page 7.

51
Chapter 7, sections 7.10 - 7.14, pp. 322-368
Angle Modulation

s(t) = Ac cos[(t)]

No Modulation (t) = 2fct + c

s(t) = Ac cos[2fct + c]

Instantaneous Frequency

fi(t) = 21 ddt(t) or wi(t) = ddt(t)

No Modulation fi(t) = fc
Phase Modulation

i(t) = 2fct + kpm(t)

s(t) = Ac cos[2fct + kpm(t)]

Frequency Modulation

fi(t) = fc + kf m(t)
Zt Zt
(t) = 2 0
fi()d = 2fct + 2kf 0
m()d
Zt
s(t) = Ac cos[2fct + 2kf m()d]
| {z 0 }
(t)

62
page 7.52
Example Sketch FM PM waves for m(t)

kf = 105
kp = 5
fc = 100 MHz

FM

fi (t) = fc + kf m(t) jm(t)j < j

= 108 + 105m(t)
fi min = 108 , 105 = 99:9 MHz when m(t) = ,1
fi max = 108 + 105 = 100:1 MHz when m(t) = +1

PM

 = 2fct + 2kpm(t)
PM for m(t) = FM for dm
dt
fi = 21 d
dt = fc + kpm_ (t)
= 108 + 5m_ (t) = 108 + 5( 102,4
fi min = (108 , 5(m_ (t)max) = 108 , 105 = 99:9MHz

63
page 7.53
Example FM + PM kf = 108 kp = =2 fc = 100 MHz

FM PM
s(t) = cos(Z(t)) i(t) = 2fct + kpm(t)
fi = fc + 2kp m_ (t) = 21 d 8 + 1m
t
(t) = 2 fi()d dt = 10 4 _ (t)
0
fi = fc + kf m(t) = 108 + 105m(t) Innite frequency change and back again in
( zero time
100:1MHz m(t) = +1 Instead write for PM
99:9MHz m(t) = ,1
s(t) = cos[2fct + kpm(t)]
= cos[2fct + 2 m(t)]
(
= sin 2fct m(t) = ,1
, sin 2fct m(t) = 1

64
page 7.54
Single Tone Frequency Modulation

m(t) = Am cos 2fmt

FM s(t) = Ac cos[(t)]
fi(t) = fc + kf m(t) = fc + kf Am cos 2fmt
= fc + 4
|{z}f cos(2fm t)
Frequency Deviation

Frequency deviates from center by up to 4f

fmax = fc + 4f
fmin = fc , 4f

Zt
(t) = 2 fi()d
0

2fi(t) = ddt(t)

(t) = 2fc t + 4
f
f sin 2f t
m
m
= 2fc t + |{z}
 sin 2fmt
modulation index, phase deviation of (t) from 2fct

Single tone FM

s(t) = Ac cos[2fct +  sin 2fmt]

= Ac cos[(t)]

65
page 7.55
Example
Find Power
Maximum Frequency Deviation 4f for A cos(2f t +  sin 2f t)
Maximum Phase Deviation 4 c c m
Modulation Index

s(t) = Ac cos(2fct +  sin 2fmt)

= 10 cos(2106t + 0:1 sin 2103t)
4f = 0:1 fc = 1 MHz
Power = A2c = 50
2
fm fm = 1 KHz
Ac = 10
s(t) = 10 cos[(t)] = Ac cos[2fct + 4
fm
f sin 2f t]
m

fi = 21 d 6 102 cos 2 103 t

dt = 10 + |{z}
4f

4f = 0:1
fm
4f = 100 Hz alternative: fm = 103
4f = 102
PM s(t) = Ac cos(2fct + kpm(t))
= 10 cos(2106t + 0:1 sin 2103t)
! 4 = 0:1 Radians
 = 4 f = 100 = 0:1
fm 1000

s(t) = Ac cos[2fct +  sin 2fm t]

"
Modulation Index

66
Numerical value of modulation index = Maximum phase deviation for PM only

67
page 7.56
Spectrum Analysis of FM - p. 328
Recall FM wave with single tone modulation

s(t) = Ac cos[2fct +  sin(2fm(t)]

 = 4fm
f

We will show (p. 328 - 330)

1
X
s(t) = Ac Jn( ) cos 2(fc + nfm )t]
n=,1

A 1
c X
S (f ) = 2 Jn( )[(f , fc , nfm) + (f + fc + nfm)]
n=,1
Z
where Jn( ) = 21 exp[j ( sin x , nx)]dx
,

FM Spectrum
n = 0: carrier plus innite number of sidebands at fc  nfm see notes 7.59
AM spectrum - only one pair of sidebands at fc  fm
Narrowband FM

=4
fm
f  1 ! J0( )  1 Jn ( )  0
J1( )  =2 n  2

Again only one pair of sidebands for n = 1 at fc  fm

68
page 7.57
Wideband FM

s(t) = Ac cos(2fct +  sin(2fmt)]

= Ac cos[wct +  sin wm t]
= Re fAcejwctej sin wmtg
1
X
ej sin wm t = Fnejnwmt
n=,1
Z T=2
Fn = T1 ej sin wm te,jnwm tdt
,T=2
 2 
Let  = wmt = T t T = 1=fm

1 Z
Fn = 2 ej( sin ,n) d = Jn ( )
,

Evaluate this integral numerically in terms of parameters n and 

1
X
ej sin wm t = Jn( )ejnwmt
n=,1
1
X
s(t) = Re fAcejwct Jn ( )ejnwmtg
n=,1
1
X
= Ac Jn( ) cos[wc + nwm]t
n=,1
1
X
= Ac Jn( ) cos 2(fc + nfm)t
n=,1

p. 330 eqn. (7.118)

69
page 7.60
Properties of FM

1
X
s(t) = Ac Jn ( ) cos[2(fc + nfm )t]
n=,1
1
S (f ) = A2c
X
Jn ( )[(f , fc , nfm ) + (f + fc + nfm )]
n=,1

Narrowband FM

J0( )  1 J1( )  2 Jn( ) ' 0; n > 1

Thus for  < 0:3

s(t) = Ac cos 2fct + A

2
c
cos[2  ( f c + fm )t] ,
Ac cos[2(f , f )t]
2 c m

70
page 7.61
Narrowband FM (NBFM) e.g. fm = 1000 Hz, 4f = 100 Hz
For small modulation index, NBFM is similar to AM, with only one pair of sidebands.

 = 4fmf  1 s(t) = Ac cos[(t)]

m(t) = Am cos 2fm t

Zt
s(t) = Ac cos(2fct + 2kf m()d]
0

FM wave s(t) = Ac[cos 2fct +  sin 2fmt] from p. 73

= Ac cos 2fct cos[ sin 2fm t]

,Ac sin 2fct sin[ sin 2fm t]
NBFM   1 ! cos( sin 2fmt)  1
sin( sin 2fm t)   sin 2fm t
! s(t) ' Ac cos 2fct , Ac sin 2fct sin 2fm t
= Ac cos 2fct + 21 Ac[cos 2(fc + fm)t , cos 2(fc , fm)t]

Recall AM

s(t) = Ac cos 2fct + 12 Ac [cos 2(fc + fm )t + cos 2(fc , fm)t]

= Ac[1 +  cos 2fmt] cos 2fct
= Ac[1 + m(t)] cos 2fc t

Thus NBFM is similar to, but not the same as AM

71
page 7.62
Transmission Bandwidth of FM Waves - p. 335
In theory FM has innite bandwidth since there are an innite # side frequencies
Eective Bandwidth
For single tone FM
Large  Bandwidth  24f
Small  Bandwidth  2fm
Carsons Rule for bandwidth BT

BT 
= 24f + 2fm = 24f (1 + 1= )

Other Denition - 98% BW (1% on each side)

Bandwidth beyond which no side frequencies exceed 1% of unmodulated carrier amplitude
bandwidth = 2nmaxfm ; nmax such that jJn ( )j < 0:01
Deviation Ratio =  for max fm in m(t)
Use in Carsons Rule
Example: FM 2-way Radio
Deviation  5 KHz = 4f
Maxfm  3 KHz = fm

BT = 2(4f + fm) = 2(5 + 3) = 16

Hence Notation 16F3 thus channel spacing is 15-30 KHz

72
page 7.64
Example problem
Estimate bandwidth of

s(t) = Ac cos(2fct +  sin 2fmt)

= 10 cos(2106t + 0:1 sin 2103t)

Since  = 0:1  1
Narrowband Case
Bandwidth 2(4f + fm ) = 2 (100 + 1000) = 2200 Hz
Read example 9 p. 338
Example Problem 4.6 - PM Spectrum Single Tone

m(t) = Am cos(2fmt)
PM s(t) = Ac cos(2fct + kpm(t)]

Find spectrum if p = Amkp < 0:3

Solution write as sum of cos and sin

s(t) = Ac cos(2fct + p cos 2fmt] p = Amkp phase deviation

= Ac cos(2fct) cos(p cos 2fmt) , Ac sin(2fct) sin(p cos 2fmt)

If p < 0:3 then cos[p cos 2fmt] ' 1 and sin[p cos 2fm t] ' p cos 2fmt

73
page 7.65

s(t) = Ac cos 2fct , pAc sin 2fc t cos 2fmt

= Ac cos 2fct , 21 pAc sin[2(fc + fm )t]

, 21 pAc sin[2(fc , fm )t]

S (f ) = 12 Ac[(f , fc) + (f + fc)]

, 41j pAc[(f , fc , fm) , (f + fc + fm )]

, 41j pAc[(f , fc + fm) , (f + fc , fm )]

S (f ) has real and imaginary parts

example problem 4.7
Choose arbitrary p single tone PM at carrier fc, mod tone fm
Apply s(t) to ideal bandpass lter H (f )

74
page 7.66 Generation of FM Waves
Indirect - Make narrowband FM, multiply to set WBFM
Direct - Modulate carrier directly to get WBFM

s1(t) = A1 cos[2f1t + 1 sin 2fmt]

s(t) = Ac cos[2fct +  sin 2fmt]
 = n11 fc = nf1

read example 10 p. 342

Direct FM
Use varactor or voltage variable capacitor in carrier oscillator

fi(t) = q1
2 LC (t)

c(t) = Co + 4C cos 2fmt

75
page 7.68
Problem Example

FM Wave Deviation 10 KHz - Mod freq. 5 KHz  = 4 f = 10 = 2

fm 5
input s(t) at fi1(t), multiply 6x to get fi2(t)

Find 1 Deviation and modulation index at output

2 Frequency separation of adjacent side frequencies
Solution

n = 6
fi1(t) = fc + 4f cos(2fmt)
fi2(t) = nfc + n4f cos(2fmt)

Deviation n4f = 6  10 KHz

= 60 KHz

Modulation index  = nf4f = 605 = 12

m

Frequency separation of adjacent side frequencies unchanged at 5 KHz

76
page 7.69
Example Problem 34 page 394 NBFM hints for solution
Consider a narrowband FM wave. part a. Find the envelope.

s(t) = Ac cos 2fct , Ac sin 2fct sin 2fm t

= a(t) cos(2fc t + (t))
where
q
a(t) = A2c +  2A2c sin2 2fmt

Plot a(t) vs t to nd ratio of max to min

part b. Write s(t) in terms of frequency components fc; fc , fm ; fc + fm
part c. nd an expression for (t) and expand it

77
page 7.70
Demodulation of FM Waves - p. 346
1 Discriminator (approximation of ideal dierentiator)
2 Phase locked loop
FM Demod
Output voltage proportional to input frequency
Discriminator

In practice two resonant circuits one above fc and one below fc

78
page 7.70A
Frequency Discriminator
Ideal dierentiator
Zt
FM s(t) = Ac cos[2fct + 2kf m()d
ds = ,A [2f + 2k m(t)]
sin[2f t + 2k Z t m()d]
c c f c f
dt 0

If kf m(t)  fc

" #
ds = ,2A f 1 + kf m(t) : sin[2f t + 2k Z t m()d)]
c c c f
dt fc 0

ds looks like an AM signal [1 + m(t)]c(t)

dt

Thus it can be detected using envelope detector

Ideal dierentiator transfer function H (f ) = j 2f looks like slope detector

79
page 7.71
Skip 347-350, Instead Consider:
Demodulation of FM -
using hard limiter and BPF before the dierentiator and envelope detector

Zt
s(t) = Ac cos[2fct + 2kf 0
m()d]
ds = A [2f + 2k m(t)] sin[2f t + 2k Z t m()d]
c| {z f } c f
dt 0
envelope

Dierentiator works correctly only if there are no amplitude variations in s(t) i.e. Ac =
constant.

if Ac = A(t) (time-varying), then envelope of ds

dt will include term A(t).
To remove amplitude variations use hard limiter and BPF before the dierentiator

vi(t) = A(t) cos[(t)] A(t)  0 envelope

Zt
(t) = 2fct + 2 0
m()d
( )
v0(t) = +1 A(t) cos(i(t)] > 0 = v ()
,1 A(t) cos(i(t)] < 0 o

Note:vo() =

80
We can plot v0 as function of  instead of as function of t.
what follows is proof that limiter output is the desired FM signal with constant amplitude,
even if the limiter input contains amplitude variations A(t).

v0() = 4 [cos  , 13 cos 3 + 51 cos 5 + : : :]

= 4 (2,n1), 1 cos[(2n , 1)]

X1 n,1
n=1

series for square wave, see Text p. 363, notes page 7.13, 7.20.

81
page 7.72

vi[(t)] = 4 fcos (t)] , 13 cos[3(t)] + : : :g

Zt
= 4 fcos[2fct + 2kf m()d]
0
1 Zt
+ 3 cos[6fct + 6kf m()d] + : : :g
0

Bandpass lter at fc to eliminate higher order terms

Thus
Zt
s(t) = 4 cos[2fct + 2kf o m()d]

= 4 cos((t)]

which is the desired FM wave with constant amplitude 4=pi.

Practical Frequency Demodulators, Slope Detection

82
page 7.76
Page 364-8 FM Stereo
Pilot Carrier 19 KHz =fc
Radio Carrier 105.1 MHz = fn

m(t) = [`(t) , r(t)] cos 4fct DSBSC with fc = 19 KHz

+ [`(t) + r(t)]
+ cos 2fct

a) Spectrum

b) If deviation = 75 KHz
Bandwidth = 2(4f + fm )
= 2 (75 + 53) = 256 KHz
Hence FM stations spaced every 0.2 MHz = 200 KHz
c) Receiver Block Diagram

83
page 7.77
LAB 4 Text 7.12 - pp. 353-361
Phase-Locked Loop Demodulator
Feedback system with components

1. Multiplier (phase comparator)

2. Loop Filter H (f )
3. VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator)

Notation Dierent in Lab & Text

Lab Text
Input Phase i(t) i(t)
s(t) cos 2fct + i(t) sin[2fct + 1(t)]
Feedback (Loop) Phase f (t) 2(t)
r(t) sin 2fct + f (t) cos[2fct + 2(t)]
e(t) kc[i(t) , f (t)] sin[1(t) , 2(t)]
vo(t) e(t)
h(t)
VCO
ff (t) Output kfvo (t)
Freq. Zt Zt
Feedback Phase f (t) = kf vo(t)dt 2(t) = 2ko v( )d
0 0

84
page 7.78
If loop gain in h(t) is high, then i , f is small and i(t)  f (t)

vo(t) = k1 ddtf 1 d1

v(t) = 2k
f v dt
Lab (5.9) Text (7.177)

Output voltage proportional to

(
input frequency or
deprivative of input phase
Thus have FM demodulation
To prove e(t) = ke [i(t) , f (t)] (ignoring constants kc kf etc)

e(t) = s(t)r(t)
= cos[2fct + i(t)] sin[2fct + f (t)]
sin  cos  = sin( ,  ) + sin( +  )
e(t) = sin[i(t) , f (t)] + sin(4
|
fct +{zi(t) + f (t)]}
Filter out with h(t)

To show vo(t)  d
df
f

VCO output frequency ff (t) = kf vo(t)

Zt
thus VCO output phase f (t) = kf vo(t)dt
o
For precise proof, see text p. 355-357 to show that

vo(t)  ddtf (LAB notation) or v(t)  d 1

dt (TEXT notation)

85
page 7.79
Example Problem 46 p. 398
s(t) PM wave into PLL output v(t) into H (f ) output m(t).

Assuming large loop gain in PLL nd H (f ) such that the message signal is reproduced
Solution: Write out signals at each point in the system

z }|
1 (t)
{
s(t) = Ac cos(2fct + 2kf m(t)]

PLL output v(+) = 1 d1(t)

2kv dt
= 2k1 d 2k m(t)
f
v dt

= kkf dmdt(t)
v

To reproduce m(t) need to integrate v(t)

recall that the transfer function of ideal integrator is H (f ) = j 21f (f 6= 0) since

Zt
g( )d $ G (f ) = G(f )H (f )
j 2f
,1

86
page 7.80
Example Problem 42 page 397

Zt
s(t) = Ac cos[2fct + 2kf o
m( )d ]

Assume R  Xc
RL  R so that envelope detector does not load lter
Find v2(t). Does this circuit work as an FM demodulator?
Solution:

Filter H (f ) = 1 +j 2jf cR
2f R
c

1
R  Xc ! R  j 2f ! j 2fc R  1 ! H (f ) ' j 2fc R
c

V1(f ) = S (f )H (f ) = CRj 2fS (f )

v1(t) = CR dsdt from properties of Fourier transform

Thus v1(t) is proportional to ds=dt which is proportional to m(t)

87