Chapter 21

Chapter 21
Nutrition and Digestion
PowerPoint Lectures for
Biology: Concepts & Connections, Sixth Edition

Campbell, Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Introduction: Getting Their Fill of Krill

A 72-ton humpback whale eats small fishes and crustaceans called krill A whales digestive system may process up to 2 tons of krill a day
Introduction: Getting Their Fill of Krill

Humpback whales strain krill from seawater using large plates, called baleen
Whales take a large gulp of water into their throat As they force water out, it is strained through baleen plates that hang from the upper jaw
Humpback whales create a net of bubbles to concentrate the krill
OBTAINING AND PROCESSING FOOD
21.1 Animals ingest their food in a variety of ways

Most animals have one of three kinds of diets
Herbivores, plant-eaterscattle, snails, sea urchins Carnivores, meat-eaterslions, hawks, spiders Omnivores, eating both plants and other animals humans, roaches, raccoons, crows

Animals obtain and ingest their food in different ways
Suspension feeder: extract food particles suspended in the surrounding water (eg. Humpback whale) Substrate feeder: live in or on their food source and eat their way through it (eg. Caterpillar)
Caterpillar
Feces

Animals obtain and ingest their food in different ways
Fluid feeder: obtain food by sucking nutrient-rich fluids from a living host, either a plant or an animal (eg. Mosquito) Bulk feeder: ingest large pieces of food (eg. Most animals including grey heron)
Four main stages of food processing
Small molecules Pieces of food Chemical digestion Nutrient Mechanical (hydrolysis) molecules digestion enter body cells Food Undigested material
2 Digestion 3 Absorption 4 Elimination
1 Ingestion
21.2 Overview: Food processing occurs in four stages

Food is processed in four stages
Ingestion: the act of eating Digestion: the breaking down of food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb
1. food may be mechanically broken into smaller pieces 2. hydrolysis (chemical breakdown process)
Mechanical digestion breaks food down into smaller pieces Smaller pieces are easier to swallow Smaller pieces have more surface area exposed to digestive fluids

Animals cannot use materials directly for two reasons:
1. Molecules are too large to pass through plasma membranes and enter the cells 2. an animal needs small components to make the molecules of its own body

Chemical digestion breaks down large organic molecules into their components
Proteins split into amino acids Polysaccharides and disaccharides into monosaccharides Nucleic acids into nucleotides
Chemical digestion: the breakdown of large organic molecules to their components

Macromolecule Proteindigesting enzymes Protein Amino acids Components
Polysaccharide
Carbohydratedigesting enzymes Monosaccharides
Disaccharide
Nucleic aciddigesting enzymes Nucleic acid Nucleotides
Fat-digesting enzymes Fat Glycerol Fatty acids

Food is processed in four stages
Absorption: the cells lining the digestive track take up (absorb) the products of digestion-small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars From the digestive track, these nutrients travel in the blood to body cells, where they are joined together to make the macromolecules for the cells or broken down further to provide energy Elimination: undigested materials passes out of the digestive track

It is obviously important to avoid digesting oneself Most animal species process food in specialized compartments-an evolutionary adaptation that avoids the risk of self-digestion
21.3 Digestion occurs in specialized compartments

Sponges digest food in vacuoles
-. Gland cells lining the gastrovascular cavity secrete digestive enzymes -. These digestive enzymes break down the soft tissues of the prey -. Other cells engulf small food particles which are broken down in food vacuoles.
Most animals digest food in compartments

Enzymes break down the food Food particles move into cells lining the compartment Undigested materials are expelled

Cnidarians and flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity with a single opening, the mouth
Food enters the mouth Undigested food is expelled back out the mouth
Digestion in the gastrovascular cavity of a hydra

Mouth
Tentacle
1 Digestive enzymes released from a gland cell 2 Soft tissues digested
Food (Daphnia, a water flea)
3 Food particle engulfed Gastrovascular cavity 4 Food particle digested in food vacuole

Most animals have an alimentary canal with
Mouth Anus Specialized regions
Three examples of alimentary canals Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Crop Gizzard Anus
Intestine Dorsal fold Interior of intestine Wall of intestine Earthworm
Three examples of alimentary canals
Esophagus Midgut Anus Mouth
Crop Grasshopper Gastric pouches Hindgut
Three examples of alimentary canals
Stomach Gizzard Intestine
Mouth Esophagus Crop
Anus Bird
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
21.4 The human digestive system consists of an alimentary canal and accessory glands
Alternating waves of contraction and relaxation by smooth muscle in the walls of the canal move food along in a process called peristalsis Sphincters control the movement of food into and out of digestive chambers
21.4 The human digestive system consists of an alimentary canal and accessory glands
The pyloric sphincter
Regulates the passage of food from the stomach to the small intestine Limits the upward movement of acids into the esophagus
Human digestive system

Mouth Esophagus Salivary glands
Gallbladder
Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus
Liver Pancreas
A schematic diagram of the human digestive system
Human digestive system

Oral cavity Tongue Mouth Salivary glands Pharynx Esophagus
Liver Esophagus Sphincter Stomach Sphincter Gallbladder Pancreas Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus Small intestine
21.5 Digestion begins in the oral cavity

Teeth break up food, saliva moistens it
Salivary enzymes begin the hydrolysis of starch Buffers neutralize acids Antibacterial agents kills some bacteria ingested with food
The tongue tastes, shapes the bolus of food, and moves it toward the pharynx
The human oral cavity Teeth Incisors Canine Premolars Molars Tongue Salivary glands Opening of a salivary gland duct Two blade-like incisors, a single pointed canine tooth, two premolars, three molars, which grind and crush food. Wisdom tooth
21.6 After swallowing, peristalsis moves food through the esophagus to the stomach
The trachea conducts air to the lungs Air enters the larynx, the voice box containing vocal cords, and flows through the trachea to the lungs The esophagus conducts food from the pharynx to the stomach
The human swallowing reflex
Bolus of food Tongue
Epiglottis up
Epiglottis down
Pharynx Larynx Trachea Esophageal sphincter Esophagus Sphincter contracted
Larynx up
Epiglottis up Larynx down Esophagus
Sphincter relaxed
Sphincter contracted
After the bolus enters the esophagus, the larynx moves back downward, the epiglottis tips up again, and the breathing passage reopens. The esophageal sphincter contracts above the bolus.
21.6 After swallowing, peristalsis moves food through the esophagus to the stomach
The swallowing reflex
Food moves from the pharynx into the esophagus The swallowing reflex prevents food from entering the trachea A coughing reflex helps expel materials that accidentally enter the trachea
Peristalsis moving a food bolus down the esophagus
Esophageal sphincter (contracted) Bolus of food Bolus of food Muscles relax, allowing passageway to open Stomach Muscles contract, constricting passageway and pushing bolus down
21.7 CONNECTION: The Heimlich maneuver can save lives

The Heimlich maneuver can dislodge food from the pharynx or trachea during choking Brain damage will occur within minutes if no airway is open
21.8 The stomach stores food and breaks it down with acid and enzymes
Acid
pH 2 Parietal cells secrete hydrogen and chloride ions, which combine to make HCl Acid kills bacteria and breaks apart cells in food
Pepsinogen and HCl produce pepsin

Pepsin production activates more pepsinogen productionpositive feedback Pepsin begins the chemical digestion of proteins Acidic gastric juices mix with food to produce acid chyme
21.8 The stomach stores food and breaks it down with acid and enzymes
What prevents the gastric juices from digesting the walls of the stomach?
Mucus helps protect against HCl and pepsin New cells lining the stomach are produced about every 3 days
The stomach and its production of gastric juice

Esophagus Sphincter Lumen (cavity) of stomach Sphincter
Stomach
Gastrin
Small intestine
Interior surface of stomach
The stomach and its production of gastric juice

Interior surface of stomach Pits Release of gastric juice (mucus, HCl, and pepsinogen) Pepsinogen Epithelium Mucous cells Gastric gland Chief cells 3 Pepsin 2 (active HCl enzyme) 1 H+
Cl
Parietal cells
Mucous cells: secret mucus which lubricates and protects the cells lining the stomach Parietal cells: secrete hydrogen ions and chloride ions, which combine in the lumen of the stomach to form HCl Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen, an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin
What prevents gastric juice from digesting away the stomach lining?
-. Secreting pepsin in the inactive form of pepsinogen helps the cells of the gastric glands, and mucus helps protect the stomach lining from both pepsin and acid. -. Enough new cells are generated by mitosis to replace the stomach lining completely about every three days -. The cells in our gastric glands do not secrete acidic gastric juice constantly. Their activity is regulated by a combination of nerve signals and hormones. (Once you have food in your stomach, substances in the food stimulate cells in the stomach wall to release the hormone, gastrin into the circulatory system)
21.9 CONNECTION: Digestive ailments include acid reflux and gastric ulcers
Acid reflux into esophagusheartburn and GERD
(gastroesophageal reflux disease) -. Medication to treat GERD include antacids, which reduce stomach acidity, and drugs called H2 blockers, such as Pepcid AC or Zantac, which impede acid production. Prilosec (an proton pump inhibitor) is effective at stopping acid production.
Gastric ulcer
-. A gel-like coat of mucus protects the stomach wall from the corrosive effect of digestive juice. When it fails to, gastric ulcer can develop.
Bacterial infections (Helicobacter pylori) in the stomach and duodenum can produce ulcers
Ulcer-causing bacteria, Helicobacter pylori
Bacteria Mucous layer of stomach
-. Growth of H. pylori seems to result in a localized loss of protective mucus and damage to the cells lining the stomach. -. Numerous white blood cells move into the stomach wall to fight the infection inflammation gastritis -. H. pylori is found in 70-90% of ulcer and gastritis suffers Some link b/w H. pylori and stomach cancer
21.10 The small intestine is the major organ of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
Small intestine is named for its smaller diameter (2.5 cm)it is about 6 meters long Sources of digestive enzymes: pancreas and liver Alkaline pancreatic juice neutralizes acid chyme and its enzymes digest food Bile, made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder, emulsifies fat for attack by pancreatic enzymes Duodenum (the first 25 cm of the small intestine) where chyme squirted from the stomach mixes with bile from the gallbladder, pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and digestive enzymes from gland cells in the intestinal wall.
The small intestine and related digestive organs

Liver Bile
Gallbladder Stomach Acid chyme Intestinal enzymes Duodenum of small intestine Pancreatic juice
Pancreas
Enzymes from cells of the intestine continue digestion
Surface area of small intestine (300 m2) for absorption is increased by
Folds of the intestinal lining Fingerlike villi
Muscle layers Large circular folds Villi Lumen Vein with blood en route to the liver
Nutrient absorption
Intestinal wall
Nutrients pass across the epithelium and into blood Some nutrients are absorbed by simple diffusion; other nutrients are pumped against concentration gradients into the epithelial cells Blood flows to the liver where nutrients are processed and stored
Structure of the small intestine

Lumen of intestine Nutrient absorption Microvilli Epithelial cells Amino acids and sugars Fatty acids and glycerol Fats Lumen of intestine Nutrient absorption into epithelial cells
Blood capillaries Lymph vessel Blood
Lymph Villi Epithelial cells lining villus
21.11 One of the livers many functions is processing nutrient-laden blood from the intestines
Blood from the digestive tract drains to the liver The liver performs many functions
Glucose in blood is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver Liver synthesizes many proteins including blood clotting proteins and lipoproteins that transport fats and cholesterol Liver changes toxins to less toxic forms Liver produces bile, which aids in the digestion of fats
The hepatic portal system
Heart
Kidneys Liver Hepatic portal vein
Intestines
Hepatic portal vein: transports nutrients absorbed by the intestines directly to the liver
21.12 The large intestine reclaims water and compacts the feces
Large intestine (colon): 1.5 m long, 5 cm in diameter One major function of the colon is to absorb water from the alimentary canal. About 90% of water is absorbed back into the blood and tissue fluids by small intestine and colon Diarrhea occurs when too little water is reclaimed Constipation occurs when too much water is reclaimed Feces are stored in the rectum: Two rectal sphincters, one voluntary and the other involuntary, regulate the opening of the anus Colon bacteria (eg. E. coli)produce vitaminsbiotin, vitamin K, B vitamins: these vitamins are absorbed into the bloodstream fro the colon
21.12 The large intestine reclaims water and compacts the feces
Appendix
Located near the junction of the small intestine and colon Contains a mass of white blood cells that makes a minor contribution to immunity The appendix itself is prone to infection (appendicitis) Infected appendix can be surgically removed without weakening the immune system
The relationship of the small and large intestine
Large intestine (colon)
Sphincter End of small intestine Unabsorbed food material
Small intestine Rectum Anus
Appendix Cecum
21.13 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems often relate to diet
Natural selection has favored adaptations that fit the structure of an animals digestive system to the function of digesting the kind of food the animals eats The length of the digestive tract often correlates with diet
Herbivores and omnivores have relatively longer digestive tracts than carnivores Vegetation is more difficult to digest than meat because it contains cell walls
The alimentary canal in a carnivore (coyote) and an herbivore (koala)
Stomach Small intestine Cecum
Colon (large intestine) Carnivore Herbivore
Most herbivores have special chambers that house great numbers of microbes-bacteria and protists. The animals themselves lack the enzymes needed to digest the cellulose in plants The microbes break down cellulose to simple sugars, which the animals then absorb directly or obtain by digesting the microbes
Many herbivores have specializations of the gut that promote the growth of cellulose-digesting Omasum Rumen Intestine microbes
Rumen Reticulum Omasum Abomasum
Rumen Abomasum Reticulum Esophagus
NUTRITION
21.14 Overview: A healthy diet satisfies three needs

Fuel to power the body Organic molecules to build molecules Essential nutrientsraw materials that animals cannot make for themselves
21.15 Chemical energy powers the body

Nutrients are oxidized inside cells to make ATP ATP is the main energy currency in a cell Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats are the main sources of dietary calories
A gram of fat has more than twice as many calories as a gram of carbohydrate or protein

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the energy a resting animal requires each day
1,300 1,500 kcal/day for adult females 1,600 1,800 kcal/day for adult males
Metabolic rate is the BMR plus the energy needed for physical activity Excess energy is stored as glycogen or fat

Our metabolic rates typically decrease throughout adulthood An active life burns more calories
21.16 An animals diet must supply essential nutrients

Essential nutrients cannot be made from any raw material 4 classes of essential nutrients: essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals Undernourishmentnot enough calories Malnourishmentmissing essential nutrients
21.16 An animals diet must supply essential nutrients

Animals cannot produce eight of the 20 amino acids These eight amino acids are essential amino acids These eight amino acids must come from the diet
21.17 CONNECTION: Vegetarians must be sure to obtain all eight essential amino acids
The eight essential amino acids can be obtained from
Animal protein The proper combination of plant foods
Essential amino acids from a vegetarian diet

Essential amino acids Methionine Valine (Histidine) Threonine Phenylalanine Leucine Corn Isoleucine Tryptophan Lysine Beans and other legumes
21.18 A healthy diet includes 13 vitamins and many essential minerals

Essential vitamins and minerals
Required in minute amounts Extreme excesses can be dangerous Excess water-soluble vitamins can be eliminated in urine Excess fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate to dangerous levels in body fat
21.18 A healthy diet includes 13 vitamins and many essential minerals

Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients usually required in small amounts
Calcium and phosphorus are required in larger amounts Most people ingest more salt than they need
21.19 CONNECTION: Do you need to take vitamin and mineral supplements?

Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) (minimum amounts of nutrients that are needed each day) are debated The USDA makes specific recommendations for certain population groups, such as additional B12 for people over age 50, folic acid for pregnant women, and extra vitamin D for people with dark skin or who are exposed to insufficient sun light Excessive doses of vitamin A and iron can be dangerous
21.20 CONNECTION: What do food labels tell us?

Food labels indicate
Serving size Calories per serving Amounts of selected nutrients per serving and as a percentage of daily value Recommendations for daily limits of selected nutrients
Ingredients: whole wheat flour, water, high fructose corn syrup, wheat gluten, soybean or canola oil, molasses, yeast, salt, cultured whey, vinegar, soy flour, calcium sulfate (source of calcium).
21.21 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The human health problem of obesity may reflect our evolutionary past
Overnourishment: consuming more food energy than is needed World Health Organization recognizes obesity as a major global health problem Of people in the United States
30% are obese 35% are overweight 15% of children and adolescents are overweight
Obesity leads to
Diabetes Cancer Cardiovascular disease 300,000 deaths per year in the United States
Leptin
Produced by fat cells As adipose tissue increases, leptin levels in the blood rise Suppresses appetite High levels in humans do not suppress appetite May be adaptive in humans to prevent excessive weight loss
Fat cells from the abdomen of a human
Leptin-deficient mice were very obese After treatment with leptin, leptin-deficient mice lost weight Obese leptin-deficient children lose weight with leptin treatment Adults with healthy leptin genes do not lose weight with leptin treatments
A mouse with a defect in a gene for leptin, an appetite-suppressing hormone (left); a normal mouse (right)
21.22 CONNECTION: What are the health risks and benefits of weight loss plans?
Weight loss diets
May help individuals lose weight May have health risks leading to malnourishment
Diets fail because people return to old eating habits The most effective diets combine
Increased exercise Limited balanced diet of about 1200 calories per day
21.23 CONNECTION: Diet can influence cardiovascular disease and cancer

A healthy diet may reduce the risk of
Cardiovascular disease Cancer
Two main types of cholesterol

LDLcontributes to blocked blood vessels and higher blood pressure HDLtends to reduce blocked blood vessels Exercise increases HDL levels Smoking decreases HDL levels
21.23 CONNECTION: Diet can influence cardiovascular disease and cancer

The relationship between food and health is complex The American Cancer Society recommends
Regular exercise A diverse diet of healthy foods with an emphasis on plant sources
Foods that may contribute good health

Chapter 21

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Chapter 21

Nutrition and Digestion

PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology: Concepts & Connections, Sixth Edition

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Introduction: Getting Their Fill of Krill

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Introduction: Getting Their Fill of Krill

Humpback whales create a net of bubbles to concentrate the krill

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

OBTAINING AND PROCESSING FOOD

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

21.1 Animals ingest their food in a variety of ways

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

21.1 Animals ingest their food in a variety of ways

21.1 Animals ingest their food in a variety of ways

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Four main stages of food processing

21.2 Overview: Food processing occurs in four stages

21.2 Overview: Food processing occurs in four stages

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

21.2 Overview: Food processing occurs in four stages

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chemical digestion: the breakdown of large organic molecules to their components

Carbohydratedigesting enzymes Monosaccharides

Nucleic aciddigesting enzymes Nucleic acid Nucleotides

Fat-digesting enzymes Fat Glycerol Fatty acids

21.2 Overview: Food processing occurs in four stages

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

21.2 Overview: Food processing occurs in four stages

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

21.3 Digestion occurs in specialized compartments

Most animals digest food in compartments

21.3 Digestion occurs in specialized compartments

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Digestion in the gastrovascular cavity of a hydra

1 Digestive enzymes released from a gland cell 2 Soft tissues digested

Food (Daphnia, a water flea)

21.3 Digestion occurs in specialized compartments

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Intestine Dorsal fold Interior of intestine Wall of intestine Earthworm

Three examples of alimentary canals

Esophagus Midgut Anus Mouth

Crop Grasshopper Gastric pouches Hindgut

Three examples of alimentary canals

Stomach Gizzard Intestine

Mouth Esophagus Crop

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Human digestive system

Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus

A schematic diagram of the human digestive system

Human digestive system

21.5 Digestion begins in the oral cavity

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The human swallowing reflex

Bolus of food Tongue

Pharynx Larynx Trachea Esophageal sphincter Esophagus Sphincter contracted

Epiglottis up Larynx down Esophagus