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com

WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

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Abstract:
Sensor networks consist of a set of sensor nodes, each equipped with one or more sensors, communication subsystems, storage and processing resources, and in some cases actuators. The sensors in a node observe phenom-ena such as thermal, optic, acoustic, seismic, and acceleration events, while the processing and other components analyze the raw data and formulate answers to specific user requests.

wireless communication networks are not necessarily suitable in WSN domains.

Wireless sensor networks are attracting increased interest for a wide range of applications, such as environmental monitoring and vehicle tracking. However, developing sensor network applications is notoriously difficult, due to extreme resource limitations of nodes, the unreliability of radio communication, and the necessity of low power operation. Our goal is to simplify application design by providing a set of programming primitives for sensor networks that abstract the details of Recent low-level communication, data sharing, and advances in technology have paved the way collective operations. for the design and implementation of new generations of sensor network nodes, packaged in very small and inexpensive form We conclude by factors with sophisticated computation and briefly summarizing the state of the art and wireless communication abilities. Although future research still at infancy, these new classes of sensor the We present abstract regions, a family of networks, generally referred to as wireless operators that capture local sensor networks (WSN), show great promise spatial and potential with applications ranging in communication within regions of the areas that have already been addressed, to network, which may be defined in terms of domains never before imagined. In this radio connectivity, geographic location, or article we provide an overview of this new other properties of nodes. Regions provide and exciting field and a brief discussion on interfaces for identifying neighboring nodes, data among neighbors, and the factors pushing the recent flurry of sharing performing efficient reductions on shared sensor network related research and variables. commercial undertakings. In addition, abstract regions expose the tradeoff between the accuracy and resource usage of communication operations. Applications can adapt to changing network conditions by tuning the energy and bandwidth usage of the underlying communication substrate. We present the implementation of abstract regions in the TinyOSprogramming environment, as well as results

We also provide over-view discussions on architectural design characteristics of such networks including physical components, software layers, and higher level services. At each step, we highlight special characteristics of WSNs and discuss why exist-ing approaches and results from

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demonstrating their use for building adaptive sensor network applications. Signal Processing Making Conclusions References and Decision

INTRODUCTION
Smart environments represent the next evolutionary development step in building, utilities, industrial, home, shipboard, and transportation systems automation. Like any sentient organism, the smart environment relies first and foremost on sensory data from the real world. Sensory data comes from multiple sensors of different modalities in distributed locations. The smart environment needs information about its surroundings as well as about its internal workings; this is captured in biological systems by the distinction between exteroceptors and proprioceptors. The challenges in the hierarchy of: detecting the relevant quantities, monitoring and collecting the data, assessing and evaluating the information, formulating meaningful user displays, and performing decision-making and alarm functions are enormous. The information needed by smart environments is provided by Distributed Wireless Sensor Networks, which are responsible for sensing as well as for the first stages of the processing hierarchy. The importance of sensor networks is highlighted by the number of recent funding initiatives, including the DARPA SENSIT program, military programs, and NSF Program Announcements. The figure shows the complexity of wireless sensor networks, which generally consist of a data acquisition network and a data distribution network, monitored and controlled by a management center. The plethora of available technologies makes even the selection of

Contents:
Application o Area Monitoring o Environmental Monitoring Communication Networks o Network Topology o Fully Connected Networks o Mesh Networks Standards o Hardware o Software o Middleware Programming Languages Algorithms Simulators Commercially available sensor networks Data visualization

wireless

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components difficult, let alone the design of a consistent, reliable, robust overall system. The study of wireless sensor networks is challenging in that it requires an enormous breadth of knowledge from an enormous variety of disciplines. In this chapter we outline communication networks, wireless sensor networks and smart sensors, physical transduction principles, commercially available wireless sensor systems, selforganization, signal processing and decisionmaking, and finally some concepts for home automation.

3It is a common application of WSNs. In

area monitoring, the WSN is deployed over a region where some phenomenon is to be monitored. As an example, a large quantity of sensor nodes could be deployed over a battlefield to detect enemy intrusion instead of using landmines. When the sensors detect the event being monitored (heat, pressure, sound, light, electro-magnetic field, vibration, etc), the event needs to be reported to one of the base stations, which can take appropriate action (e.g., send a message on the internet or to a satellite). Depending on the exact application, different objective functions will require different data-propagation strategies, depending on things such as need for realtime response, redundancy of the data (which can be tackled via data aggregation techniques), need for security, etc. 4

Applications:
The applications for WSNs are many and varied, but typically involve some kind of monitoring, tracking, and controlling. Specific applications for WSNs include habitat monitoring, object tracking, nuclear reactor control, fire detection, and traffic monitoring. In a typical application, a WSN is scattered in a region where it is meant to collect data through its sensor nodes.

5Environmental monitoring:
6A number of WSN deployments have been done in the past in the context of environmental monitoring. Many of these have been short lived, often due to the prototypical nature of the projects. A more long-lived deployment is monitoring the state of permafrost in the swiss alps.

1 2Area monitoring: www.1000projects.com www.fullinterview.com www.chetanasprojects.com

7Communication Networks:

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The study of communication networks can encompass several years at the college or university level. To understand and be able to implement sensor networks, however, several basic primary concepts are sufficient.

Network Topology :
The basic issue in communication networks is the transmission of messages to achieve a prescribed message throughput (Quantity of Service) and Quality of Service (QoS). QoS can be specified in terms of message delay, message due dates, bit error rates, packet loss, economic cost of transmission, transmission power, etc. Depending on QoS, the installation environment, economic considerations, and the application, one of several basic network topologies may be used. A communication network is composed of nodes, each of which has computing power and can transmit and receive messages over communication links, wireless or cabled. The basic network topologies are shown in the figure and include fully connected, mesh, star, ring, tree, bus. A single network may consist of several interconnected subnets of different topologies. Networks are further classified as Local Area Networks (LAN), e.g. inside one building, or Wide Area Networks (WAN), e.g. between buildings.

Fully connected networks :

Fully Connected Networks suffer from problems of NP-complexity [Garey 1979]; as additional nodes are added, the number of links increases exponentially. Therefore, for large networks, the routing problem is computationally intractable even with the availability of large amounts of computing power.

Mesh networks :
These are regularly distributed networks that generally allow transmission only to a nodes nearest neighbors. The nodes in these networks are generally identical, so that mesh nets are also referred to as peer-to-peer (see below) nets. Mesh nets can be good models for large-scale networks of wireless sensors that are distributed over a geographic region, e.g. personnel or vehicle security surveillance systems. Note that the regular structure reflects the communications topology; the actual geographic distribution of the nodes need not be a regular mesh. Since

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there are generally multiple routing paths between nodes, these nets are robust to failure of individual nodes or links. An advantage of mesh nets is that, although all nodes may be identical and have the same computing and transmission capabilities, certain nodes can be designated as group leaders that take on additional functions. If a group leader is disabled, another node can then take over these duties. All nodes of the star topology are connected to a single hub node. The hub requires greater message handling, routing, and decision-making capabilities than the other nodes. If a communication link is cut, it only affects one node. However, if the hub is incapacitated the network is destroyed. In the ring topology all nodes perform the same function and there is no leader node. Messages generally travel around the ring in a single direction. In the bus topology, messages are broadcast on the bus to all nodes. Each node checks the destination address in the message header, and processes the messages addressed to it. The bus topology is passive in that each node simply listens for messages and is not responsible for retransmitting any messages. Control. WirelessHART was added to the overall HART protocol suite as part of the HART 7 Specification, which was approved by the HART Communication Foundation in June 2007. 6LoWPAN is the IETF standards track specification for the IP-toMAC-Layer mapping for IPv6 on IEEE 802.15.4. ISA100 is a new standard under development that makes use of 6lowpan and provides additional agreements for industrial control applications. ISA100 is scheduled for completion in 2009. ZigBee, WirelessHART, and 6lowpan/ISA100 all are based on the same underlying radio standard: IEEE 802.15.4 - 2006.

Hardware:
The main challenge is to produce low cost and tiny sensor nodes. With respect to these objectives, current sensor nodes are mainly prototypes. Miniaturization and low cost are understood to follow from recent and future progress in the fields of MEMS and NEMS. Some of the existing sensor nodes are given below. Some of the nodes are still in research stage. An overview of commonly used sensor network platforms, components, technology and related topics is available in the SNM - Sensor Network Museumtm.

Software:
Energy is the scarcest resource of WSN nodes, and it determines the lifetime of WSNs. WSNs are meant to be deployed in large numbers in various environments, including remote and hostile regions, with ad-hoc communications as key. For this reason, algorithms and protocols need to address the following issues: Lifetime maximization Robustness and fault tolerance Self-configuration

Standards:
Several standards are currently either ratified or under development for wireless sensor networks. ZigBee is a meshnetworking standard intended for uses such as embedded sensing, medical data collection, and consumer devices like television remote controls, and home automation. Zigbee is promoted by a large consortium of industry players. Wireless HART is an extension of the HART Protocol and is specifically designed for Industrial applications like Process Monitoring and

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Some of the "hot" topics in WSN software research are: Security Mobility (when sensor nodes or base stations are moving) Middleware: the design of middlelevel primitives between the software and the hardware reason, algorithmic research in WSN mostly focuses on the study and design of energy aware algorithms for data transmission from the sensor nodes to the base stations. Data transmission is usually multi-hop (from node to node, towards the base stations), due to the polynomial growth in the energy-cost of radio transmission with respect to the transmission distance. The algorithmic approach to WSN differentiates itself from the protocol approach by the fact that the mathematical models used are more abstract, more general, but sometimes less realistic than the models used for protocol design.

Middleware:
There is considerable research effort currently invested in the design of middleware for WSN's. In general approaches can be classified into distributed database, mobile agents, and event-based.

Programming languages:
Programming the sensor nodes is difficult when compared with normal computer systems. The resource constrained nature of these nodes gives rise to new programming models although most nodes are currently programmed in C. c@t (Computation at a point in space (@) Time) DCL (Distributed Compositional Language) galsC nesC Protothreads SNACK SNAPpy (Python) SQTL Java Sun SPOT

Simulators:
There are platforms specifically designed to simulate Wireless Sensor Networks, like TOSSIM, which is a part of TinyOS. Traditional network simulators like ns-2 have also been used. A platform independent component based simulator with wireless sensor network framework,JSim(www.j-sim.org) can also be used. An extensive list of simulation tools for Wireless Sensor Networks can be found at the CRUISE WSN Simulation Tool Knowledgebase.

Commercially Available Wireless Sensor Systems :

Many commercially available wireless communications nodes are available including Lynx Technologies, and various Bluetooth kits, including the Casira devices from Cambridge Silicon Radio, CSR. Crossbow Berkeley Motes may be the most versatile wireless sensor network devices on the market for prototyping purposes. Crossbow

Algorithms:
WSNs are composed of a large number of sensor nodes, therefore, an algorithm for a WSN is implicitly a distributed algorithm. In WSNs the scarcest resource is energy, and one of the most energy-expensive operations is data transmission. For this

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(http://www.xbow.com/) makes three Mote processor radio module families MICA [MPR300] (first generation), MICA2 [MPR400] and MICA2-DOT [MPR500] (second generation). Nodes come with five sensors installed- Temperature, Light, Acoustic (Microphone), Acceleration/Seismic, and Magnetic. These are especially suitable for surveillance networks for personnel and vehicles. Different sensors can be installed if desired. Low power and small physical size enable placement virtually anywhere. Since all sensor nodes in a network can act as base stations, the network can self configure and has multi-hop routing capabilities. The operating frequency is ISM band, either 916Mhz or 433 MHz, with a data rate of 40 Kbits/sec. and a range of 30 ft to 100 ft. Each node has a low power microcontroller processor with speed of 4MHz, a flash memory with 128 Kbytes, and SRAM and EEPROM of 4K bytes each. The operating system is Tiny-OS, a tiny micro-threading distributed operating system developed by UC Berkeley, with a NES-C (Nested C) source code language (similar to C). Installation of these devices requires a great deal of programming. A workshop is offered for training. Microstrains X-Link Measurement System may be the easiest system to get up and running and to program. The frequency used is 916 MHz, which lies in the US license-free ISM band. The sensor nodes are multi-channel, with a maximum of 8 sensors supported by a single wireless node. There are three types of sensor nodes S-link (strain gauge), G-link (accelerometer), and V-link (supports any sensors generating voltage differences). The sensor nodes have a pre-programmed EPROM, so a great deal of programming by the user is not needed. Onboard data storage is 2MB. Sensor nodes use a 3.6volt lithium ion internal battery (9V rechargeable external battery is supported). A single receiver (Base Station) addresses multiple nodes. Each node has a unique 16-bit address, so a maximum of 216 nodes can be addressed. The RF link between Base Station and nodes is bi-directional and the sensor nodes have a programmable data logging sample rate. The RF link has a 30 meter range with a 19200 baud rate. The baud rate on the serial RS-232 link between the Base Station and a terminal PC is 38400. LabVIEW interface is supported.

Data visualization:
The data gathered from wireless sensor networks is usually saved in the form of numerical data in a central base station. Additionally, the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is specifying standards for interoperability interfaces and metadata encodings that enable real time integration of heterogeneous sensor webs into the Internet, allowing any individual to monitor or control Wireless Sensor Networks through a Web Browser

SIGNAL PROCESSING AND DECISION-MAKING :

The figure showing the IEEE 1451 Smart Sensor includes basic blocks for signal

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conditioning (SC), digital signal processing (DSP), and A/D conversion. Let us briefly mention some of the issues here. implemented on a computer after sampling. A digital low-pass filter transfer function and the associated difference equation for implementation is given by Digital filter: s_ difference equation: s_ Here, z is the z-transform variable treated as a unit delay in the time domain, is the measured signal, and s is the filtered or smoothed variable with reduced noise content. The filter parameters are selected in terms of the desired cutoff frequency and the sampling period [Lewis 1992]. It is often the case that one can measure a variable sk (e.g. position), but needs to know its rate of change vk (e.g. velocity). Due to the presence of noise, one cannot simply take the difference between successive values of sk as the velocity. A filtered velocity estimate given by v both filters out noise and gives a smooth velocity estimate. Often, changes in resistance must be converted to voltages for further processing. This may be accomplished by using a Wheatstone bridge [de Silva 1989]. Suppose R1= R in the figure is the resistance that changes depending on the measurand and the other three resistances are constant (quarter bridge configuration). Then the output voltage changes according to . We assume a balanced bridge so that R2=R1=R and R3=R4. Sensitivity can be improved by having two sensors in situ, such that the changes in each are opposite (e.g. two strain gauges on opposite sides of a flexing bar). This is known as a half bridge. If R1 and R2 are two such sensors and , then the output voltage doubles. The Wheatstone bridge may also be used for differential measurements to improve sensitivity, to remove other signal.

1Signal Conditioning
Signals coming from MEMS sensors can be very noisy, of low amplitude, biased, and dependent on secondary parameters such as temperature. Moreover, one may not always be able to measure the quantity of interest, but only a related quantity. Therefore signal conditioning is usually required. SC is performed using electronic circuitry, which may conveniently be built using standard VLSI fabrication techniques in situ with MEMS sensors. A reference for SC, A/D conversion, and filtering is [Lewis 1992]. A real problem with MEMS sensors is undesired sensitivity to secondary quantities such as temperature. Temperature compensation can often be directly built into a MEMS sensor circuit. In the figure above showing a 3x3 array of IGEFET sensors,there is shown a 10th IGEFET- this is for temperature compensation. Temperature compensation can also be added during the SC stage as discussed below. A basic technique for improving the signal-tonoise ratio (SNR) is low-pass filtering, since noise generally dominates the desirable signals at high frequencies. It is an analog LPF that also amplifies, constructed from an operational amplifier. Such devices are easily fabricated using VLSI semiconductor techniques. The time constant of this circuit is _. The transfer function of this filter is with 3 dB cutoff frequency given by rad. and gain given by . Here, s is the Laplace transform variable. The cutoff frequency should be chosen larger than the highest useful signal frequency of the sensor. Alternatively, one may use a digital LPF

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Conclusion: In wireless sensor networks, remote updating of the nodes is essential. Because communication is relatively costly in terms of power, many of the approaches discussed in this paper focus on reducing the size of the code. A typical approach is to use a virtual machine or an operating system to accomplish this. References: Adam Dunkels, Niclas Finne, Joakim Eriksson, and Thiemo Voigt. Run-Time Dynamic Linking for Reprogramming Wireless Sensor Networks. In Proceedings of the Fourth ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys 2006), Boulder, Colorado, USA, November 2006. Bjrn Grnvall, and Thiemo Voigt. Contiki - a Lightweight and Flexible Operating System for Tiny Networked Sensors. In Proceedings of the First IEEE Workshop on Embedded Networked Sensors 2004 (IEEE EmNetS-I), Tampa, Florida, USA, November 2004. Oliver Schmidt, Thiemo Voigt, and Muneeb Ali. Protothreads: Simplifying Event-Driven Programming of Memory-Constrained Embedded Systems. In Proceedings of the Fourth ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys 2006), Boulder, Colorado, USA, November 2006. S. Bhatti, J. Carlson, H. Dai, J. Deng, J. Rose, A. Sheth, B. Shucker, C. Gruenwald, A. Torgerson, R. Han, MANTIS OS: An Embedded Multithreaded Operating System for Wireless Micro Sensor Platforms, ACM/Kluwer Mobile Networks & Applications (MONET), Special Issue on Wireless Sensor Networks, vol. 10, no. 4, August 2005.

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directions.