanding of , say,
a new building component, a Government policy, or the work of
charitable institution. Painstaking effort, consuming much time, is
necessary, perhaps for months, a year of years. Gimmicks do not
work in PR – they are like fireworks that rocket into the sky and perish.
Reputation accrues with familiarity and faith.
To achieve this, mutual understanding is required, and this (as
we have said earlier) is a two-way system of communication. The
PRO has to be the eyes and ears as well as the tongue of the
organization. A submarine needs radar as well as a periscope before
torpedoes or missiles can be fired.
The definition finally refers to public although it is the jargon of
PR to speak of publics since it is necessary, when planning PR
programmes, to define the different groups of people who are to be
37
addressed, and so that particular media may be used for this purpose.
Thus we may use a house journal to communicate with employees, a
seminar to reach technicians, a trade journal.
2.2 DEFINITION, CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC

RELATIONS
`To define public relations in such a way that it explains the

concept and principles of PR as it applies to every kind of
organization, and even certain individuals, is not easy.
Examples/users of public relations include:
• Corporations using marketing public relations (MPR) to convey

information about the products they manufacture or services
they provide to potential customers in order to support their
direct sales efforts. Typically, they support sales in the short to
long term, establishing and burnishing the corporation's
branding for a strong, ongoing market.
• Corporations using public relations as a vehicle to reach

legislators and other politicians, in seeking favorable tax,
regulatory, and other treatment. Moreover, they may use public
relations to portray themselves as enlightened employers, in
support of human-resources recruiting programs.
• Non-profit organizations, including schools and universities,

hospitals, and human and social service agencies: such
organizations may make use of public relations in support of
38
awareness programs, fund-raising programs, staff recruiting,

and to increase patronage of their services.
• Politicians aiming to attract votes and/or raise money. When

such campaigns are successful at the ballot box, this helps in
promoting and defending their service in office, with an eye to
the next election or, at a career’s end, to their legacy.
Essentials of a PR definition
What should a definition of PR embrace? To be all-embracing it

should make clear that:
1. PR is planned and conducted in a business like way.

2. It is a two-way or mutual activity.
3. It is not a form of advertising.
4. It deals with many different groups of people.
5. It seeks to spread knowledge and educate people in order
to achieve understanding according to the prescribed
objectives.
6. It has universal application to all organizations, commercial
or non-commercial, in both the public and private sectors.
39
There are also certain things which the definition should not do. It
should:
1. Not suggest that PR is free or unpaid advertising, or an

alternative to advertising.
2. Not pretend that PR is a ‘soft sell’.
3. Not claim that PR can influence or persuade, since this may
be going too far, can be a matter of semantics, suggest bias,
and may properly belong to the realms of propaganda or
advertising.
4. Not regard PR as merely a means of creating a favourable
image, climate of opinion or impression. It may do this, but
there are many occasions when the PR task is to create a
fair or honest understanding of an unfavourable situation, or
of a subject which people do not necessarily have to
endorse. It may be a case of winning understanding or
tolerance rather than support or acceptance. This could
apply to many controversial subjects such as strikes,
political parties, religious creeds, the policies of other
countries, homosexuals, race relations, or the activities of
activist groups.
5. Not suggest that PR consultancies are the major part of the
profession, when in fact PR operates differently from
40
advertising, and most PR is an in-house activity even where

a consultancy is also employed.
6. Not imply that PR is confined to the commercial world (by
including words like company), when in reality the bulk of
PR work is conducted elsewhere.
7. Not give the impression that PR is only an external activity
when internal relations are an important part of PR.
These 13 considerations impose great demands on our definition if

it is to be truly comprehensive and meaningful. We are moving a long
way from the typical dictionary definition, especially the kind that refers
to ‘the general public’.
There are several inadequate definitions such as relations with the
public, gaining credit for achievement, the skilled propagation of
prestige, or the creation and maintenance of confidence. It is all these
things and more, but we have to be careful of words like propagation
which could have sinister implications if taken to mean more than
sowing the seeds of knowledge.
In arriving at a perfect definition we have to dispel many familiar
misconceptions, a buses and inhibitions, and show that it is not what
some politicians, journalists, businessmen, marketing, advertising, and
sales people believes PR to be, or may even wish it was! With a
proper understanding of PR, its scope and limitations become clear
and its benefits and possibilities can be better appreciated. Having
said this, and when various definitions have been analysed, it may be
decided that no definition is wholly adequate.
We also have to appreciate that the emphasis may depend on the
country or part of the world in which PR is being conducted, although
41
the basic principle of communicating information in order to achieve

understanding remains identical. In North America, where there are
fewer inhibitions about selling, PR may veer closer to sales promotion,
while in a developing country where it is necessary to encourage
people to adopt new ideas and life styles PR may be termed
‘enlightenment’ and tend to more propagandist. Walter Raven,
writing in the Campaign Public Relations Special Report (August 24,
1979) favoured the word ‘communication’. He wrote: ‘Public relations
are nothing more than one aspect of communication and its prime
function is to inform.’ Communications is a word familiar to
management – indeed; it has been its central concern for more than
half a century. If, then, we accept the communications function of
public relations, we can arrive at a much more comprehensive
definition of what constitutes public relations. Mr. Raven’s
recommended definition reads:
Public relations is the effective communication, on a sustained and

controlled basis, of all information concerning the company which may
in some way influence those persons whose actions and decisions,
now or at some future time, affect the fortunes and actions of that
company.
Mr. Raven prefers his definition to that of the IPR, which he

considers to be a statement of objectives, not an explanation of what
PR is. Perhaps we need a definition which combines both? There are
still three faults with Mr. Raven’s fulsome definition. it is limited to an
outflow of information whereas the inflow is equally important: in both
his preamble and definition nothing about the essential objective of
42
creating understanding, let alone, mutual understanding, which is the

essence of PR; and limits himself to the company when we must
consider every kind of organization, most PR being outside the
business world. Mr. Raven was writing about PR in relation to
business management, but he did claim to offer ‘ a more
comprehensive definition’, which he did not do.
Public relations consist of all forms of planned communication, out

words and in words, between an organization and its publics for the
purpose of achieving specific objectives concerning mutual
understanding.
Public relations practice is the art and science of analyzing trends,

predicting their consequences, counselling organization leaders, and
implementing planned programmes of action which will serve both the
organisation’s and the public interest.
Public relations practice is the process of analyzing trends,

predicting their consequences, counselling organization leaders, and
implementing planned the organisation’s and the public interests.
2.3 Public Relations and Advertising
Public relations and advertising are two utterly different worlds,

although in some ways and on some occasions they may be related.
In no way is public relations a form of advertising, although there are
times when PR will use advertising such as to announce a catalogue
of PR films, or for the purpose on institutional or corporate advertising.
43
Although less money may be spent on it (and for that reason it may be
thought to be less significant than advertising) PR is nevertheless a
much bigger activity than advertising. Not every organization needs
advertising but every organization is involved in PR whether it likes it
or not. Similarly, it is a bigger activity than marketing since marketing
is only one function of a business, and not every organization is
involved in trade.
To emphasise and distinguish the differences between PR and

advertising let us consider four areas in which these differences occur.
They are:
1. The people addressed – the target audiences or publics.

2. The media through which these people are addressed.
3. The costs and methods of payment.
4. The purpose of the communication.
2.3.1 The People Addressed
Advertising campaigns are usually concentrated on the largest

number of potential buyers. PR programmes are dispersed to many
different groups of people. Advertising addresses the target audience:
PR addresses many publics. While advertising is aimed mostly at
distributors, users and consumers in order to sell, and to possible
recruits and suppliers in order to buy, PR publics – as we shall see –
can include all kinds of people with whom the organization does or
should communicate. But not all organizations are in industry trade or
commerce. We have already mentioned that most PR exists outside
44
the business world, and to substantiate this claim here are some of the
non-business organizations in which PR is very important:
(a) The police, Armed Forces, prison service, fire brigades,

ambulance services.
(b) Hospitals and other health services.
(c) Universities, polytechnics, schools and other educational
establishments.
(d) Societies, institutes and associations representing special
interests, including professional and trade bodies.
(e) Churches and various religious organisations such as
missionary and denominational educational societies.
(f) Cultural organisation, e.g. libraries, museums, art galleries,
symphony orchestras, and choirs and choral societies.
(g) Sports clubs representing every kind of amateur and
professional sport.
(h) Political parties, political societies, trade unions.
(i) Central Government, ministries and departments
(j) Local government authorities.
(k) Charities and voluntary bodies ranging from Dr Barnando’s
to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution.
From this brief list it will be realised that many thousands of

organisation make up this vast world of non-commercial activity.
Some of them, it is true use advertising techniques to raise funds but
even so they are usually not profit-making and the funds derived from
trade are required for administration or charitable purposes. They are
the very fabric of civilised society.
45
2.3.2 The Media
If the lists below are compared side by side it will be found that
there differences in the use of some similar or identical media, while
there are many media used only by advertising and yet more which
are specially created from PR purposes. The latter may be called
private or sponsored media and they are seldom mass media,
whereas advertising exploits existing mass media which operate to
make a profit. Advertising tends to be mean in its choice the fewest
possible economically effective media whereas PR is greedy a almost
profligate in its use and creation of media.
Media comparison
Advertising media PR
media
(i) Display and classified ads in (i) News stories, feature arts
newspapers, consumer pictures for the press.
magazines, trade, technical Internal external journals.
and professional journals.
(ii) Commercials (Aim or video- (ii) Documentary, sponsored or

tape) and advertising Aims in-trial Aims, video-tapes,
for showing on television video-slides, television
and cinema screens. program material, television
news.
46
(iii) Radio commercials. (iii) Taped radio interviews,

studio interviews, phone
ins, news.
(iv) Sales promotion and (iv) Educational visual and

merchandising schemes. posters.
(v) Public, trade, private, (v) PR aspects of all

mobile exhibitions. exhibitions and exhibitions
for PR purposes.
(vi) Sales promotion and (vi) Educational literature
merchandising schemes. printed information.
(vii) Point-of-sale displays. (vii) Sponsored books.
(viii Sales literature – leaflets, (viii Seminars, and conferences

) catalogues. ) – spoken word sometimes
combined with film shows,
slide presentations, and
exhibits.
(ix) Direct mail. (ix) Press facility visits, works

visits.
(x) Door-to-door mail drops of (x) Annual reports and

sales literature. accounts.
(xi) Sponsorship with direct (xi) Participation in events, e.g.
47
marketing and advertising floats at carnivals, awards

purposes. of prizes, sponsorship of
events and causes.
(xii) Special forms of advertising (xii) Corporate identity: house

aerial, shopping bags, style, livery, symbols
novelties, etc. (logos), colours,
typography.
This lists are by no means complete but they help to show that
advertising and PR communicate differently by-means of different
communication media.
2.3.3 Costs and Payment
The financial sides of advertising and PR can be compared in a

similar way. By costs we mean what has to be bought; by payment (or
remuneration) how an advertising agent or a PR consultant receives
monies to recover what has been spent on a client’s behalf and to
make a profit.
In advertising it is usual to refer to above the line and below the
line costs, the first covering the main five media of the press,
television, radio, outdoor and cinema. All the other media – which do
not usually pay the advertising agent a commission – are termed
below-the-line. It is wrong to include PR in this second category for it
is not a part of advertising and needs its own budget.
To explain the advertising agency commission system more
thoroughly, agencies may be ‘recognised’ (or ‘accredited’ as it is called
48
in some countries) by bodies representing publishing houses and

broadcasting stations or contractors. It is more convenient for the
media to deal with a small number of space and airtime buyers
(advertising agents) than with large numbers of advertiser, provided
accounts are settled promptly, say, in 30 days. The media owners’
bodies (e.g. Newspaper Publishers’ Association and the Independent
Television Contractors Association) grant these agents ‘recognition’ –
on the basis that they have sufficient cash flow to pay their bills
promptly – and invoice less 10 – 15 per cent so that the agent can
charge this client the full amount and gain the difference. The
commission is seldom adequate and agents commonly charge their
clients a supplementary percentage. Agents also earn commission on
work which they put out in order to produce advertisement, e.g.
typesetting and photography, but in some cases, e.g. printing, the
supplier does not deduct a commission but adds a percentage which
represents the agent’s handling cost. Thus, it could be cheaper for the
direct. The agent’s sources of income are therefore various and
complicated. There are some agents who reject the commission
system and work more professionally for fees which represent man-
hours and expertise, expenditures for clients being charged net.
Public relations consultancies are not in the commission

business; mainly they are selling time which is representative of man-
hours and expertise, plus materials and expenses. The hourly rate for
PR services covers salaries, overheads and profits. We shall deal
with this in the chapter on PR consultancy and budgeting, but here let
us examine costs under sets of comparative lists.
Cost comparison
49
Advertising media Agency payment
(i) Advertising space in the (i) Commission on space,

press. airtime and screen
bookings, poster site
rentage.
(ii) Airtime on television, radio. (ii) Charges for artwork and

costs of production.
(iii) Rent of poster sites. (iii) On-costs on works farmed

out to suppliers such as
printers.
(iv) Screen time on cinemas. (iv) Discounts from suppliers

such as photographers, film
and video-tape makers.
(v) Stand space at exhibitions. (v) Fees for work which bears
no commission.
(vi) Production costs of:
(a) Press advertisements.
(b) Television commercials.
(c) Radio commercials.
(d) Cinema screen
commercials.
(e) Exhibition stands.
(f) Print, display material.
PR costs Consultancy payment
(i) Time – salaries. (i) Fee based on hourly rate.
50
(ii) Materials – stationery, (ii) Recovery of cost of

postage, photography. materials, usually at costs.
(iii Expenses – travelling, hotels, (iii) Recovery of expenses at

) hospitality. costs.
Whereas the advertising agent’s main cost is on space, airtime

and the production of advertisements, the PR consultant’s main cost is
on man-hours to service the account. This leads to another
difference: agency commission covers the cost of the account
executive who services the account and acts and the liaison between
the client and the agency. Commission also covers administrative
costs such as media planning and buying. The PR consultant has to
charge for every minute spent on servicing the account, including
talking to the client. Quite simply, there are only two payers of the
consultant’s costs ‘them and us’. Anything not paid by the client has to
come out of the consultant’s pocket and is a loss.
2.4 QUALITIES NEEDED BY THE PR

PRACTITIONER
These are five principal qualities which are essential to the public
relations practitioner. These are:
1. Ability to communicate.
2. Ability to organise.
51
3. Ability to get on with people.

4. Personal integrity.
5. Imagination.
You may be surprised that the list does not specify that he or
she should be a journalist, or a good social entertainer abler to read a
French menu and a wine list, and a member of good clubs, be good
looking or well dressed, or able to buy centre court tickets at
Wimbledon at a moment’s notice ‘The professional PRO is a hard
worker, not a miracle worker. So what do these basic qualities add up
to?
Ability to Communicate
The art of communication means the ability to listen as well as to

speak. Most people are thinking what they want to say next while they
are pretending to listen. The expert communicator has to convey
information so that it is easily understood and remembered. This is
made difficult because the information is likely to be new and strange,
and memories tend to be short.
We are also experiencing a visual age, as with television, when
people watch rather than listen. So we have to be aware of the
changing nature of communication. We are tending to become lazy
communicators.
For years, many people have preferred to telephone rather than
write letters. Teletext systems will soon make it unnecessary to hunt
through directories, timetables and catalogues for information.
Instructions are given better by means of diagrams and pictures than
52
by words. Theories are expressed in models. Even serious

newspapers use short paragraphs, and what book publisher today
would accept a Henry James novel with paragraphs running to two
pages of print? (This is not the Henry James quoted before).
Whatever his medium of expression, the PR practitioner has to
make his meaning as clearly and as quickly as possible. He may have
to writ his message, and a news release which is difficult to cut
because it is so tightly written that every word is essential, is a
blessing to a busy editor. That is why some of the best news releases
are printed under the by-line of a journalist who never wrote a word of
a For the PRO that is absolute success.
Competence in the use of all communications media is
important to the PR practitioner. Not only should he be able to write
well, but he should be as familiar with a camera as he is with a
typewriter or pen. How else can he the messages he wants
photographs to convey? Similarly, he should be able to speak well that
is, hold the attention of others and express himself clearly. He may
have to do this in public, on telephone, or in ‘a radio’ or television
studio. And he may have to instruct others in these techniques.
Ability to Organise
A favourite expression of the author’s is that ability to organise means

ability to anticipate disaster. One of the chief reasons why many
women are good in PR is that they are meticulous over details. A
good organiser is a born pessimist. He worries about all the things
53
that could go wrong. He is not optimistic until he can guarantee

success. A splendid example of this is the PRO who organises an
annual press visit of some importance, and books both motor coaches
and train tickets in case there is a rail strike.
Ability to organise means ability to take a scheme, start at the

beginning and work it out right to the end. This requires planning a
timetable of tasks to be performed and a budget covering every cost
involved. It is a discipline, simple, methodical and purposeful.
Compare this with the interviews the author has frequently had
with journalists seeking jobs as PROs. Their claim to experience was
that because they had attended many press receptions they knew all
about PR. They had no idea how to organise a press reception.
Compare this again with the marketing idea how to organise a press
reception. Compare this again with the marketing director of a London
advertising agency who scoffed at a PR consultant’s careful planning,
saying, ‘All you have to do is ring up a hotel and they will do the rest’.
The ability to organise is a constant requirement. Client
meetings, photographic sessions, press receptions, facility visits,
support for exhibition, film showings, private exhibitions, sponsorships,
preparation of print, house journal editing, film production, the whole
PR year is one of thinking, planning, costing, negotiating, executing,
assessing, reporting. Hard work. Managerial responsibility. Especially
if one is conducting tangible PR to achieve specific objectives.
This calls for a clear, objective mind. It won’t necessarily be all
right or the night. Even with the most brilliant planning, things do go
wrong, and disaster has to be converted into success. The speaker
fails to arrive, there is no air controller’s strike and no plane loads of
54
press reporters arrive, there is political crisis on the day of the press
event, or there is a power cut in the middle of the film premiere, the
ship breaks down on its maiden voyage with the press on board, every
PRO has had his share of such disasters. And I have to overcome
them and rescue the situation. If possible, the PRO has anticipated
such eventualities. The best way is to avoid complicated scheme and
to plan simple visit which was afterwards reported as gold like
clockwork, but the writer of that press report had no idea that behind
scenes arrangements were being revised all day because of
unexpected difficulties. On another occasion he had a press reception
well organised attended except that at the vital moment the client
failed to arrive with product. The whole programme had to be turned
round until the lost product could be found.
Ability to get on with People

This does not mean flattering people. The sycophant is no
PRO Getting on with people means liking people, tolerating them,
understanding them PROs have to work with all kinds of people with
whom they cannot possibly always agree, let alone like very much. In
an international organisation or export situation he will have to work
55
with people of different nationalities, ethnic groups, languages,

religions and politics. But even in the simplest, provincial situation
there are numerous people to meet with. A resort publicity manager in
a small coastal town has to lice and work with scores of hoteliers,
boarding-house keepers, entertainments proprietors, motor-coach
operators, café and restaurant owners, shopkeepers, town councillors,
reporters – a world of people in a world of its won. The author was
once publicity manager of a Welsh holiday resort where he also had to
contend with Welsh-speaking people. Perhaps it was significant that
he invented the slogan ‘come abroad without crossing the sea’.
Whatever the PRO’s situation he is constantly dealing with
people of every possible kind.
Wide-ranging tastes are also necessary. The wider the PRO’s
interests the easier it is to hold conversation with other people, and to
be a sympathetic and interested listener. He will frequently have to
subdue his own point of view and yet not feel compromised or
hypocritical. A British Government department PRO - usually called a
chief information officer has like any other civil servants stay for ever.
It is also a theory of consultancy practice that not only should a good
consultant be able to advice and service any client (since the PR
principles are the same), but he should also be willing to advice and
service any client whether he agrees with him or not. The simple
explanation here is that PR is about information, not advocacy, and
unlike the lawyer the PRO does not even have to present the best
possible case, only the bare facts.
Personal Integrity
56
In spite of the contempt showered on public relations by its

critics, in spite of the belief that he is a charlatan, parasite and master
of the black arts, the PRO nevertheless has to be a person of integrity.
This does earn its own rewards because the respected PRO has a
deservedly high status in his company, has no difficulties over his
relations with the media, and is honoured by his peers by being
elected to offices, committees, and occasionally to Fellowship of the
Institute of Public Relations.
Thus we have a contradictory state of affairs. No PRO can
operate effectively unless he is accepted as a person of integrity –
trusted for reliability and impartiality of his information, respected for
his professionalism. A few thousand British PR men and women do
enjoy such recognition. Others may or may not deserve this respect,
but by this basic quality more than anything else will they be judged.
The three most serious cases to come before the Professional
Practices and Disciplinary Committees of the IPR have revolved
around integrity. The difficult question in such cases is whether a
person has been evil or merely foolish, but many a foolish act can
destroy.
Imagination
The PR practitioner must be a person with ideas, capable of
solving problems, able to produce original schemes, and use an
imaginative approach to all creative work. This creativity will embrace
press receptions, open days, house journal design, film scripts, feature
articles, exhibits, and displays, composition of photographs, and the
57
use of new technologies. The developing world of computers, video-

discs, View data and information technology all demand imagination.
CHAPTER
RESEARCH SKILLS
OBJECTIVES
58
1. To understand the format of good research paper
2. To know how to implement the process of writing and

editing
3. To develop skills in writing and editing.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. produce good research paper
2. edit incorrect sentences and rewrite correctly.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1 Steps in Writing and Editing Process
2 Editing: An Essential Ingredients
3 Methods of gathering sources
4 Research Outline and Thesis Statement
5 Findings and Analysis
6 Documentation
1. Technical Style: Writing and Editing
59
The technical writer’s progress from blank page to rough draft is

often difficult. Even with plenty of data, with note cards all over your
desk, with a reasonably comprehensive outline, and with two free
hours, you may find yourself experiencing “writer’s block.” All your
notes must now become a totally new creation (perhaps a one-page
memo, perhaps a 20-page report), a creation with your name on it.
Hesitation and uncertainty are natural.
Once you have collected your data, the writing process has
two different stages: creating and editing. In the creating stage,
you concentrate on writing – getting content on paper. In the editing
stage, you concentrate on rewriting – revising the content for clarity,
conciseness and correctness. Although writing is a learned skill,
people go about it differently. Some laboriously pull each word from
head to hand; others seem literally to pour their ideas onto the page.
There is no one “correct” way to write. However, a systematic
approach to the process of writing – as presented in this chapter – will
help you move through the two stages of the writing process efficiently.
Writing: Step by step

When you begin writing but just can’t seem to get started, follow these
steps and refer to the flowchart next page for an overview of the
process.
Step 1: Assemble Your Notes
60
In addition to your outline, you probably want to have some of

the actual published sources at hand. There is comfort in
having books and magazine articles nearby because your notes
may be in somewhat less than perfect shape.
Assemble all notes
Sort notes by
outline sections
Put aside to do No Sufficient

more research data on
later each
No No
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Pick one
Dosection
Are there
you on Ask: What is the
No WriteDo youYes
rapidly, creating
Put aside to do which to begin
supporting
have
LEAVE a
THIS
feelfrom point
Writeoftopic
this
paragraphs Yes notes
later details?
topic
SECTION
comfortabl paragraph?
sentence
A flowchart shows the writing process
Step 2: Review and Sort Your Note Cards

With your outline as a guide, separate your note cards
according to the sections of the report in which they belong.
Sort first by main headings (all cards relating to I or 1.0, all
those for 2.0. all for 3.0. and so forth). Then further subdivide,
depending on the number of cards you have and the complexity
of the sections.
As you organize the actual material into stacks, you
should begin to feel a sense of satisfaction and control. You
may also realize that certain stacks are a bit short (limited
62
material), so you may have to do more research. However, do

not stop to search for additional information now. That is a
stalling tactic. Just work with the information you have at this
point.
Step 3: Decide Where to Start
You do not have to start by writing the first sentence that the
reader will see. Instead, start with the section you are most
interested in or most comfortable with, or the section for which
all material is available. Read over all the cards for that section.
If you find cards with duplicate information, select the most
recent source or the most valid authority. Don’t throw any notes
away yet: they may come in handy later.
Step 4: Rough Out a Paragraph Based on Your

Notes
Start with the main point of the paragraph. The heading of the
section should give you the basis of a topic sentence. If you
wrote a sentence outline, its entries should likewise give you
possible topic sentences. Fill in the details: why, when, what,
how, where – whatever supports the main point of the
paragraph.
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Step 5: Start Writing
If you are still thinking about the information on your note cards,
stop thinking and get something down on paper. Push your pencil or
press the keyboard. Put the material down in your own words.
Do not stop to clean up or polish your writing at this point. This is
the time to create, not clean. You lose momentum when you pause to
fret erase, look up a word, or worry about subject-verb agreement.
Just write!
Use the same five-step approach for all the sections of your
outline, but remember to take a break when you’re tired. There is no
real virtue in working six hours at one sitting. Whether you are working
with a pencil, at a typewriter. Or at a computer, the biggest hurdle is
getting started. When you treat writing as a manageable step-by-step
process, however, you should clear this hurdle much more
successfully.
3.3 Editing: An Essential Ingredient
Allow some time to pass (two days, if possible) between your

first creative efforts and the cleaning up process. Once you have the
content down in rough draft form, you can then work on improving
what you’ve written. When you edit, you must put on different “hat”
and look objectively and critically at your work. You should expect to
write several drafts of the entire report (or of different sections) and
then revise and edit each one.
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A word of advice: Type your report before you begin serious

editing. Somehow, as long as it is handwritten, most writers do not
view their work objectively.
The editing stage – like the creating stage – can be divided into
five steps, although you do not have to follow these steps in
sequence:
♦ Step 1 : Edit for Clarity
Check your choice of words. Is each as specific as
possible? Does each contribute to content, not merely to
cloudy prose? Are all expressions appropriate for formal
communication?
♦ Step 2 : Edit for Conciseness
Check each sentence to be sure you have written exactly
what you mean and no more. Are your paragraphs free of
wordy phrases and clauses?
♦ Step 3 : Edit for Coherence
Check the flow of your ideas. If sentences have two or more
points are they connected with logical transitions? Can the
reader follow the logic through each paragraph and the
entire report?
♦ Step 4 : Edit for Conventions of Standard English
Check your spelling and punctuation. Are pronouns and
verbs used correctly? Are sentences complete and properly
punctuated?
♦ Step 5 : Edit for Consistency and Accuracy
Check all abbreviations, capital letters and hyphens for
consistency. Review your math. Are all numbers (including
dates) correct? Have you conformed to expectations of
65
formal usage? In fact, is everything correct? If you are still

unsure about any usage after reading this chapter, find a
handbook and use it diligently.
In the editing stage, use whatever resources that will help;

computer software, textbooks and grammar handbooks and other
people. Asking a colleague or classmate to read your report is an act
of both courage and wisdom.
3.4 Step 1: Edit for Clarity
Clarity is the single most important aspect of good technical writing. If

your writing is clear, your reader will never have to say, “I don’t
understand. What do you mean?”
The opposite of clarity is cloudiness – vague and general
writing that leads to misinterpretation and misunderstanding. Clear
writing keeps readers grounded in specifics, not lost in the clouds.
Readers need facts, not hazy or imprecise terms to make decisions.
They need to know – not wonder.
As you revise and edit for clarity, keep the following guidelines in mind:
♦ Use concrete terms
♦ Use appropriate verbs
♦ Use standard expressions
Use Concrete Terms
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Concrete terms are exact enough to create a specific image in your

reader’s mind. Test the concreteness of a term by asking, “Could my
readers actually draw a picture of this?” For example, most persons
could draw a “shrub” but they might have difficulty drawing
“vegetation”, they could draw a “shovel” or a “box” but would be less
sure of “appropriate instrument for digging” or “a packaging container
suitable for mailing.”
Many times, of course, abstract or general words (those naming
a concept, function, or attitude) are necessary. Words such as
potential, development, personnel, and function can be made perfectly
clear if you include concrete examples and terms. For example, the
terms in the lists below refer to the same thing (in the writer’s mind). At
what point will the reader actually “see” the object and activity?
Means of transportation
a. wheeled vehicle
b. motorized vehicle
Exercise
Try to explain this word:
Obstacle:
1. __________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________
Use Appropriate Verbs
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Verbs are key elements in most sentences. Your writing will be more
exact if you are consistently aware of the difference between action
and linking verbs and between active and passive verbs.
For direct and less wordy prose, use action verbs. They show
something happening – mental or physical action. Linking verbs (often
forms of “to be”), on the other hand, show a static situation. They are
followed by words that describe or identify the subject of the sentence.
These sentences illustrate the difference:
ACTION VERB: Our local office requires a monthly

payment.
LINKING VERB: A requirement of our local office is a
monthly payment.
Action verbs produce strong sentences: they have more visual

impact. Linking verbs (“to be” verbs, plus their attendant modifiers)
produce weak sentences. These examples illustrate the difference:
WEAK/LINKING VERB: The company is in the process of
determining the full extent of its
responsibilities at the Monroe site.
STRONG/ACTION VERB: The company will determine the full extent

of its responsibilities at the Monroe site.
WEAK/LINKING VERB: There are many factors that contribute to

good writing.
STRONG/ACTION VERB: Many factors contribute to good writing.
WEAK/LINKING VERB: The solution was under consideration by

the supervising engineers.
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STRONG/ACTION VERB: Supervising engineers considered the

solution.
Notice that the “to be” verb forms are often used as helping
verbs – they assist the main verb by indicating time or other
conditions. In addition to checking for active verbs, you should pay
attention to the voice of your verbs. Use the active or passive voice by
choice – not by accident. Choose the verb voice appropriate to the
tone and content of the sentence.
In the active voice, the subject of the sentence does the acting.
More direct and forceful (and far more common in speech), the active
voice is generally a better choice than the passive. In the passive
voice, the subject of the sentence is acted upon or receives the action;
the actor is either unnamed or included in a prepositional phrase.
These sentences show active and passive voice:
ACTIVE: During November, park in Lot A.
PASSIVE: During November, employees’ cars should be parked in
Lot A.
ACTIVE: Two machines can service the Y-2 lines at 20-45 second
cycles.
PASSIVE: The Y-2 lines can be serviced by two machines at 20-45
second cycles.
ACTIVE: Mundane Corporation improved its cash flow by 27

percent in the fourth quarter.
PASSIVE: The cash flow at Mundane Corporation was improved by

27 percent in the fourth quarter.
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ACTIVE: Mundane Corporation employees expect an appropriate

raise for their efforts.
PASSIVE: An appropriate raise is expected by Mundane
Corporation employees for their efforts.
PASSIVE TENSES AND ACTIVE EQUIVALENTS

Notice that the tense of the verb to be in the passive voice is
the same as the tense of the main verb in the active voice.
Example: to keep
TENSE / VERB ACTIVE PASSIVE VOICE

FORM VOICE
Simple present keeps is kept
Present continuous is keeping is being kept
Simple past kept was kept
Past continuous was keeping was being kept
Present perfect have kept have been kept
Past perfect had kept had been kept
future will keep will be kept
Conditional present would keep would be kept
Conditional past would have would have been

kept kept
present infinitive to keep to be kept
perfect infinitive to have kept to have been kept
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present keeping being kept

participle/gerund
perfect participle having kept having been kept
Example sentences:
Active: I keep the butter in the fridge.
Passive: The butter is kept in the fridge.
Active: They stole the painting.

Passive: The painting was stolen.
Active: They are repairing the road.

Passive: The road is being repaired.
Active: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.

Passive: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Active: A dog bit him.

Passive: He was bitten by a dog.
Exercise
Change the active voice verb in the following sentences to passive

voice:
a. The board members re-elected incumbent chairperson Lassiter

for a third term.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
________________
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b. Mundane’s Federated Union will deny affiliation to any subsidiary

that does not comply with mundated waste treatment guidelines.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
________________
Use Standard Expressions
Your choice of words should not distract the reader from the meaning
of the content. Be careful to avoid the following pitfalls when you want
to write clearly.
Clichés
Also called trite expressions, clichés are phrases so familiar
that they require no thought from you or the reader. They have been
used so often that they may flow naturally from your fingertips to the
paper in certain situations. By the same token (that’s a cliché), they
may also flow through the reader’s mind without leaving any
impression.
Check your writing; when you come across phrases you’ve
seen or heard many times before, put them into different, more
specific words. Here are some clichés:
First and foremost Last but not least
In this day and age At this point in time
New and improved Straight from the shoulder hip
When in doubt Get to the heart of the matter
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Colloquialisms
Colloquialisms are informal expressions that are perfectly
acceptable in conversations among peers, at the cafeteria or in the
hall but are not acceptable in formal technical documents. They create
a very conversational (informal) tone. You might say to your
supervisor, “We’re in a tight spot with this deadline,” but in a report you
would write, “The company will have difficulty meeting this deadline.”
In a conversation, the company may be in “A-1” shape, but in a report,
the company “meets production schedules and turns a profit.”
Notice the differences in the tone of the colloquial expression
as compared to the formal version:
COLLOQUIAL: The top brass called off the power confab.

FORMAL: Top management cancelled the meeting.
COLLOQUIAL: The company can survive for another quarter and

play for time.
FORMAL: The company can survive for another quarter and
request more time.
COLLOQUIAL: The insurance company plays hard ball but

comes through in a pinch.
FORMAL: The insurance company requires satisfactory

accounting but also produces results.
Slang
Like colloquialisms, slang expressions have no place in a
formal report. Besides becoming outdated very quickly, their highly
73
casual tone adds too much informality to a report. A report using terms
such as “turkey,” “beef up,” “awesome,” “hoot,” and “shell out” will not
receive much respect from current or future readers. (Don’t these
terms seem dated to you?)
Technical Jargon
Technical jargon is the specialized vocabulary of a profession or
particular group of workers. Because it is precise (a kind of
professional shorthand), jargon is often useful, expected, and
necessary within a group. The problem occurs when the reader is not
a member of a specialized group. For example, this product
description is probably clear to a reader familiar with plastics
technology; “Single-end, zero-centenary fiberglass ravings for filament
winding are now available. Designated 660 R099, the new ravings
offer high-burst physical properties for applications such as high-
pressure RP pipe.” Likewise, an emergency medical technician would
have no trouble deciphering this message: “PT DT COPD; CYANOTIC
W/PRODUCTIVE COUGH; RX: 2 LPM O @ 28%.” Use jargon in a
technical report only when you are absolutely certain that your readers
– all your readers – will understand the specialized language.
3.5 Step 2: Edit for Conciseness

Conciseness means that every word counts; anything that can
be omitted without loss of clarity should be cut. When you can say all
you need to say in six pages, don’t attempt to “pad” the information to
fill up a 10-page report.
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Use these checkpoints to produce a concise report:

♦ Select short, simple words
♦ Reduce wordy phrases
♦ Eliminate unnecessary words
Use short simple words

When a short and simple word expresses the same thing as a
multisyllabic (a big word for “big”) word, choose short and simple. Your
report will not sound simplistic when you choose to be concise rather
than pompous.
For example:
Rather Than Use
Aggregate Total
Interrogate Question
Utilize Use
Demonstrate Show
Ascertain Find out
Endeavor Try
Facilitate Ease
Prioritize Rank
Of course, experts in every technical field use plenty of big
words, and big words may be necessary to express your meaning
precisely, but don’t toss them in merely to impress the reader.
Exercise
75
Find a shorter, simpler word for the following words:

1. Emanates___________________
2 .Conflagration ___________________
3. Corpulence _________________
4. Verdant ________________________
5. Proximity ___________________
6. Phraseology ____________________
7. Verisimilitude ________________
8. Plethora _______________________
Reduce wordy Phrases

Using an excessive number of unnecessary phrases (groups of
words) may slow the reading. When possible, reduce prepositional
and verb phrases to words. The following list presents some
alternatives:
Rather Than Use
As a whole All
With reference to About
In its entirety Entire
Give consideration to Consider
In view of the fact that Because/Since
Would appreciate it if Please
Prior to Before
Is in operation Conflicts
In spite of Despite
In order to to
At this point in time Now/Currently
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Exercise
Try to simplify these wordy phrases:
1. The warehouse that was recently purchased by Blonkco is in a
condition which is structurally unsound.
____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
__________________
2. After Blonkco made the purchase of Zebelon’s warehouse, the

company decided that it would sell the land.
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
___________________
Eliminate Unnecessary Words

Learn to recognize the words that simply clutter a sentence without
adding substance. “Clutter words” weaken meaning and sometimes
obscure it. Watch for:
1) redundant words
2) timid, ambiguous openers
3) introductory “it” and “there” constructions
4) weak modifiers
Although you may put down any words which come to your mind
during the creating stage, during the editing stage you will need to cut
any redundant words.
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CLUTTERED: We want you to know that we appreciate your

help and assistance with our project.
CONCISE: We appreciate your assistance with our project.
CLUTTERED: The project in the state of Virginia which was

initiated and begun with the approval of
Andower’s management as well as the employees
is expected to terminate and conclude in the
month of May.
CONCISE: The project in Virginia, initiated with the approval

of Andower’s management and employees, will
conclude in May.
When you are uncertain about the content or style of your

writing, you tend to write sentence openers cluttered with weak,
ambiguous terms such as the following:
As has been suggested As has been noted

For the most part Generally speaking
Such openers leave the impression of a writer hiding timidly behind

vague, nonspecific words.
In addition, avoid the introductory pronoun “it” when it has no
clear referent. Almost always you can be more concise – and
emphatic – by putting the main idea into a main clause. In the
following “It” sentences, notice that the main point (italicized) is
relegated to a subordinate clause:
WORDY/WEAK: It is obvious that Blonkco cannot meet its
obligations.
CONCISE: Blonkco cannot meet its obligations.
WORDY/WEAK: It should be remembered that Blonkco defaulted
on its debts only two years ago.
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CONCISE: Blonkco defaulted on its debts only two years ago.
WORDY/WEAK: It has been demonstrated that Blonkco is

financially incapable of managing its subsidiaries.
CONCISE: Blonkco is financially incapable of managing its

subsidiaries.
Also avoid sentences beginning with “there.” Omit “there” and

place the true subject (italicized in the examples below) at the
beginning of the sentence, preceding the verb.
WORDY: There were two meetings held with Blonkco’s

executives.
CONCISE: Two meetings were held with Blonkco’s executives.
WORDY: There was a misunderstanding between Blonkco’s tax

lawyers and the IRS which resulted in heavy fines.
CONCISE: A misunderstanding between Blonkco’s tax lawyers and

the IRS resulted in heavy fines.
Lastly, eliminate weak modifiers that add nothing factual or

substantial to a sentence. Use specific words or follow general
modifiers with concrete details. Notice the examples below:
POOR: The merger was successful.
BETTER: The merger gave Blonkco 47 percent of outstanding
stock and the Rtazo family controlling interest.
POOR: The new management is efficient.
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BETTER: The new management is efficient. In two months, losses

have been reduced by 35 percent and income has risen
11 percent.
3.6 Step 3: Edit for Coherence
Coherence is the smooth flow of ideas and data. Readers can move
rapidly through a coherent report – not plod through it. Edit your
writing to ensure appropriate transitional words and other transitional
devices.
Use Transitions
Transitional words are like highway and street signs. They prepare
readers for the next point or for a change in direction.
Transitions indicate that a sentence is continuing the same
thought as the previous one or that readers should mentally prep[are
for a comparison or contrast, a conditional idea, a time or spatial
relationship, a result, or an emphasis.
Ideally, when transitions are incorporated smoothly, they are
hardly noticeable. Transitions tie thoughts and points together; they do
not replace data.
Make sure that transitions are appropriate to the meaning of the
sentences they link. A list of typical transitions is shown below. In
addition, notice the following sentences and their transitions:
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INAPPROPRIATE: The recent shipment of pre-cast trusses arrived

with several missing sections, but the shipment
was rain-damaged.
APPRORIATE: The recent shipment of pre-cast trusses arrived

with several missing sections, moreover, the
shipment was rain-damaged.
TIME ADDITION CONTRAST
a year/quarter later also but
after/afterwards in addition to however
before moreover in contrast
during furthermore on the other
hand
finally
next
soon
subsequently
COMPARISON RESULT CONCLUSION

in the same way/manner as a result in conclusion
similarly consequently in summary
in comparison therefore on the whole
thus to summarize
SPACE CAUSE EXAMPLES/ILLUSTRATION

above because for example
beyond for that reason to illustrate
behind since for instance
forward
to the right/left
directly in front/back
CONDITION/CONCESSION
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although
if
unless
under the circumstances
Examples of Common transitional words and phrases
INAPPROPRIATE: The company will reimburse the homeowner for

costs incurred in repairing electrical circuits.
Therefore. It will replace outdated plumbing
fixtures as necessary.
APPROPRIATE: The company will reimburse the homeowner for

costs incurred in repairing electrical circuits. In
addition, it will replace outdated plumbing fixtures
as necessary.
Exercise
Fill in the blanks below with the appropriate transitions:
1. Jameson Tool and Die has fulfilled all contractual agreements

made by its former CEO; _____________________, it will not be
responsible for contracts made after June 1, 1990, unless they are
co-signed by the company’s attorney.
2. Jameson Tool and Die has acquired all rights to the patents held by
Carl James; _____________________, it expects to purchase patents
currently held by Carlett Industries.
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3. Specialty bottling might be a logical next step for the company.

_______________, Jameson is not planning expansion into the
bottling market at this time.
Use Other Transitional Devices

Pronouns, repeated words, and synonyms also aid in coherence.
Within paragraphs, pronouns are effective coherence devices.
Once specific nouns at the beginning of each paragraph announce the
topic, pronouns tie the material together without unnecessary
repetition. In the following paragraph, notice how the pronouns
(italicized) help the reader move quickly and smoothly through the
material.
Computers save school office personnel much time. Computers

keep records accurate enough to validate statistics for an auditor.
They allow entire reports to be edited without retyping all the text
before a hard copy is printed. Their editing function allows for
corrections, additions, deletions, and rearrangement of portions of the
text. They sort through a data base on command to retrieve only the
desired data. They quickly compile the information into a usable form.
They can generate a graphic display which allows trends, needs, and
problems to be studied in detail.
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In long paragraphs, especially the transitional device of

repeating the topic word unifies and adds coherence. Notice the
repeated topic words in these paragraphs:
The next element to be considered is physical growth patterns.

There is a characteristic human pattern of physical growth
which applies to most of the body; in brief it is a pattern in which
growth is very rapid at the beginning (prenatal, postnatal, and
infancy) then slows down during the years form two to six or
seven. After this initial slowing down in early childhood, a period
of four or five years of smooth, even growth occurs. This
plateau is followed by a period of more rapid and variable
growth during the years of puberty.
If repeating the same word appears monotonous, you can use

synonyms (words that mean the same thing) as another kind of
transitional device to tie the paragraph together. The following
paragraph illustrates the use of synonyms:
Computer hardware includes the processor, the monitor, and

the keyboard. This basic setup enables a user to operate the
equipment and to perform all software functions installed on it.
To get a hard copy of any output performed on the system, a
peripheral printing device must be added to the basic hardware.
3.7 Step 4: Edit for Conventions of Standard

English
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When you edit, be especially careful about correct sentence structure.

Readers are quick to notice these three common sentence errors:
sentence fragments, comma splices, and run-on (fused) sentences.
Avoid Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments are pieces of sentences capitalized and

punctuated as if they were grammatically complete. They often occur
in the creating stage and in the copying stage. Sentence fragments
are totally unacceptable in formal reports. Notice the following
italicized examples of fragments.
FRAGMENTED : Place the base against the wall

outlet box. Allowing the screw heads to
protrude through the keyhole slots.
FRAGMENTED : The differences in growth

patterns are, however, most noticeable
after the period of late childhood. When the
pubertal growth cycle may begin in one
child at age seven or eight and in another
at age fourteen or fifteen.
Checking for sentence fragments requires close reading.

Between each capital letter starting a sentence and the terminal
punctuation, be sure each sentence has a clear subject and verb
85
relationship. In particular, two kinds of sentence; beginning tends to

create sentence fragments:
• Present-participle (“…ing-word”) beginning following a complete

sentence (Example: “The cost of the construction site
predisposed Cobbett to move elsewhere: Causing a loss of
expected revenue for Murray Township.”)
• Subordinate conjunction beginnings (Examples: “Murray voted
to solicit the aid of Merchants Marketing Concepts to review its
positions. Because it has suffered major loss of service jobs.”)
Avoid Comma Splices

Comma splices occur when two independent clauses are connected
by only a comma. A coma alone is not sufficient punctuation to
terminate a complete thought.
EXAMPLE: The EPA feasibility study revealed that Beaver Lake

could sustain its current wildfowl population indefinitely; it
is not contaminated by oil leaks or municipal sewage.
Once you spot a comma splice, you can easily correct it. Revise
comma splices in the following ways;
• Add a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, yet, so, nor) of
the conjunction clearly relates the two ideas.
EXAMPLE: “…wildfowl population indefinitely, for it is not…”
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• Change the comma to a semicolon (a punctuation mark that is

strong enough to separate main clauses), or a semicolon with
a conjunction adverb (such as moreover, consequently,
therefore, however).
EXAMPLE: “wildfowl population indefinitely: because it is not…”
• Connect one clause to the other with a subordinate conjunction

such as because, since, if, after, or although.
EXAMPLE: “wildfowl population indefinitely because it is not…”
• Connect the comma to a period to make two separate

sentences.
EXAMPLE: “…wildfowl population indefinitely. It is not…”
Avoid Run-on or Fused Sentences
The absence of any terminal punctuation between two complete

sentences creates run-on (or “fused”) sentences. This error is easily
corrected by adding appropriate end punctuation (a period or
semicolon), using a comma plus a coordinate conjunction, or
subordinating one clause to the other. Notice the following example of
a run-on sentence and the possible alternatives for editing.
87
EXAMPLE: The citizens of the Beaver Lake community were

dissatisfied with the EPA report they voted to fund a
separate investigation.
CORRECTION: …with the EPA report. They voted to…

…with the EPA report; they voted to…
…with the EPA report, and they voted to…
Because the citizens…with the EPA report, they
voted to…
Activity 8
Edit the following for sentence fragments, comma splices, and run-on
sentences:
a. Beaver lake residents supported an environmental

impact study in 1989 the study has been postponed until
further.
88
b. The creation of a new multipurpose recreations facility

meant destruction of a 200-foot protective hedge. Which,
in turn, caused water spill off following each heavy rain.
c. The newly formed advisory committee has met local

leaders and sate congressmen; they have been given no
reassurance that money or engineering assistance is
forthcoming.
d. Expecting to gain support from the production or a video

showing the dozens of species of wildfowl. The advisory
committee has contracted a well-known wildfowl writer to
direct the project.
e. Setup fee of $30,000 is required, after that is paid,

production will begin.
Use Pronouns Correctly
Be careful how use pronouns in a technical report. First person

pronouns (I, me, my, mine, we, us, our) and second person pronouns
(you, your, yours) create an informal tone. Although they may be
appropriate in letters and memos and in many short informal reports,
they should be avoided (or at least limited) in longer formal reports.
Unless your are writing instructions, you usually do not need to make
any reference to yourself or to the reader in a formal report. Notice the
89
difference that first and first and second person pronouns, make in the
degree of formality in the following examples:
FORMAL: Observation at Leemore Tracking Station revealed no

infractions of safety policies.
INFORMAL : My colleagues and I observed Leemore Tracking Station

over a three-day period, and we saw no infractions of
safety policies
FORMAL: Leemore Station will report all trespassers and

unauthorized visitors to the appropriate office at EPA.
INFORMAL: You can be sure that we will report all trespassers and
unauthorized visitors we see here at Leemore Station to
the local EPA.
FORMAL; For each possible total number of stocking centers, the

minimum total distribution cost for that number of centers
is determined and plotted as illustrated in Figure 4 can
be seen in Figure 4, the best overall configuration is six
stocking centers. The locations for these centers are
shown in Chart 1.
Although personal pronouns do indeed create a more informal

tone, you should not construct extremely awkward sentences merely
90
to avoid them completely. In the following examples, since the student

writers clearly conducted the survey, they should not write about
themselves in the third person.
POOR: In October 1900 a dental survey was conducted at Owen

by High School by two Dental Hygiene students at
Carlyle Technical College. The students interviewed
cafeteria and office staff, completed an analysis of health
care of forty students, and made recommendations for
improving oral hygiene through school programs.
BETTER: In October 1900 we conducted a dental survey at Owen

by High School. We interviewed …(These sentences
assume that the report includes a little page with the
students’ names.)
In addition to their impact on a report’s formal or informal tone,

pronouns (particularly the third person singular pronouns – he, she,
him, her, his, hers) may reflect a sexual bias. To avoid even the
appearance of bias, follow these guidelines.
• When you know a position is held by a man, use the masculine

pronoun; for a position held by a woman, use the feminine. In
these sentences, the writer knows that the contractor is a man
and the builder is a woman:
EXAMPLE: The contractor called two meetings with the board. He

will send the plans within a week.
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EXAMPLE: The builder, however, intends to foreclose unless a

payment is
forthcoming. She has a March 31 deadline.
• When you refer to a group that includes both men and women,
use a plural term and plural pronouns.
POOR: Each staff member must sign has revised W-2 form before
he is paid.
BETTER: All staff members must sign their revised W-2 forms before
they are paid.
• When you want to refer to the singular form of a noun which

could refer to either sex, then use the pronouns, his/her,
he/she, his or her, or he or she. This double form illustrates a
lack of bias, but its overuse can create awkward sentences.
POOR: Every engineer should check with his supervisor about

current road conditions.
BETTER: Every engineer should check with his or her supervisor

about current road conditions.
AWKWARD: Every engineer should check with his or her supervisor if

he or she is unsure of his or her assignment.
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To avoid the problem of sexism in pronoun reference, use the

appropriate gender
pronoun for persons and positions you know, and use plural
construction the rest of the time.
Activity 9
a. Rewrite the following sentences to avoid unnecessary
personal pronouns and to give the sentences a more formal
tone. The first one has been done for you.
Our annual sales exceed 522 million with over 19,000 lines
being filled on a daily basis. Our simple, line fill rates are 93
percent and we have an average inventory investment of
approximately54.8 million.
Annual sales exceed 522 million over 19,000 being filled on

a daily basis. Simple line fill rates are 93 percent with an
average inventory investment of approximately 54.5 million.
1. I found that Number 7 machine was damaged by the

storm which we experienced on November 27.
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
________________
2. Our report concerns the evaluation we (the Safety

Committee) made in the three weeks we used the
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proposed version of safety goggles and gloves at our

works stations.
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
________________
3. In my opinion, we 9the company) should reveal our

position on the
disposal of hazardous waste products near our water
treatment facility on Sardess Road.
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
________________
b. Revise the following sentences to avoid sexual bias in

pronoun choices.
1. Each employee at Mundane gets his choice of insurance

plans, but he can change plans each fiscal year.
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
________________
2. Any new plant manager at Mundane is expected to

complete his probationary period within six months.
94
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
________________
3.8 Step 5: Edit for Consistency and Accuracy
Edit carefully for consistency in your use of abbreviations, capital

letters, numbers, and hyphens. Be sure to check all mathematical
statements and dates. Although many general rules prevail, you will
need to make some decisions based on common sense. Follow this
advice for any specific use not covered in this section:
• Use the form found in published works in your field

• Use recent and reputable handbook or dictionary; usage
conventions are typically discussed in a separate section or
appendix.
• Be consistent with whatever choice you make.
Use Abbreviation Correctly
Because technical readers are usually familiar with the topic about
which they are reading, they will most likely understand the
abbreviations. However, you should not abbreviate simply to save
space, since extensive abbreviations slow down reading. Here are
guidelines for abbreviations:
95
• Abbreviate well-known agencies with all capital letters and no

punctuation: FBI, NASA, DAR, AMA, HUD, IRS.
• Spell out less well-known abbreviations the first time you use
them, then include the abbreviation itself in parentheses. You
may then abbreviate all subsequent references.
EXAMPLE: The Federal Acquisition Regulation Project (FARP) may

succeed in simplifying certain procedures. In 1985, FARP attempted…
• For units of measurement, generally use words rather than

abbreviations. (inches, megabits, millimeters, galloons, acres,
or cubic for example.) When the same measurement is
mentioned several times in a report, place the accepted
abbreviation after the word the first time; then use the
abbreviation (in,Mbits. Ppn, gal, ac or cu) throughout the rest of
your report.
• Some titles are always abbreviated, others are not. Use the
abbreviations Dr…Mr…Ms…when they precede a name, but
never abbreviate them when they stand alone. Do not
abbreviate position titles such as Professor, President,
Superintendent, Manager, or Director.
Here are some miscellaneous abbreviations; notice that a few are

followed by a period, but most are not.
p. page pp. pages
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Fig. Figure ms. Manuscript

Mpg miles per gallon F Fahrenheit
RFP Request for Proposal psi pounds per
square inch
hp horsepower C Celsius
Ac alternating current dc direct current
Do not abbreviate these following:
Days of the week Tuesday- not Tues.

Months February-not Feb.
Names of streets Beston Avenue-not
beston Ave.
Cities or states Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania-not Pgh,
Penn. (In addresses
the two-letter
designation for states
is correct: Pittsburgh,
PA)
Countries England-not Engl.
(some exceptions
Exist, such as
U.S.S.R and U.K)
Chapter Spell the entire word
when used in a
complete sentence
(“Chapter 10 is long.”)
97
Page Spell the entire word

when used in a
sentence. (“Section
2.0 deals with cost.”)
Foreign words that is – not i.e, for
example- not e.g and
others – not et la.
Use Capital Letters Correctly
Use the following checklist for general capitalization guidelines and

examples. (For any words not covered below use a dictionary.)
Capitalize the first letter of the following.
• The first word of a sentence
Recent market fluctuations affected the grain market
• The first word of a quotation which is complete sentence
According to researchers at Henlay, “The value of animal
research has diminished in the past four years.”
• The first word in a table entry or stub column head
• Trade names (but not common nouns which may follow them)
98
Nottingham paper products, electra mobile telephones,

Swingline staples
• The first word and all important words in second-and third-level
headings (sections) of reports and outlines
1.0 MAIN HEADING
1.1 Dwellings in Substandard Condition
1.1.1 Built before Zoning Act
1.1.2 Built after Zoning Act
1.2 Rental Units in Substandard Condition
Unless they are the first words in a little, prepositions (such as,
of, in, to) and articles (a, an, the) are not capitalized.
• The first word in each item in a list when the list is displayed
vertically; do not capitalized the first word when the list is
incorporated into a sentence.
The equipment damaged in Operation Breakthrough
included the following:
One city-owned bulldozer
One city-owned back loader
Nine leased heavy duty chainsaws
Nine portable fire extinguishers
The company will replace the following outdated equipment
(1) one 1964 alarm system, (2) three medium grade electric
security carts, (3) twelve manual typewriters, and (4) twelve
Somler copiers.
• The words Figure, Section, Table, and Chapter when they are
followed by a specific number.
e.g.: See Figure 3 in Chapter 10
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The figures are cleverly done, and each chapter is well

documented
• Compound words with single-letter prefixes
T-square, U-turn, I-beam
Use all capital letters for the following:
• Abbreviations of word that would commonly, be capitalized
NC DOT (North Carolina Department of
Transportation)
FICA (Federal Insurance Contributions Act)
• Computer languages, codes, and equipment panel
designations
Before he learned COBOL, he learned BASIC
Check each SETPOINT switch
• The report title and primary headings (section titles)
INNER CITY HOUSING: CULMONT, NEVADA
1.0 DWELLINGS in ZONE A
2.0 DWELLINGS in ZONE B
Use Hyphens Correctly

The use of hyphens varies considerably. Hyphens often divide words
that have been created form two or more words such as time-saver,
self-starter, and money-maker. They also indicate breaks in words at
the end of a line of type. Use the following guidelines and examples
(or prefer to an up-to-date dictionary):
• Compound words preceding nouns (although they often are not

hyphenated when they stand alone)
100
e.g.: The lead chromate-based pigments are not soluble in

body fluids.
The pigments which are chromate based do not dissolve
in body fluids.
• Prefixed capitalized words
e.g.: Pro-American, pre-Makro Servicing, trans-Atlantic
• Combinations of prefixes and suffixes that could be misread if
not hyphenated
e.g.: Re-creation (not “recreation”), tie-in, un-ionized (not
“unionized”)
• Words beginning with self and ex (when ex means previously)
e.g.: Self-starter, ex-CEO, self-propelling
• Fractions used as adjectives (but not when used as nouns)
e.g.: two-thirds majority/but two thirds of the voters
one-half cup but one half of the book
• Numbers and words used as adjectives
e.g.: A 30-hp motor, a 3-inch blade, the 20-litre bottles
• Coumpound numbers between 21 and 99 written as words
e.g.: Fifty-four errors were found. Over thirty-five….
• Phrasal adjectives preceding a noun
e.g.: Our state-of-the-art equipment, a beside-the-press
machine
Use Number Correctly

Especially in technical writing, numbers must be clearly
expressed. As with hyphens, the rules for numbers vary greatly.
Use the following quick reference:
101
For Use Such As

Ages Numerals a 20-year mortgage
Centuries Words the twenty-first
century
Consecutive numerals and buy eight 3-inch
words dowels
Fractions numerals and 115 two-edged
words rulers
¼ inch or ¼ of an
inch
Two-thirds of the
workforce
Pages Numerals The answer is on
page 26
Time (specific) Numerals 2:10 a.m. or 2:10

A.M
3 a.m or 2 P.M (no
zeros)
Numbers beginning a Words Ten machine

sentence operators quit
Exact suite of Numerals 10 gallons, $47,31
measurement pounds a diameter
of 2.333 inches
Less than 10 Words More than five
persons…
More than 10 Numerals Approximately 15
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persons…
Electronic/electrical Numerals 42 megawatts, 640
uses volts
3.9 RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
Primary sources
A primary source is an original object or document -- the raw material

or first-hand information.
Primary sources include historical and legal documents, eye witness

accounts, results of an experiment, statistical data, pieces of creative
writing, and art objects. In the natural and social sciences, the results
of an experiment or study are typically found in scholarly articles or
papers delivered at conferences, so those articles and papers that
present the original results are considered primary sources.
103
Secondary sources
A secondary source is something written about a primary source.

Secondary sources include comments on, interpretations of, or
discussions about the original material. You can think of secondary
sources as second-hand information. If I tell you something, I am the
primary source. If you tell someone else what I told you, you are the
secondary source. Secondary source materials can be articles in
newspapers or popular magazines, book or movie reviews, or articles
found in scholarly journals that evaluate or criticize someone else's
original research.
Primary research methods
The table below sets out some of the characteristics, benefits and
drawbacks of different types of primary research methods.
Primary research can also be referred to as fieldwork.
Qualitative or Characteristics, Benefits and
Method
Quantitative? Drawbacks
• Cost is low
• Response rate can be poor
• Answers may be incomplete

Postal
Quantitative • Responses are pre-coded and
survey
must be simple so people can
understand them - sometimes this
means the quality of information
provided is lower than from other
methods
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• Cost effective method of

achieving robust sample allowing
generalizations to be made
• Responses are pre-coded Certain
Telephone groups do not have access to the
Quantitative telephone, so may be excluded
survey
from the sample
• It is difficult to ask sensitive
questions over the telephone
• Works well with employers
• Can include both open questions

as pre-coded
• Can achieve robust sample
allowing generalizations if
sufficient numbers are surveyed
Face-to- • Expensive and time-consuming to

Quantitative administrator
face survey
• Ideal for gathering sensitive
information or exploring
complicated issues
• Rich and detailed information can

be gathered
• Interviewers are allowed more
flexibility
In-depth
Qualitative • Answers to open questions can
interview
be difficult and time-consuming to
analyse
• Expensive and time-consuming to
administrator
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• A group discussion with around 8-

12 people
• Usually lasts between 1 and 3
hours
• Capitalises on interaction between
Focus participants
Qualitative
group • Participants are not representative
of wider population which does
not allow for generalisation
• Useful for gathering sensitive data
• Requires careful and unbiased

analysis
• Researcher gains understanding

of a specific person's experience
through an in-depth interview
• Provides good quotations and rich
Case study Qualitative data
• Can bring alive other research,
such as survey data
• Findings cannot be generalised to
a wider population
3.10 DEVELOPING RESEARCH, CHOOSING AND

LIMITING THE TOPIC
There are two important factors to remember when choosing a topic of
a research paper:
• You have limited time in which to complete a paper
• Thus, you are limited in subject area and length.
Because of these two factors, you will need to give careful thought to
choosing your topic. Here are some guidelines to follow:
106
1) Choose a topic that is neither too broad nor too narrow.
• If your topic is too broad, you won’t be able to complete the paper
in the limited time period. You won’t be able to research carefully
because you will find too many source materials from which to
choose.
• If your topic is too narrow, you won’t be able to find enough

information. A research paper should be a study in depth of
particular topic. If your topic is too narrow, your resources will be
limited.
2) Select a topic for which there is available information.

Always check on the library as soon as you decide on a
topic.
3) Choose a subject/topic that you:

• Know something about it.
• Are interested in: you should want to know more
about the subject
• Want to communicate to a specific audience
3.11 METHODS FOR GATHERING SOURCES

Once you have chosen your topic, the next step is to do the
research. Two main resources in the library that will help you in
beginning your research are the card catalogue and the Reader’s
Guide to Periodical Literature.
The card catalogue contains information on all the books in the

library. Each book is listed in three separated sections of the card
catalogue: by author, by subject, and by title. The card for each book
gives the following information:
Call number
Author
Title
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Copyright Date
Publisher
City where the book was published
Number of pages the book contains
When you begin your research, you will probably begin by looking in
the title and subject sections of the card catalog under the general
subject area of your topic.
A card catalogue in the University Library of Graz

OPAC
An Online Public Access Catalog or OPAC is a computerized
online catalog of the materials held in a library, or library system. The
library staff and the public can usually access it at computers within
the library, or from home . OPAC terminals began to replace card
catalogs in many libraries in the 1980s. Since the mid-1990s, these
108
systems have increasingly migrated to Web-based interfaces. OPACs

are often part of an integrated library system.
The OPAC System used at the Vyners School LRC

(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPAC)
The Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature contains information on

magazines and periodical articles. The information is listed
alphabetically according to author and subject and is arranged in
volumes by year.
How to Read a Citation in the Readers' Guide
Below is a sample citation from the sample page of the Readers'

Guide. The parts of each citation are always in the same order. From
left to right are shown: 1) the title of the article; 2) the first initial(s) and
last name of the author; 3) the title of magazine or journal in which the
article is located; 4) the volume and number of the issue of that
magazine or journal; 5) the page number where the article can be
found; and 6) the date of the magazine or journal issue.
109
Headings and Subheadings
Subject Headings in bold type are placed on the pages in alphabetical

order, with citations of related articles listed below each one.
• Employee health insurance is the subject heading at the top of the

excerpt at right, with three citations, each representing an article,
located immediately after it.
Subheadings show as bold type placed in the center of the column, and
identify narrower parts of the subject heading they follow.
110
• The subheading Accounting, with one citation after it, and the
subheading Costs, with two citations after it, appear in the center of
the column below the subject heading.
3.12 RESEARCH OUTLINE & THESIS STATEMENT
After you have begun research on your paper topic and have a
clear idea of your subject, the next step is to organize the material you
are gathering. Writing an outline will help you to organize the
information. In general, the outline should clearly show the purpose of
your paper. It should provide a logical way to organize the facts you
are gathering.
1. Outlining
Outlining is a way to organize writing. It helps you to keep in mind the
order in which you will present your ideas.
Here is a sample outline:

I. Introduction: Introduce your topic and present your
thesis statement
Sample thesis statement: Heavy smoking may cause
health problems.
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II. Body Paragraph 1: State the first major point in your

topic sentence.
Example topic sentence: One problem of heavy
smoking is easy to get cancer.
A. Give a first supporting point
B. Give a second supporting point.
III. Body Paragraph 2: State the second major point in

your topic sentence.
A. Give a first supporting point
IV. Body paragraph 3: State the third major point in your

topic sentence.
A. Give first supporting point
V. Conclusion: Restate the thesis or your major points.
2. THESIS STATEMENT
The Thesis Statement expresses the main idea of the essay.

The thesis differs from the topic sentence of a paragraph in that it
encompasses the ideas in an entire essay, not just those in one
paragraph.
112
The introductory paragraph of the essay can be represented as

an inverted triangle: the broader, more general ideas about the topic
lead to the narrower, more specific idea of the thesis statement.
Traditionally, the thesis statement appears at the end of the

introductory paragraph, as the following diagram shows:
General Ideas
Specific Thesis Statement
‘Funnel’ Approach
3.13 REQUIREMENTS FOR A THESIS STATEMENT
113
Thesis Statement expresses the Main Idea of the essay.
5 basic requirements:
1. It states the topic of the research paper, the main idea

2. It shows the purpose of your essay; in this case, to
persuade your readers that your point is valid and deserves
serious consideration
3. It shows the direction of your argument. As a result, a good
thesis statement implies (or states) the order in which your
ideas will be presented
4. It is written in focused, specific language
5. It is interesting, showing a clear voice and style
How To Write a Thesis Statement
What is a Thesis Statement?

Almost all of us—even if we don’t do it consciously—look early in an
essay for a one- or two-sentence condensation of the argument or
analysis that is to follow. We refer to that condensation as a thesis
statement.
Why Should Your Essay Contain A Thesis Statement?
• to test your ideas by distilling them into a sentence or two
• to better organize and develop your argument
• to provide your reader with a “guide” to your argument
In general, your thesis statement will accomplish these goals if you

think of the thesis as the answer to the question your paper explores.
114
How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is

Assigned
Almost all assignments, no matter how complicated, can be reduced
to a single question. Your first step, then, is to distill the assignment
into a specific question. For example, if your assignment is “Write a
report to the local school board explaining the potential benefits of
using computers in a fourth-grade class,” turn the request into a
question like “What are the potential benefits of using computers in a
fourth-grade class?” After you’ve chosen the question your essay will
answer, compose one or two complete sentences answering that
question.
Q: “What are the potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-

grade class?”
A: “The potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class

are . . . .”
OR
A: “Using computers in a fourth-grade class promises to improve . . . .”
The answer to the question is the thesis statement for the essay.
How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is Not

Assigned
Even if your assignment doesn’t ask a specific question, your thesis
statement still needs to answer a question about the issue you’d like to
115
explore. In this situation, your job is to figure out what question you’d
like to write about.
A good thesis statement will usually include the following four

attributes:
• take on a subject upon which reasonable people could disagree
• deal with a subject that can be adequately treated given the

nature of the assignment
• express one main idea
• assert your conclusions about a subject
Let’s see how to generate a thesis statement for a social policy paper.
Brainstorm the topic.

Let’s say that your class focuses upon the problems posed by drug
addiction. You find that you are interested in the problems of crack
babies, babies born to mothers addicted to crack cocaine.
You start out with a thesis statement like this:
Crack babies.
This fragment isn’t a thesis statement. Instead, it simply indicates a

general subject. Furthermore, your reader doesn’t know what you
want to say about crack kids.
Narrow the topic

Your readings about the topic, however, have led you to the
conclusion that not only do these babies have a difficult time surviving
premature births and withdrawal symptoms, but their lives will be even
116
harder as they grow up because they are likely to be raised in an

environment of poverty and neglect. You think that there should be
programs to help these children.
You change your thesis to look like this:
Programs for crack kids.
This fragment not only announces your subject, but it focuses on one
main idea: programs. Furthermore, it raises a subject upon which
reasonable people could disagree, because while most people might
agree that something needs to be done for these children, not
everyone would agree on what should be done or who should do it.
You should note that this fragment is not a thesis statement because
your reader doesn’t know your conclusions on the topic.
Take a position on the topic.

After reflecting on the topic a little while longer, you decide that what
you really want to say about this topic is that in addition to programs
for crack babies, the government should develop programs to help
crack children cope and compete.
You revise your thesis to look like this:
More attention should be paid to the environment crack kids

grow up in.
This statement asserts your position, but the terms more attention and
the environment are vague.
117
Use specific language.

You decide to explain what you mean about “the environment,” so you
write:
Experts estimate that half of crack babies will grow up in home

environments lacking rich cognitive and emotional stimulation.
INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH
The introductory paragraph must introduce the topic of the essay and
present the thesis statement (the main idea) of the essay. Because
the introduction is the first part of the essay that the reader sees, it
should also catch the reader’s interest so that he or she will want to
keep reading.
There are several devices that you can use to make your introduction
inviting to the reader. You might do the following:
• Emphasize the importance of a topic

• Ask a question
• Tell an anecdote or story
• Use a quotation
• Describe a shared experience
• Use ‘funnel’ approach illustrated above; that is, begin
with general ideas about the topic and narrow the ideas
into the specific point of the thesis statement.
118
3.14 Taking Notes, Quoting and Paraphrasing
Taking Notes
As you examine each source, make a separate note of each fact or

quotation you might want to use in your paper. Unless you are really
good at manipulating text with your computer or laptop, it might be
wise to use index cards when preparing notes. Be sure to identify the
source of the information on the listing (include the author's name and
page number on which the information appears). Try to summarize the
information in your own words (paraphrasing); use quotation marks if
you copy the information exactly. (This rule should apply whether you
are copying a great deal of material or only a phrase.) Give each
listing a simple descriptive heading.
Your listings — whether they appear on index cards or within some

format on your computer — will now provide the authoritative basis for
your paper's content and documentation. By arranging and
rearranging the listings and using your descriptive headings, you may
well discover a certain order or different categories which will help you
prepare an outline. You may find that you need additional information,
119
or that some of the listings may not be appropriate and should be set
aside or discarded.
QUOTING
(Short quotation) To quote 4 or less lines of prose, you can include the
passage within quotation marks as part of your text, e.g. Dick Oliver
concludes that "all communication industries are moving rapidly
toward exclusively digital technology" (24).
(Long quotation) To quote 5 or more lines of prose, or 3 or more lines

of verse, begin on a new line, set the quoted passage off from the text
of your essay by indenting 1" (2.5 cm) or about 10 spaces from the left
margin, double-space between lines, without using quotation marks.
Example:
In their Introduction to Computer Science with C++, Lambert,
Nance, and Naps stress that:
120
The key to writing a successful program is planning.

Good programs do not just happen: they are the result
of careful design and
patience. [. . .]. Writing a program is like writing

an essay:
An overall theme is envisioned, an outline of major

ideas is
developed, each major idea is subdivided into

several parts,
and each part is developed using individual

sentences (15).
Quotations should be smoothly incorporated into the paper by using a

transitional phrase or sentence, such as:
As X states
declared
wrote
commented
noted
PARAPHRASING
(Source taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphrase)
A paraphrase (from the Greek paraphrasis) is a statement or remark

explained in other words or another way, so as to simplify or clarify its
meaning. It can be used as a replacement for a direct quotation.
Characteristics of a well-done paraphrase
• It is not a summary.
• It does not contain most of the words or phrases from the

original (plagiarism).
• It includes all minor details from original.
121
• The meaning of the writing being paraphrased is clearer to the

reader than in the original text.
• It restates the thesis
• It is usually shorter than the original

Example
• "Immanuel Kant maintained the view that 'Existence' is
obviously not a predicate."
This can be paraphrased as:
• "Some scholars believe 'existence' is not a predicate." [1]
3.15 LITERATURE SURVEY (REVIEW)
Literature survey is the documentation of a comprehensive review of

the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data
in the areas of specific interest to the researcher.
CONDUCTING LITERATURE SURVEY
1ST step: Identifying the various published and unpublished

materials that are available on the topics of interest
122
2nd step: gathering the relevant information either by going

through the necessary materials in a library of getting
access to online sources.
3rd step: Writing up the literature review.
THREE FORMS OF DATABASED WHILE DOING LITERATURE

REVIEW THROUGH COMPUTER DATABASE
1. Bibliography database : display only the bibliography

citations that is the name of the author, title of article (book),
source of publication, year, volume and page numbers.
2. Abstract database : provide an abstract of summary of the

articles
3. Full-text database: provide full text of article.
Example:
ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS
Organization theorists have defined organizational
effectiveness (OE) in various ways. OE has been
described in terms of objectives (Georgopolous &
Tannenbaum, 1957), goals (Etzioni, 1960), efficiency
(Katz & Khan, 1966), resources acquisition (Yuchtman &
Seashore, 1967), employee satisfaction (Cummings,
1977), interdependence (Pfeffer, 1977) and
organizational vitality (Colt, 1995). As Coulter (2002)
remarked, there is little consensus on how to
conceptualize, measure, or explain OE. This should,
however, not come as surprise to us since OE models are
essentially value-based classification of the construct
(the values being those of the researchers) and the
123
potential number of models that can be generated by

researchers is virtually limitless. Researchers are now
moving awing from a single model and are taking
contingency approaches to conceptualizing OE
(Cameron, 1996; Wernerfelt, 1998; Yetlye, 2001).
3.16 SURVEY AND QUESTIONNAIRES
Definition of Survey: A set of questions that you ask a large number

of people or organization (Mac Millan English Dictionary, 2002)
Data Collection Methods in Survey Research

Data can be collected in a variety of ways include:
• Interviews – face to face, telephone, computer assisted and

through electronic media.
- interviewing respondents to obtain information on the issues
of interest. Interviews could be unstructured or structured
and conducted either face to face or by telephone or online.
• Questionnaires – personally administered, sent through mail

and electronically administered
- A questionnaire is a preformulated written set of questions to
which respondents record their answers. Questionnaires are
an efficient data collection mechanism when the researcher
knows exactly what is required and how to measure the
variables of interest.
• Observation – of individuals or events with or without

videotaping or audio recording
124
TYPES OF QUESTION
Open questions invite comment:
e.g. Name any additional items you would like to be available from the
college vending machines.
Drink ______________________________
Snacks _____________________________
Closed questions require specific questions. The most basic closed
questions are those requiring YES/NO answers:
Example: Have you bought any drinks from the college
vending machines in the past month? YES/NO
Multiple Choice questions are those giving a list of response to be

ticked. This type of question needs careful planning to ensure
complete coverage of possible answers:
Example:
Which one of the following drinks have you bought recently?
(Please tick)
Coffee Sprite
Tea Cola
Chocolate Diet Cola
Milo Orange Juice
Rating or preference questions ask for an opinion. Grading is

provided for ticking:
Example:
125
What is your opinion on the quality of the drinks from the vending
machine? (Please tick)
Good Average Poor
Coffee
Tea
Chocolate
Milo
Sprite
Cola
Diet Cola
Orange
Ranked questions sometimes very useful for the respondents to rank

a set of options by numbering them in order from 1 to the maximum
number you are interested in.
Example:
Place in order of importance to you the following features of a camping
holiday
(indicate by numbering from 1-4 in order where 1 is the most
important)
Open Air
Mobility
Cost
People
Atmosphere
126
3.17 FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
Research Design
The research design offering details on:
• The sampling design
What is a sample? A sample is a subset of the population

(Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or
things of interest that the researchers wish t investigate. A
sample comprises of some members from the population. In
other words, elements of the population would from the sample.
For example, if 200 students are drawn from a population of
1000 KPTM students, these 200 students form the sample of
the study.
• Data Collection Methods
It refers to what are the methods of collecting the data for the
research. I can be a set of questionnaires, interview and
observation.
• Data Analysis
127
Once the data is collected, how is it analyzed? What are the

techniques used to analyze the data?
• Report and Oral Presentation
A written report will be submitted within the specified period,

followed by an oral presentation.
3.18 The Written Report-Integral Parts of the Report
The title page
• The title of the report should indicate what the study is all about.
Examples of some good report titles are:
1. A study of Customer Satisfaction with the Pizza Hut

at Sunway City, Selangor
128
2. Factors Affecting the Smoking Habits among

students at High Schools.
Table of Contents
• The table of contents with page references usually lists the

important headings and subheadings in the report. A separate
list of tables and figures should also be listed in the table of
contents.
Acknowledgement
• Help received from others is acknowledged. Usually, the

people who assisted in the study by collecting the
questionnaires, acting as liaison persons, helping in data
analysis, and so on, are recognized and thanked. The
organization is thanked for the facilities provided and its
members for responding to the survey.
The Executive Summary or Synopsis
• The executive summary or synopsis is a brief account of the

research study that provides an overview, and highlights the
following important information related to it.
Introductory Section
• It starts with a statement of the problem under investigation.

The research objective, together with background information of
why and how the study was initiated, will also be stated. In the
case of basic research the introductory section will offer an idea
129
of the topic that is researched, wand why it is important to study

it.
The body of the Report
• In this part, the details of the interviews conducted, the

literature survey and theoretical framework are furnished. The
design details such as sampling and data collection methods
will be described. The details of the types of data analyses
done and the findings will be provided next. Tabular and
pictorial depictions of the results of data analysis will find a
place here.
The final part of the Report
• The final part will contain the conclusion drawn from the
findings. In most cases, a list of recommendations form
implementation will follow.
References/Bibliography
• Starting on a fresh page, a list of references cited in the

literature review and at other places in the report will be given.
Appendix
• The appendix, which comes last, is the appropriate place for

the organization chart, newspaper clippings or other materials
that substantiate the text of the report. It should also contain a
130
copy of the questionnaire administered to the respondents. If

there are several appendices, they could be referenced as
Appendix A, B and so on and appropriately labeled.
3.19 PARENTHETICAL
Samples:
The World Book Encyclopedia defines Taboo as "an action, object,
person, or place forbidden by law or culture" (Dundes).
In reference to Freak Shows at circuses, an interesting observation is

made that people who possess uncommon features and who willingly
go out in public to display such oddities to onlookers are acting as
"modern-day taboo breakers" by crossing the "final boundary between
societal acceptance and ostracism." (Rothenberg).
Bibliography or Works Cited
Dundes, Alan. "Taboo." The World Book Encyclopedia. 2000 ed.
131
Rothenberg, Kelly. "Tattooed People as Taboo Figures in Modern Society."
1996. BME/Psyber City. 18 Jan. 2005

<http://www.bme.freeq.com/tattoo/ tattab.html>.
The Works Cited list, or Bibliography, is a list of all the sources used in
your paper, arranged alphabetically by author's last name
For example:
In the text of your paper:
The first gambling Web site appeared in 1995,
and online gambling has since become the most
lucrative Internet business (Will 92).
Or
George Will reported that in 2002 Internet

gambling surpassed pornography to become the
Internet's most lucrative business (92).
In your Works Cited list:
Will, George F. "Electronic Morphine."

Newsweek 25 Nov. 2002: 92.
3.20 FOOTNOTES AND ENDNOTES

Footnotes and Endnotes are used to give credit to sources of
any material borrowed, summarized or paraphrased. They are
132
intended to refer readers to the exact pages of the works listed in the
Works Cited, References, or Bibliography section.
The main difference between Footnotes and Endnotes is that

Footnotes are placed numerically at the foot of the very same page
where direct references are made, while Endnotes are placed
numerically at the end of the essay on a separate page entitled
Endnotes or Notes.
When mentioning a work for the first time, a full and complete
Footnote or Endnote entry must be made.
NOTE: Only one sentence is used in a Footnote or Endnote citation,

i.e., only one period or full stop is used at the end of any Footnote or
Endnote citation. In a Bibliography, each citation consists of a
minimum of three statements or sentences, hence each entry requires
a minimum of three periods, e.g., a period after the author statement,
a period after the title statement, and a period after the publication
statement (publication/publisher/publication date).
First Footnote or Endnote example:
2
G. Wayne Miller, King of Hearts: The True Story
of the Maverick Who Pioneered Open Heart Surgery
(New York: Times, 2000) 245.
Bibliography example:
Miller, G. Wayne. King of Hearts: The True Story of the
Maverick Who Pioneered Open Heart Surgery. New York:
Times, 2000.
133
Use of ibid.
ibid. (from the Latin ibidem meaning "in the same place")
For Footnote or Endnote citations, if you should see the term ibid.
being used, it just means that the citation is for the second mention of
the same work with no intervening entries:
3
Ibid. 12-15.
3.21 WHAT IS A BIBLIOGRAPHY?
A bibliography is an alphabetical list of all materials consulted in the

preparation of your assignment.
134
WHY MUST YOU DO A BIBLIOGRAPHY?
Some reasons:
1. To acknowledge and give credit to sources of words, ideas,
diagrams, illustrations, quotations borrowed, or any materials
summarized or paraphrased.
2. To show that you are respectfully borrowing other people’s ideas,

not stealing them, i.e. to prove that you are not plagiarizing.
3. To offer additional information to your readers who may wish to

further pursue your topic.
4. To give readers an opportunity to check out your sources for

accuracy. An honest bibliography inspires reader confidence in your
writing.
1. Standard Format for a Book:
Author. Title: Subtitle. City or Town: Publisher, Year of Publication.
135
If a book has no author or editor stated, begin with the title. If the city
or town is not commonly known, add the abbreviation for the State or
Province.
If you are citing two or more books by the same author or editor, list
the name of the author or editor in the first entry only, and use three
hyphens to indicate that the following entry or entries have the same
name. Do not use the three hyphens if a book is by two or more
authors or is edited by two or more individuals.
Example:
Business: The Ultimate Resource. Cambridge, MA: Perseus, 2002.
King, Stephen. Black House. New York: Random, 2001.
---. Dreamcatcher. New York: Scribner, 2001.
---. From a Buick 8: A Novel. New York: Simon, 2002.
Osen, Diane, ed. The Book That Changed My Life: Interviews with National
Book Award Winners and Finalists. New York: Modern, 2002.
2. Standard Format for a Magazine, Periodical, Journal, or

Newspaper Article:
136
Author. "Title: Subtitle of Article." Title of Magazine, Journal, or
Newspaper Day, Month, Year of Publication: Page Number(s).

Example:
Hewitt, Ben. "Quick Fixes for Everyday Disasters." Popular Mechanics Nov.
2004: 83-88.
Nordland, Rod, Sami Yousafzai, and Babak Dehghanpisheh. "How Al Qaeda

Slipped Away." Newsweek 19 Aug. 2002: 34-41.
Suhr, Jim. "Death Penalty for Juveniles Is Considered: High Court to Hear
Missouri Case."
Buffalo News 10 Oct. 2004: A12.
Basic components of an Internet citation:
1) Author.
2) "Title of Article, Web page or site" in quotation marks.
3) Title of Magazine, Journal, Newspaper, Newsletter, Book,
Encyclopedia, or Project, underlined.
4) Editor of Project.
5) Indicate type of material, e.g. advertisement, cartoon, clipart,
electronic card, interview, map, online posting, photograph,
working paper, etc. if not obvious.
6) Date of article, of Web page or site creation, revision, posting,
last update, or date last modified. 7) Group, association,
name of forum, sponsor responsible for Web page or Web site.
137
8) Access date (the date you accessed the Web page or

site).
9) Complete Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or network
address in angle brackets.
SAMPLES:
Internet citation for an article from an online encyclopedia:

Duiker, William J. "Ho Chi Minh." Encarta Online Encyclopedia. 2005. Microsoft. 10
Oct. 2005
<http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761558397/Ho_Chi_Minh.html>.
"Ho Chi Minh." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2005. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium

Service.
9 Oct. 2005 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9040629>.
"Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC)." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2005.

Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 Oct. 2005
<http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402567>.
138
JOB INTERVIEW
CHAPTER
OBJECTIVES
1. To understand the importance of interview preparations
(before, during and after)
2. To understand the features and demands of job

interviews.
3. To perform competently during an interview.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. compose three types of application letters for employment
2. write a curriculum vitae using acceptable format of CV

writing.
3. perform confidently during a mock interview.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Locating Jobs (Advertisement Search), Composing Letter of

Application
139
2. Application Forms and Composing a Curriculum Vitae (CV)
3. Sample of Job Offer Letter, Thank You Letter and

Acceptance and Refusal Letter
JOB INTERVIEW
4.2 Understanding Particular Words and Expressions in

Advertisements
1. Ambitious: having the desire or willingness to succeed

2. Attractive remuneration: a good salary
3. Aggressive candidates: people who are active and forceful
4. Ample opportunities: a lot of chances
5. Bonus: additional payment (usually a month’s salary)
6. Commission: payment as a reward for good service
7. Candidate: the person who applies for a job
8. Commensurate: be in proportion to
9. Comprehensive resume: full details of the applicant’s
qualifications, working experience, personal information and
names of referees
10. Current salary: present salary
11. Computer literate: know how to use the computer
12. Dynamic: energetic, having a lot of energy
13. Drive: energy, ambition
14. Disciplines: subjects, courses
15. Equivalent: equal to
16. Essential: necessary
17. Functions: work, duties
140
18. Fringe benefits: benefits for the employees, these include

bonus, medical treatment, subsidized meals, and paid annual
leave
19. Flair: natural ability or talent
20. Handle: deal with
21. Initiative: the ability to start something on one’s own
22. Innovative: creative, having new ideas
23. Incumbent: person holding office
24. Leadership qualities: be able to lead, direct and advise those
under you
25. Multinational company: a big company with branches in
different countries.
26. Notified: informed
27. Negotiable: can be worked out by discussion
28. Positions: jobs
29. Pleasant personality/disposition: desirable behavior and good
manners
30. Potential: ability to do something
31. Pleasant working environment: working in the company would
be enjoyable, may be because of the friendly staff and good
facilities there
32. Resourceful: capable
33. Recognized qualification: certificates, diplomas and
degrees which are accepted by the authorities
34. Result-oriented: able to produce good results
35. Remuneration package: salary, allowances and bonus etc
36. Relevant experience: experience related to the job you are
applying for
141
37. Reputable: respectable and reliable

38. Self-motivated: be interested and eager to do something
without being told by others
39. Short listed: selected from the list
40. Suitably qualified: having relevant qualifications.
41. Sound knowledge: knowing something very well
42. Tertiary qualifications: qualification obtained ant institutions of
higher leaning
43. Take home pay: the money that you bring home after all
deduction
44. Telephone manners: talking on the phone politely and in a
pleasant, acceptable manner
45. Urgently required: wanted at once
46. Valid driving license: a driving license which can still be used,
has not expired.
47. Write in: apply in writing
48. Wholly-owned subsidiary: a branch office or a smaller
company which is completely owned by a big company
49. Well versed with: very familiar with.
142
4.3 Common Abbreviations Used in Job Advertisements
Attn : for the attention of

CV : curriculum vitae
c/o : care of
Dbase: database
ext : extension
HQ : headquarters
LCC : London Chamber of Commerce
LCCI : London Chamber of Commerce and Industry
min : minimum
nr : non-returnable
PSC : Private Secretary’s Certificate
PC : personal computer
QC : quality control
Ref : reference
R&D: research and development
sae : stamped addressed envelope
SEA region: Southeast Asia region
Wpm : words per minute
Fax : telefax
143
4.4 Application Letter

Types of application letter:
• Letter with application forms
For example:
203, Jalan Gangsa 2
Taman Melati
05200 Alor Star
Kedah
18 June 2004
The Senior Assistant Registrar

Recruitment & Establishment Office
University Malaysia Sarawak
Samarahan
Dear Sir
RESEARCH ASSISTANT
I refer to your advertisement for the above postion which appeared in

‘The Star’ yesterday. Could you send me an application form, please.
I thank you and look forward to receiving the form very soon.
Yours faithfully
144
……………………….
Wan Ruzaimi Wan Hassan
• Cover Letter with resume (CV)
4.5 Writing a Covering Letter
A covering letter is a short letter of application which accompanies a

resume (or curriculum vitae). It can do a good job of selling your skills
or abilities and it can call the attention of your prospective employers
to your strong points.
The letter must be attractively presented in a business-like manner.

Use good quality white paper. Since the covering letter is your first
introduction to the prospective employer, give the impression that your
are courteous and capable in your letter.
Format
The Opening Paragraph
Step 1: Refer to the advertisement. The opening sentence

should refer to the advertisement and the position you
are applying for.
Step 2: State your highest qualification and relevant experience.
145
The Middle Paragraph
Step 3: Mention your most relevant knowledge. A graduate

applying for the post of network administrator should
mention those subjects he studied which are related to
the job applied for.
Step 4: State your relevant work experience. Fresh graduate
job-seekers can mention important aspects of their
practical training.
Step 5: Mention other relevant skills that you have which could
bring benefit to the company.
The Closing Paragraph
Step 6: State your salary range only if the advertisement ask for
it.
Step 7: Refer to documents enclosed e.g. resume and
photocopies of certificates
Step 8: Mention that you are keen on attending an interview to
elaborate about your self, qualification and experience.
146
For example:
866 Jalan Kampung Pinang 1
05400 Alor Star
Kedah
04 July 2006
The Director
Human Resource Development
Tekad Maju IT Industries
P.O. Box 2500
Penang
Dear Sir
APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF IT EXECUTIVE
I have great pleasure in submitting my application for the

above post which was advertised in the New Straits Times on
01 July 2006.
I graduated from Kolej Poly-Tech MARA in 2005 with a diploma

in Information Technology. During my third year of studies, I
gained invaluable hands on experience in Information
Technology during my industrial training at Cyber Network Sdn
Bhd for four months.
Attached is my curriculum vitae providing details of my

qualifications and experience.
I am truly interested in the career opportunity offered in your
organization. I believe that with my enthusiasm, initiative and
my ability to learn quickly, I will be able to contribute
positively towards your organization’s success.
Thank you.
Yours faithfully
147
………………………………….
NOOR AKMAL BINTI YUSOFF
Enc: CV
The importance of cover letter:
• Sells your abilities and qualification

• Should be kept short
• Emphasizes your strengths
• Expresses your enthusiasm
• Indicates willingness to serve the company
Other practical preparation:
• Use good quality of white paper

• Type written letters are specifically required
• Should be error free
• Check for spellings
• Courteous
4.6 Application Forms
Some advertisements specify that you should ask for an application

form. Either telephone or send a simple letter asking for the form.
Here’s some information in the application forms include:
• Name ● Experience
• Date of availability
• Address ● Present Job
• Signature
• Age ● Past Employment
• Status ● Salary
148
• Education ● Outside interests

• Qualifications ● References
4.6.1 Curriculum vitae (or resume)
Curriculum vitae (CV) is a Latin term and it means “the course of your
life”. A CV or resume is your sales document. It should highlight your
skills, education, qualifications and working experience so that the
reader wants to meet you. It is very important when applying for jobs.
The objective of CV is not to get you a job, but to get you an interview
in which you can get the job.
See the extracts below from some advertisements:
1. Interested candidates are requested to write in with

complete resume detailing current and expected salary,
contact telephone and a n.r.. passport size photograph to:
…………………………..
2. Please call us or send a current CV directly to:………………
…………
3. All applicants are to bring along with them a comprehensive
resume.
149
4.7 Contents in CV
A resume or CV generally has six key components:
1. Personal Details
Information to be included such as ID card, race, telephone number,

citizenship, address, date of birth, place of birth, marital status, email
etc.
2. Education
Information includes the name of your college and its location,

secondary schools and primary school and dates you were there.
Your most recent education should be listed first.
3. Qualification
State all qualifications you have achieve with the most recent
achievement is stated first. Examinations for which you have not
received the results should be mentioned under “Result Awaited”
4. Experience
150
State your present job first and working backwards. Fresh graduates
should mention their practical training or even their part-time, even if
the experience is irrelevant to the job.
5. Extra Curricular Activities
Include any information that projects your qualities and personalities

e.g. office bearing positions. Your active involvement in activities
shows that you can work well with people.
6. References
Two referees, minimum. It can be your previous employer, teacher or

club leader or anyone who can testify your character. Permission to
use their names, addresses and contact number must be obtained
before giving their names. One of the referees should be one with
whom the applicant was associated closely at the tertiary institution he
was in, for example, one of his lecturers or dean or deputy dean of the
faculty.
What your resume should not have
☺Poor layout and presentation ☺Poor handwriting (should be

typed neatly)
☺ Ungrammatically ☺ misspelling ☺inappropriate vocabulary
151
☺ failure to provide essential information ☺ too much detail (over 2

pages)
☺too short
RESUME
SITI ZARINA BINTI ZULKIFLI
Place your photo

HERE!!
PERSONAL DETAILS
Address: 256 A, Jalan Anggerik 2, Date of Birth: 20 July 1985

Taman Sri Anggerik Nationality:
Malaysian
05350 Alor Star Kedah. Marital Status: Single
Tel: 012-2125655 I.C No: 850720-02-
5500
04-7752455
EDUCATION
2005-2006 Kolej Poly-Tech MARA Alor Star

2003-2004 Syed Omar Secondary School, Alor Star, Kedah
2000-2003 Sultan Ibrahim Secondary School, Sg Petani, Kedah
QUALIFICATION
2006 Diploma in Computer System & Networking

CGPA: 3.00
2004 Malaysian Certificated of Education (SPM)
Grade: 1
EMPLOYMENT
July – Dec Industrial Training (Practical Student)

2006 Syntax Computer Network Sdn Bhd, Petaling Jaya, Selangor
INTERESTS
Traveling
Soccer
152
Jungle Trekking
Web Surfing
REFERENCES
En Khairulnizam Shuib Mr Daniel Chong
Lecturer Syntex Computer Network Sdn
Bhd
General Studies Department 61, Jalan Timor
Kolej Poly-Tech MARA Alor Star 51200 Petaling Jaya, Selangor
Tel: 04-7309255 Tel: 03-
24185559
4.8 INTERVIEW PREPARATION

Before
♥ Confirm your attendance by calling up the organization and also
to find out extra details of location and other information.
♥ Read as mush information on the organization and also on the
general knowledge.
♥ Prepare relevant documents to be arranged in a file and also
samples of work done or completed.
♥ Prepare intelligent questions to be asked
♥ Prepare correct dressing attire and personal appearance
♥ Arrive early and act accordingly while waiting for your turn.
During
♥ Knock on the door and give appropriate greetings.
♥ Wait until you are asked to be seated and sit up straight. Be
aware of your body language.
♥ Relax and answer courteously, positively, avoid answering by a
simple “yes” or “no” but elaborate further.
♥ Take any opportunity given to ask intelligent questions.
♥ Avoid getting trapped by showing anger or being rude
153
♥ Look interested and be aware of the interviewer’s body

language.
♥ When leaving thank the interviewer
After
♥ Write a ‘Thank-You’ letter to the firm
♥ Evaluate your performance by going through the interview and
also your answers again
♥ Update your resume
4.9 Sample of ‘Thank You Letter’
946 Jalan Lydia 6

Taman Tunku Sarina
06000 Jitra
Kedah
05 July 2006
The Personnel Manager

MSC Corridor Bhd
P.O. Box 25622
05400 Kuala Lumpur
Dear Sir
APPRECIATION
This is with reference to the interview on 30th June 2006 for the
position of IT Administrator. You were kind enough to give me the
opportunity to attend the interview. I am grateful to have been
154
given the chance to explain more about myself and meet some
nice people in your company.
I sincerely hope I would get an opportunity to serve the firm and

grow with it. I assure you that I shall serve to the best of my
ability.
Thank you.
Yours sincerely
……………………………
Mohd Redwan Ridzun
4.10 EXPECTED QUESTIONS DURING AN INTERVIEW
• Why did you choose our firm?

• Why do you think we should employ you, rather than someone
else with similar qualifications?
• What do you think would be particularly difficult about this job?
• What skills do you have that will be useful to our firm?
• How long have you been without a job?
• Why do you want to be ……………..(title of job)?
• Are you mobile?
• Do you mix with people well?
• Do you have any difficulties working with members of the
opposite sex?
• What will you do when things go wrong?
• Do you like to organize and lead or prefer to be led?
• How long do you think you will stay with us?
155
• Why don’t you want to continue your studies?

• How much do you know about our firm?
• Do you like traveling?
• Can you work long hours?
• Can you work independently?
• What salary do you have in mind?
INTELLIGENT QUESTIONS
Definition: Intelligent questions are the questions asked by

interviewee during the interview. Students are expected to ask
questions and also give reasons for asking such questions.
Basis for questions:
☼ Training ☼ Benefits
☼ Uniform ☼ Responsibilities
☼ Working hours ☼ Holiday entitlement
☼ Job location ☼ Salary
For example:
156
Training: Do you give training to your new employees?
4.11 Characteristics of an Interviewee
Interviewers will value interviewee with these characteristics:

■ Manners ■ Appearance
■ Time keeping ■ Technical Knowledge
■ Enthusiasm ■ Clarity of Voice
■ Questions Asked ■ General Knowledge
■ Confidence
For example:
Clarity of Voice: Interviewee has to speak in a clear voice. He

should not mumble during the interview.
Reason: Clarity of voice reflects one’s confidence. The
management prefers a confident employee,
especially if the job requires the person to deal
with public.
4.12 Interviewer: Person who conducts the interview
Points for interviewer:
• Consider the job

• Consider the experience and formal qualification
required
157
• Consider the personal qualities

• Reduce the basic qualifications to no more than four
or five
• Discuss with other selectors
• Consider the application in the light of qualities
required
• Verify any unexplained gaps in dates
• Arrange to eliminate or reduce interruptions
• Examine your own prejudice
• Try to keep silent so that the candidate has the
opportunity to speak
• Avoid asking any ‘yes/no’ questions.
• Try to get the truth by indirect questioning if
necessary
• Follow up the candidate’s opinion
• Explain the job and its terms and conditions
• Tell the candidates when interview results will be
made known.
• Consider evidence from the candidate’s past
• Make your decision.
APPENDICES
INTERVIEW ASSESSEMENT FORM
Excellent Good Average Needs Work Comments
• Appearance
• Physical Presentation
• Verbal Ability
• Poise/Confidence
158
• Self Understanding
• Knowledge of the
Organisation
• Understanding of Job
Responsibilities
• Ability to Relate Skills and

Experience to Job
• Enthusiasm
• Quality of Answers
APPLICATION FORM
PERSONAL DETAILS:
Name: ………………………………………… Age: ……………………………

I/C No: ………………………………………. Race: ………………………….
Religion: ………………………………….. Status: ………………………..
Address: ………………………………………… Tel: …………………………..
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
EDUCATION BACKGROUND (List of qualification attained)
Name of Qualification Year

University/College/School
PAST EXPERIENCES
Name of Position Year
159
Company/Organization
PRESENT JOB:
Name of Position Salary

Company/Organization
INTERESTS:
a) …………………………………..
b) ………………………………….
c) …………………………………
REFERENCES
1) ………………………………. 2) ………………………………….
Date of Availability: ………………… Signature: ………………………..
Letter of Acceptance
The following is the content of a sample letter accepting a job offer:
Dear Sir
I thank you very much for your letter dated …………….

wherein you have offered me the position of …………………
(title of job). I am truly delighted to accept the offer and I
look forward to working with ………………………………..(name
of organization)
I shall report for work on …………….(date)
Yours faithfully
160
Letter of Refusal
The following is the content of a sample of a letter of refusal:
161
Dear Sir
I thank you very much for your letter dated……………..offering

me the post of ………………………….. Although I would very
much like to accept the offer, I am indeed truly sorry that I
cannot because ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………give a very good reason or reasons………
……………
I am very grateful to you for considering my application

favorably. It is just unfortunate that I am unable to accept the
offer in the present circumstances.
I am genuinely sorry if I have caused you any inconvenience.
Yours faithfully
SAMPLE OF JOB OFFER LETTER
162
Acme Technical Enterprises

P.O Box 25622 Kuala Lumpur
Our ref: HR/JULY2007/FP00555
March 1, 2006
Norhisham Tajuddin
123 Jalan Limbong Kapal
05205 Alor Star, Kedah
Dear Norhisham
JOB OFFER
Acme Technical Enterprises, Inc. is pleased to offer you a job as IT

Executive. We trust that your knowledge, skills and experience will be
among our most valuable assets.
Should you accept this job offer, you'll be eligible to receive the following
beginning on your hire date.
Salary: Starting RM 1,800 paid monthly.
Performance Bonuses: Up to three percent of your annual gross salary
Benefits: Standard, Acme-provided benefits for salaried-exempt

employees, including the followings:
- Child daycare assistance
- Education assistance
- Health, dental, life and disability insurance
163
- Sick leave
- Vacation and personal days
To accept this job offer:
1. Sign and date this job offer letter.
2. Attend new-hire orientation on Monday, March 21, 2006, beginning at

8:00 AM sharp.
To decline this job offer:
Sign and date this job offer letter.
Mail all pages of this job offer letter back to us in the enclosed business-
reply envelope, to arrive by Thursday, March 17, 2007.
If you accept this job offer, your hire date will be on the day that you attend
new-hire orientation. Plan to work for the remainder of the business day
after new-hire orientation ends. Please read the enclosed new-hire
package for complete, new-hire instructions and more information about
the benefits that Acme offers.
We at Acme hope that you'll accept this job offer and look forward to
welcoming you aboard. Your immediate supervisor will be Jane Doe,
Department Manager, Information Technology. Feel free to call Jane or me
if you have questions or concerns. Call the main number in the letterhead
above during normal business hours and ask to speak to either of us.
Yours sincerely
[Signature]
Ruslan Abdul
Hiring Coordinator, Human Resources
Accept Job Offer

By signing and dating this letter below, I, Norhisham Tajuddin, accept this job
offer of IT Executive by Acme Technical Enterprises.
164
Signature:_________________________________ Date:_____________
Decline Job Offer

By signing and dating this letter below, I, Norhisham Tajuddin , decline this
job offer of IT Executive by Acme Technical Enterprises.
Signature:_________________________________ Date:_____________
165

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COMMUNICATION SKILLS

A REFERENCE FOR STUDENTS

ZALINA BINTI KEMAT

KHAIRULNIZAM BIN SHUIB

Second, to our beloved college directors, Mr Mohd Rusli Bin Ab

Comprises of four main chapters in this module which are Mass

The purposes of this module are to help students understand some

Students are expected to acquire knowledge in mass

This module perhaps can be a useful tool for undergraduates to

1.1 Objectives, learning outcomes and outline 6

CHAPTER 2 PUBLIC RELATIONS

2.1 Objectives, learning outcomes and outline 34

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH SKILLS

3.1 Objectives, learning outcomes and outline 58

3.19 Parenthetical 130

CHAPTER 4 JOB INTERVIEW

4.1 Objectives, learning outcomes and outline 138

Sample of Interview Assessment Form 157

2. To understand the reasons why mass communication

3. To show the correct guidelines in designing the

1. Design the mass communication materials correctly.

2. Explain the reasons of having the materials as part of

3. Fully utilize the guidelines given in designing the

1. Advertisement – Reasons of Having Ads, Types of Ads

2. Leaflets – The purpose and Guidelines in Designing

3. Notices – The purpose and Guidelines in Designing

4. Press Release – Definition, Reasons, Writing Skills and

5. House Journals – Category of Information and Writing An

6. Invitations – Details in Formal Invitation and Reply

Various kinds of advertisement may be placed in newspapers or

• to advertise vacant jobs

The ‘Classified Advertisements’ sections of newspapers enable quick

In line advertisements the information is run on from line to line

Example of line advertisement:

Acer Ferrari 4005WLMi . Operating System: MS Windows XP Professional.

Display advertisements may use a variety of typefaces and

Example of display advertisement

Jurudata Services Sdn Bhd

• Provide consultancy services in Microsoft Windows Server systems

• Data migration / deployment / administer / training of Windows

• Candidate must possess at least a Bachelor's Degree, Post Graduate

• Required skill(s): Windows Server, Exchange Server, Active Directory.

• Required language(s): English, Bahasa Malaysia

• Working experience in the field of unified communication is preferred

• Preferably Junior Executives specializing in IT/Computer -

Designing an advertisement is actually an exercise in summarizing. It

It is essential to try to ensure that your advertisement will be

• Use a company logo, prominently displayed.

• Your advertisement should be eye-catching and you should aim to

Organizations often produce leaflets or brochures to publicize

Here are some examples:

1 Your employer has the following to say to you.

‘We need someone, male or female, who is reasonably

2 Design a 6-page leaflet giving full details about the courses

3 Your company will be moving to another site next month. Write a

Many companies have notice boards posted around the offices

A notice board system should be well-organized, with one

Notices can serve a number of purposes:

• Use different size print to emphasize headings.

Attention To all KPTMBP’s

Election Day will be held on Tuesday, 9 August 2005

All students are required to vote for their favorite

Please be aware that attendance will be taken and strict