Non-Destructive Examination 2

NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION / EVALUATION
R.SUBBARATNAM RETD., HEAD, QA&NDT SECTION QUALITY ASSURANCE DIVISION ENGINEERING SERVICES GROUP INDIRA GANDHI CENTRE FOR ATOMIC RESEARCH KALPPAKAM Subbu_10@yahoo.com
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION / EVALUATION

Examination with out destruction Used for assessment and evaluation of Raw materials Rolled (Plate, Pipe); cast; forged
Component & System Fabrication Weld
Pre-Service & In-Service Inspection Unconventional Assembly, Level measurement, Gap measurement Visual Imaging 3 Dimensional information Position, size, orientation Macro, Micro, Nano Levels
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE 2
NDE METHODS
VISUAL LEAK TESTING BASIC NDE UE MPE LPE
SURFACE NDE
VOLUMETRIC NDE
RE
EC
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ADVANCED NDE METHODS

IR
NRT ADV NDE
VA
UE
TOFD, SAFT
AE
VISUAL EXAMINATION
Visual Examination Most common and First method of NDE Easy Quick Low Cost Guide for other NDE methods Reflection of light from the specimen Eye tool for the examination Adequate and proper cleaning and lighting of surface Surface preparation in certain cases required
EYE
The registering device Variable individual point of view
Variation in eye
Unreliable with different light intensities optical illusion Relative brightness of different light sources can be judged approximately with same order of brightness Large image if the retinal image is large Angle subtended at the eye by the object called the Visual Angle
VIEWING
Converging lens increases visual angle and increases the size of image Diameter of the pupil is ~2.5 mm for 5500 A wavelength Minimum angular separation of two points resolvable by the eye is about one minute of arc Minimum size of the defect detected depends on
Surface being examined Brightness level Contrast between the area and the background
Brightness falling on the retina is most important than the brightness on the specimen Brightness on the retina is determined by area of pupil Pupil size variable from 1 to 6 mm and hence the area varies by a factor of 36
SENSITIVITY OF EYE
Sensitivity of human eye varies for different wave lengths With ordinary conditions it is most sensitive to yellow green light with wave length of 5500 A Human eye will provide satisfactory vision over wide range of conditions Eye has excellent visual perception, however adequate lighting is prime importance Time of inspection permitted to work shall be limited to avoid errors due to decrease in visual reliability and discrimination
LIGHTING
The amount of light reaching shall be sufficient for best definition obtainable with aided or unaided eye Relation between the visual acuity and brightness shall be considered The ratio of least perceptible brightness difference to the brightness at which it is measured is nearly constant over large range of 1 to 100000 candles / m2 [ordinary interior illumination to bright day light] But the visual acuity varies quit sharply over the lower and middle portion of the range visual acuity is considered to be dependant on the threshold response of the cones in the retina. But no data available to give explanation.
OPTICAL AIDS
Optical aids
Mirror Lens Microscope Periscope Telescope Fiberscope Boroscope
Provide a means of compensating for the limits of visual acuity by enlarging small image in to large Improving viewing conditions for rapid inspection of small precision parts, inaccessible areas and reducing operator fatigue
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MIRROR Simplest way of looking inaccessible area Advantage of a portion of mirror is used and cone of rays is limited by the pupil of eye Other instrument / equipment can also be added with mirror Mirror surface shall be extremely flat Mirror must be kept free from dust Reflecting power of mirror reduces after some period of use Reflecting power of two three mirrors are much less However the reflecting power can be increased by special coating
BOROSCOPE
Boroscope is the instrument to inspect the inside surface of tube, bore or chamber Precision built optical system with prism and lenses through which light also passes Light source is located in font of object lens provides light in the required area The design of the objective determines the angle of view, size of visual field and amount of light gathered Design of the middle lenses has an important influence on the image obtained. Most middle lenses are achromatic for the purpose of preserving the sharpness of the image and color values Different angle of vision [0, 45, 60, 90]
FIBERSCOPE
Fiberscope is the instrument used to inspect surface of pipeline. Compared to the Boroscope this is flexible and the image transmission is by optical fibers. Possibility of lighting of the surface of the object Various diameters, operating length and angle of viewing [0, 45, 60, 90], backward and forward throw Limitation guiding to proper location is required
Image acquisition in the digital form possible in both Boroscope and Fiberscope
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LIQUID PENETRANT EXAMINATION
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SURFACE NDE OPEN TO SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES ONLY PRINCIPLE CAPILARY ACTION SIX METHODS
Two types & Three Techniques
FIVE STAGES HIGH SENSITIVITY WITH POST EMULSIFICATION AND FLUREOSCENT 10 SENSITIVITY WITH FLOURESCENT AND 25 WITH VISIBLE - SOLVENT REMOVAL Temp. 15 to 50 C
BASIC PRINCIPLE CAPILARY ACTION
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Factors influencing Penetrant infiltration into discontinuities surface tension of the liquid Penetrant discontinuity configuration constant surface coatings and contaminants additives and contaminants in the liquid Penetrant mechanical obstructions temperature of the test object roughness of the interior walls of the discontinuity
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LPE METHODS
VISIBLE OR FLOURSCENT
WATER WASHABLE
POST EMULSIFICATION
SOLVENT REMOVABLE
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LPE - STEPS
Pre-Cleaning Penetrant Appln. Dwell Time (10 min to >1 Hr.) Penetrant Cleaning
Water Washable Post Emulsification Solvent Removable
Developer Appln. (Dry or Wet) Developing time (~5 min) Interpretation Post Cleaning
LPE STEPS
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LPE INDICATIONS
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LPE INDICATIONS
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MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION
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SURFACE NDE SURFACE AND SUB-SURFACE (Up To 6mm) FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS - LIMITATION PRINCIPLE MAGNETIC FLUX LEAKAGE DUE TO DISCONTINUITY SPECIMEN MAGNETISATION
Permanent Magnet; Magnetic Yoke; Prod; Head Shot (Fixing component in head and tail stocks and passing current); Coil AC or DC
DETECTION
APPLN. OF IRON POWDER (Wet or Dry) Visible and Fluorescent
DISCONTINUITIES NORMAL TO THE MAGNETIC LINES WILL BE DETECTED Temp. Max 300 C
Methods & Means of Generation of Magnetic Field

Magnetisation with permanent Magnet and by Electric Current (Induced) Characteristics of magnetic Field
Field around permanent magnet In & around a conductor
Types of Magnetisation
Continuous Residual Circular Longitudinal
Magnetic Fields in and around the job

Longitudinal magnetization Circular Magnetisation
Magnetic Field Strength & Field distribution Demagnetization

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Magnetic Particle Testing Techniques

Type of Current AC, DC, HWDC, FWDC (Single & three phase) Method Dry or Wet Method Types of particle Dry Particles Wet Particles and Carrier (Water, Kerosene etc) Fluorescent and Non Fluorescent Type of Magnetisation Circular, Longitudinal, Residual Type of Equipment Portable, Stationary or special purpose equipment
Magnetic Particle Test Equipments & Accessories Equipments

Permanent Electro Magnet - Yokes Small , medium, Stationary and Portable Equipments
Type
Prods (Circular Mag.) Coils (Longitudinal Mag.) Head Shot (Circular Mag.)
Black Light (Fluorescent) Equipments PIE Gauge, KETOs Ring, Shims with Notches for field measurement & Gauge for residual mag. Field measurement
MPE Principle
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MAGNETISATION METHODS
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MAGNETISATION METHODS
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MPE INDICATIONS
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Magnetic Particle Indication
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EDDY CURRENT EXAMINATION
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SURFACE NDE SURFACE AND SUB-SURFACE (Up To 6 mm) CONDUCTIVE MATERIAL LIMITATION PRINCIPLE INDUCTION OF CURRENT (CIRCULAR EDDY) IN THE SPECIMEN AND ANALYSING INTERACTION (Induction, Permeability) PROBE CONFIGURATION
Encircling or Bobbin; Surface; Multiple Frequency Probes
DISCONTINUITIES NORMAL TO EDDY CURRENT DETECTABLE EXAMINATION FAST (Less Time) USED FOR
Material Sorting (Permeability; Electrical Conductivity); Defect Detection; Coating Thk.
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ECT PRINCIPLE & COIL ARRANGEMENT
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ECT - EQUIPMET
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ECT - INSTRUMENTATION
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COIL APPLICATION
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Eddy Current Inspection

Periodically, power plants are shutdown for inspection. Inspectors feed eddy current probes into heat exchanger tubes to check for corrosion damage.
Pipe with damage
Probe
Signals produced by various amounts of corrosion thinning.
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RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
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PRINCIPLES OF RADIOGRAPHY
Differential absorption of short wavelength radiations Difference in density is the effect of variations in thickness of the part, differences in absorption characteristics caused by variations in compositions. Shadow projection, an image, on a detector - varying grey levels Sources - X-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, electrons. X and gamma rays are common sources for industrial radiography Detector radiographic films, image intensifiers or scintillator screens / counters. Double coated, fine grain, high contrast X-ray films used Radiography is the best method for the detection of volumetric defects. It can be applied on a variety of component ranging from miniature integrated circuits to mammoth missile parts and complex assemblies.
RADIOGRAPHY SET UP
Source
Specimen
Variation in Radiographic Density
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SOURCES OF RADIATIONS X RAY

X-ray and gamma rays X-ray machine consists
X-ray tube head, high-voltage generators, control unit, cooling circuit.
Glass tube heads - earlier, modern X-ray heads - metal ceramic When fast moving electrons impinging on a metal target X-ray is produced . Most of the energy (98%) - as heat, only a fraction is converted into X-rays. Depends on the atomic number of the target material, level of vacuum. X-ray tube target - high atomic number and high melting point - Tungsten
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X RAY EQUIPMENT
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GAMMA RAY
Isotopic sources emitting gamma rays - extensive applications. Main advantage of gamma ray sources
simplicity of apparatus, compactness and portability. does not require cooling and power supply - field applications.
Main disadvantage of these sources

decay with time and hence required replacement energy of the gamma rays is fixed and cannot be varied to match the thickness of objects for better sensitivity.
The commonly used gamma sources are Cobalt-60, Iridium192, Cesium 137 and Thulium 170.
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GAMMA RAY SOURCES

COBALT 60 ENERGY (MeV) HALF LIFE OUTPUT RHM/Ci 1.1.7 & 1.33 5.3 Yrs IRIDIUM 192 CESIUM 137 THULIUM 170 0.052, 0.084 127 Days
0.45 (Avg) 0.66
74 Days
33.1 Yrs
1.3
0.55
0.38
0.25
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GAMMA CAMERA / EXPOSURE DEVICE
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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
Radiographic film most widely used as detectors Consists - base, emulsion, binding layer protective layer Polyester is most-commonly used material for film base Emulsion of silver bromide is coated over the base Gelatin acts a binding layer between film base and emulsion. protective layer - hardened gelatin, serves to protect the emulsion from physical damage, abrasion and stress marks. Industrial radiographic films are double coated the emulsion is coated on both sides of the base. increases the film speed.
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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
Protective Layer 5 Emulsion 10
Base 50
When X or gamma rays strike the grains of the sensitive silver compound in the emulsion, change takes place in the physical structure of the grains. This change is of such a nature that it cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods. When the exposed film is treated with a chemical solution (called developer) a reaction takes place, causing the formation of black metallic silver. This blackening of the film is called as optical density (D) and is given by the relation. D = Log10 (I0/It)
Characteristic Curve
Different types of radiographic film respond differently to a given amount of exposure. Film manufacturers commonly characterize their film to determine the relationship between the applied exposure and the resulting film density. The plot is called a film characteristic curve, sensitometric curve, density curve, or H and D curve (named for their developers Hurter and Driffield). "Sensitometry" is the science of measuring the response of photographic emulsions to light or radiation. A log scale is used or the values are reported in log units on a linear scale to compress the X-axis. Also, relative exposure values (unitless) are often used. Relative exposure is the ratio of two exposures. The image directly right shows three film characteristic curves with the relative exposure plotted on a log scale, while the image below right shows the log relative exposure plotted on a linear scale. Film characteristic curves can be used to adjust the exposure used to produce a radiograph with a certain density to an exposure that will produce a second radiograph of higher or lower film density. The curves can also be used to relate the exposure produced with one type of film to exposure needed to produce a radiograph of the same density with a second type of film.
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Characteristic Curve
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Intensifying Screens
Screens used to reduce the exposure times and improve the image quality of the radiographs. Two types of radiography screens - metallic and fluorescent screens Both of these differ in Speed, contrast and elimination of scattered radiation. Metal screens - Lead is most widely used Being a metal with high Z, Lead acts to absorb the scattered radiation of lower wavelength. This improves the radiographic contrast. Due to photoelectric interactions of X-rays with lead, photoelectrons are emitted which serve to reduce the exposure time by more than 50%. This is called as intensification action. Intensification action expressed in terms of intensifying Factors (IF) Intensification factor depends on element, thickness, energy of radiation. Apart from lead, copper screens have also used.
Exposure time required producing a film with particular density without screen
IF= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Exposure time required producing the same density with screen
Fluorescent Screens and Filters

Fluorescent or salt screens of calcium tungstate or zinc sulphide provide greater intensification factor compared to metallic screens. However, they are used in medical radiography due to the high screen unsharpness and poor image quality and not in industrial radiography. Filters are metallic sheets of high atomic number used to absorb the soft component of the radiation emanating from the tube port. Filters thus harden the radiation beam. The purpose of using filter increase the contrast around the specimen edge reduce the undercut due to scatter at the edge of thinner sections and record a wide range of thickness in a given film. Increasing the voltage or time of exposure compensates the loss of intensity caused by filter. Generally filters are made of copper, steel or aluminum.
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
Quality of radiographs or detection of discontinuity depends on extent of the optical density of the image. Selection of exposure parameters required to produce the required radiographic density to reveal the discontinuity
Exposure Time Exposure Technique Component / Specimen Shape
Coded Requirements on Image

Radiographic Density Image Quality
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RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE TIME X Ray

Exposure Charts Constant Parameters Like Matl., Film, SFD
Gamma Ray
Calculation Exposure Time (Min) = (FF x (SFD) 2 x 2 (thickness/HVL) x 60) / (S x RHM x (100)2 )
Where FF is the film factor in roentgens, S is the source strength in curies and SFD the source to film distance in cm.
Any Variation
Material Film Source to Film Distance (SFD) IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE Screen
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Exposure Chart X - Ray
100 kV
120 kV 200 kV
mA min
Const.: Material Steel Film Agfa D7 SFD 700 mm Screen Lead Intensifying Developing Std.
Matl Thk.
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Variation or Change in Exposure Parameters

Material
Steel (High energy) or Al (Low energy) Taken as Standard Material Any change in the material shall be referred to Radiographic Equivalent Factors for that energy and source
SFD
Variation in SFD Varies the beam intensity - I1 / I2= D22/ D12 [Inverse Square Law] TIME & DISTANCE RELATIONSHIP: T2 / T1 = D12 / D22 MILLIAMPERAGE & TIME RELATIONSHIP:M1 / M2 = T2 / T1
Film
Medium film to slow film increases exposure time or vice versa Film manufacturer provides the film speed factors
Ex: D7 to D4 increases the Exp. Time by 3 times
Selection of Radiographic Techniques

Selection of particular radiographic technique is based upon the sensitivity requirements. Getting information on small discontinuity image is possible only with a proper technique Radiographic technique is affected by radiation source, film used, sources to film distance and radiation beam alignment A technique is selected on the basic of the knowledge about the following factors. Test object material - thickness and configuration Fabrication processes (Welds, Casting, Assembly) Anticipated discontinuities and its locations & orientation, Areas of interest Sensitivity level required Radiographic techniques can be broadly classified as High sensitivity technique & Low Sensitivity Technique Also Classified according to the configuration as single wall single image (SWSI) technique double wall single image (DWSI) technique double wall double image (DWDI) technique
Radiographic Techniques - Configuration

Three Techniques SWSI Both side access DWDI - Single side Access - For Pipes Dia < 89 mm DWSI Single side Access - For pipes Dia > 89 mm
SWSI
DWDI IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
DWSI 64
Depth of Discontinuity
Stereo Radiography Only illusion Double Exposure Method Generally Followed
Two exposures by shifting the source with half exp. time
a
SFD - d
d b
d = b x SFD/a+b
Film Processing
Film processing - in five stages @ 18 24 C
Developing Stop bath Fixing Clearing in running water Drying
The developing converts the exposed silver bromide grains / crystals to metallic silver i.e. creation of the visible image 5 Min The second stage stop bath, stops the developing action and removes all the developer 2 Min The fixing process fixes this metallic silver and removes all unexposed silver bromide grains / crystals 10 Min Washing in running water 20 Min The drying dries all the wetness on the film. After drying the film is ready for interpretation. Processing consumes minimum of 30 minutes.
Image Quality Indicators (IQI) / Penetrameter

Radiographic sensitivity is judged by the use of Image Quality Indicators (IQI) Many type of IQI - Plate and Hole, Wire, Step, Step and hole Sensitivity assessed by the image of IQI on the radiograph Normally the sensitivity is represented in percentage. Lower the percentage the higher the sensitivity IQI is selected based on the thickness of specimen to be radiographed and general codes specify IQI thickness equal to 2% of specimen thickness. Codes of construction provide the IQI requirements Sensitivity (plate and hole IQI) = 100/T [t x h / 2] Sensitivity (wire IQI) = [Dia of minimum wire seen in radiograph /Specimen Thk. ] x 100 Generally radiographic sensitivity shall be specified to a level of 2%
IQI
10 Fe 16
10
Wire
Step and Hole
Plate and Hole
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Radiographic Quality / Sensitivity

Quality of the radiograph is assessed by radiographic sensitivity RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY Contrast Subject contrast
Thickness difference in the specimen Density difference in the specimen In-homogeneity of the object material Incident radiation energy Filters Radiation associated scattered energy
Definition Geometry
Screen film Contact Source size Source to specimen distance Object to film distance Source off set Abruptness of thickness Shape and surface condition of the object
Film contrast
Type of film Film processing Variation in film density Intensifying screens
Film graininess
Type of film Chemical processing Scattering of radiation by film grains due to type of screen
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Evaluation of Radiographs / Interpretation

Radiographs inform the presence of discontinuity by the radiographic density difference Discontinuities are evaluated for its type, location and size Radiographs provide length and width of the discontinuity Conventional radiography is widely used for the inspection of weldments, casting and complete assemblies Types of discontinuities vary from process to process like Lack of penetration in the weld, shrinkage in the casting etc. Type of the discontinuity is arrived from the shape and location of the indication Radiographic image are interpreted for acceptance or otherwise of the discontinuity indications depends on the code of manufacturing like ASME, BS etc, which is based on the service requirements
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High Energy Radiography

Radiographic Examination using sources having energy level of 1MeV or more is called high energy radiography. Basic technique is same as conventional radiography. Major advantages are: Examination of higher thicknesses of 100 to 1000 mm of steel according to the energy level Higher distance to thickness ratio (D/T) possible with low geometrical distortion Short exposure time and higher productivity Three types of high-energy sources are used Van-de-Graf Generator Betetron Linear Accelerator Linear Accelerator (LINAC) are more common in industries LINACS are available with energy levels up to 15 MeV and 10000 rads / min out put.
Advanced radiographic Techniques High Resolution Technique

Advancement in areas of electronics and sciences made to obtain very fine focal in the order of 10 X Ray units. Called as Micro-Focal Units (having Focal size < 100 ) Control and very fine-tuning of X-Ray parameters are possible Allows radiography of components with magnification and achievement of very high definition and sensitivity (in the order of 25 ). This technique enables the examination of very small and intricate components like PCBs, thin walled (400 ) welds etc. Also these are having Rod Anode type X-Ray heads that enables the radiography of tube to tube-sheet welds of steam generator in the power industries, which is not possible by conventional radiography. Added advantage of this technique is the adoptability with real time systems. Major limitation is the examination limited to the thickness according to the kV rating of the unit.
Real Time Radiography (RTR)

Fluoroscopy / RTR / Computed radiography differs from conventional radiography image is observed on a fluorescent screen rather than on the film Present day systems use image intensifiers or Flat Panel detectors, video camera and monitor or PC Image intensifier converts the photon to electron and are multiplied and accelerated and then converted to light and image Cesium Iodide (Cs I) used to convert the Photon to electron with image enhancement system provide a higher sensitivity Flat panel detector replaces image intensifier use Selenium (Se) for conversion can provide a very good sensitivity even to micron level RTR system is finding increasing applications in industry advantages of high speed and comparatively low cost added advantages of images in the digital form, can be processed and analysed further digital images can be stored and be verified at later point of time to compare the latest results systems are used for IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE auto analysis for acceptance or rejection. 73
METAL
APPROXIMATE RADIOGRAPH EQUIVALENT FATORS ENERGY LEVEL 100kV 150kV 0.05 0.12 0.14 0.54 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.7 2.4 14.0 2.3 14.0 220kV 0.08 0.18 0.18 0.54 1.0 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 2.0 12.0 14.0 20.0 12.0 16.0 9.0 12.0 1.7 1.5 1.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 3.9 12.6 3.4 14.0 2.5 1.0 2.7 1.2 4.0 1.0 2.3 1.0 1.4 0.71 1.0 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.3 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.3 0.35 0.35 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 0.35 0.35 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.3 250kV 400kV 1MeV 2MeV 4-25 MeV IR192 CO60
Magnesium Aluminum Aluminum Alloy Titanium Iron/all Steels Copper Zinc Brass Inconel X Monel Zirconium Lead Hafnium Uranium
0.05 0.08 0.10
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Effects of Radiation
Exposure to radiations (x, , , ) are hazardous Radiations produce ions and modify the cell Natural mechanism of the body rectifies the damages When this is not successful, irradiation causes the following: Chromosome aberrations Gene mutation Cell death Radiation effects are depends on type of radiation energy of radiation dose & duration of exposure mode (internal or external) region of the body exposed.
Radiation monitoring and Control

Data are available on this from experimental studies, medical exposures, uranium miners, survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki etc International Committee on Radiological Protection (ICRP) arrive at a safe limits of exposure based on these data Whole body radiation limited to 2.0 rem / year is permitted for radiation workers and for general public limited to 0.2 rem/year Radiation is invisible, can be detected and monitored using radiation gauges, monitors and survey meters Instruments are working by the principle of ionization characteristics of radiation Radiation workers are monitored by the use of film / TLD badges and pocket dosimeters. Permanent records are made for the individual radiation worker Level of radiation in particular areas ( Area Monitoring) Cordoning of areas
Evaluation of Radiographs Some typical Weld Discontinuities
Lack of Penetration
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Micro Focal Radiography
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Radiographic Image Processing
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ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION
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Fundamentals of Ultrasonic
CHARACTERISTICS: ULTRASONIC WAVE Sound waves are vibration of particles of solid, liquid or gas, of Greater Than Audible Freq. - 20 KHz FREQ. Audible Freq. 20 Hz 20 KHz Particle Displacement Three Factors Velocity - V, Frequency - f , Wave Length - V = f ; f = V/ ; = V/f Velocity The speed at which the energy is transported between two points. Frequency (f) Oscillation of the atom in the medium when the wave is traveling. Unit Hz, KHz, MHz. Time period (T) = 1/f Wave Length () The distance traveled by the wave during the time period (T) in the medium.
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Fundamentals of Ultrasonic
One cycle Amplitude Displacement Time / Distance
Time period - T Acoustic Impedance (Z) : The resistance offered to the propagation of ultrasonic wave by the material Z = V Acoustic Pressure (P) : Denotes the amplitude of alternating stresses on material by propagating ultrasonic wave P = Z a Acoustic intensity (I) : Acoustic Energy passing through unit area
TYPES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

Longitudinal / Compression Wave
Alternative compression and rarefaction Particles Vibration parallel to the wave propagation Propagate in all media Solid, Liquid and Gas V l = E/
Transverse / Shear Wave

Particles Vibration perpendicular to wave propagation Propagation only in solids V t = G/
Surface / Raleigh Wave

Particle vibration generally elliptical Travel along the surface - up to one wave length depth V s = 0.9 V t
Lamb / Plate Wave

Velocity depends on type of material, material thk., freq. Complex modes
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ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES
Material Aluminum Copper Steel Titanium Perspex Oil Water Air Density Kg/m3 2700 8900 7850 4540 1180 870 1000 0.093 Vel Long m/s 6300 4700 5950 6230 2730 1740 1480 330 Vel Shear m/s 3130 2260 3250 3180 1430 ---Z 103 Pa s/m 17 064 41 830 46 629 28 284 3 221 1 514 1 480 31
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WAVE PROPAGATION Transmission, Reflection & Refraction

Wave undergoes Transmission Reflection and Refraction Normal incidence at interface
Transmission and reflection (Acoustic impedance mismatch) Refraction at the reflective interface
T R
Oblique Incidence at interface

Transmission, reflection and Refraction (Mode conversion)
Refra
Reflec
Reflection R = (Z1-Z2)2 / (Z1+Z2)2 Transmission T = Z1Z2 / (Z1+Z2)2 Angle of Refraction = sin a / sin b = V1 / V2 (Snells Law)
S L S
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Mode conversion and critical angles

When the longitudinal wave incident obliquely at interface, inside the specimen the beam refracts in to longitudinal and transverse modes. This is called Mode Conversion. When the incident angle increased, at one angle the refracted longitudinal beam will be gliding on the scanning surface. This is called the First Critical Angle. If the incident angle increased further, then at one angle the refracted shear / transverse beam becomes gliding and is called as Surface Wave and the angle is called as Second Critical Angle. The angle beam transducers are designed between these critical angles to produce the desired angle.
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Wave Propagation Beam Divergence, Near Field, Far Field

The wave propagate as a divergent beam
Near Field
Far Field
Near Field Sound Pr. is not uniform D2 / 4 Far Field - Fraunhaufer Zone After Near zone Beam Divergence / Spread Sin = K / D Value K - 1.22 (100%- 40dB); 1.08 (10% - 20dB); 0.55 (50%-6dB) D Dia of probe
Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beam

Ultrasonic beam undergoes losses during propagation
Coupling Surface roughness Absorption Scattering
Coupling and Surface roughness External condition of the specimen Absorption and Scattering Internal condition of the specimen Grain structure and Grain size
Fine grain Absorption Coarse grain - Scattering
P=P0e -d Since the sound Pr. Is proportional to echo ht. Attn. Coeff. = 20/d log (H0/H) dB/m; dB = 20 log (H1 / H2)
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Effect Of Frequency Beam Characteristics

Beam Spread / Divergence
Effect of Frequency( )
Decreases (1.2 / D = 1.2 V / f D) Increases ( s = / 2 = V/ 2 f) Increases (NZ = D2 / 4 = D2 f / 4 V ) Increases
Sensitivity
Near Zone
Attenuation (Absorption / Noise)
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Generation of Ultrasound
Magnetostriction Ferromagnetic materials like Fe, Ni, Co shows that the length (size) can be varied by application of magnetic field. If alternating mag. field applied this will vibrate. Hence, the production of ultrasound in the contact specimen Piezoelectric Effect A piezoelectric material will develop an electrical potential when subjected to mech. Pr.. Two types of piezoelectric transducers
Single crystal Natural / Artificial Quartz, Lithium Sulphate Polycrystalline materials Polarised Ceramic Materials - Barium Titanate, Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT), Lead Metabionate.
These are made by heating them to their curie point and cooling them under the influence of voltage.
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Characteristic of Transducer Crystals

Material Quartz Advantage Limitation Hard & High resistance to wear, Expensive, Least efficient generator, Aging. Mech, & Electrical Suffers from mode conversion, High stability. Used up to ~500 C voltage for operation
Lithium Sulphate
Most efficient receiver, Does not age, Very little mode conversion, Low acoustic impedance Efficient Generators, Operate in low voltage, Some can be used for high tem. Appln. (lead metabionate)
Very Fragile, Soluble in water, Limited to use with temp. can be used below 75 C
Polarised Ceramics
Piezoelectric property reduces with aging, Low resistance to wear, suffer from mode conversion.
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Construction of Transducers
The Transducers are of two types
Longitudinal / Compression mode Shear / Transverse mode
Generally the compression mode is used for the construction of shear transducers.
Acoustic Barrier Backing Crystal Wear Plate S L Delay Block Long. TR Probe Focused Probe
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Long. Probe
Shear Probe
Couplant
Air is having low acoustic impedance compared to the probe and the specimen. Hence the beam is reflected at the probe specimen interface. A medium with the acoustic impedance between the specimen and probe has to be used Commonly used Couplant Water, Oils, Glycerin, Petroleum Grease, Silicon Grease Selection of Couplant based on Surface finish, Specimen Temperature, Chemical reaction with the specimen, Post Cleaning Transfer correction (External condn. Of specn.)
Loss due to surface roughness, Couplant thickness Amt. of gain difference between the specimen and reference, in dB to be added during scanning
EQUIPMENT
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
Pulse Generator Pulse Receiver Signal Processing & Control Circuitry Display System (CRT)
a b c
CRT
Amplifier Time Base Generator Pulse Generator Clock or Timer
a c b
Specimen IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE 94
Presentation
Three Presentation Available
A Scan Amplitude vs. Time/Distance B / D Scan Side View C Scan Plan View C
Specimen & Transducer
D B D C
CRT Presentation Thk. Length A SCAN B SCAN

Width
C SCAN
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TESTING TECHNIQUES
Resonance Exist when the thickness of a material equals to half the wavelength or multiples of sound f = V / 2 t Through transmission Two probes transmitter and receiver on either side of the specimen Defect position will not be given.
Pulse Echo Sound in pulses transmitted and received

Contact & Immersion - Longitudinal & Angle beam
96
Pulse Echo Technique

Widely Used Two types Contact & Immersion Normal Beam Used to detect discontinuities parallel to scanning surface Angle Beam Used to detect discontinuities at angle to scanning surface Surface Wave Technique
Contact
1. 2. 3.
Immersion
1.
Easy Scanning Suitable for site condition Defect position identification easy
2.
3.
Use of high freq. Increases sensitivity. Easy manipulation of required angle & odd shape jobs. Automation possible.
97
CALIBRATION OF TESTING SYSTEM

Using reference blocks IIW, V2 Calibration of Eqpt. & Probe
Time Base Probe Index Probe Angle Time base Linearity Vertical Linearity Amplitude Linearity Resolution Ability of the system to detect close defects Lat. & Depth. Sensitivity Ability of the system to detect the smaller defects depends on probe frequency Dead Zone The zone occupied by the initial pip - depends on probe frequency, equipment Maximum Penetrating power Perspex
ASTM Reference Blocks

Distance Amplitude Area - Amplitude
98
Types of Discontinuities & their Detection Planar

Cracks, Lamination, Lack of penetration and Fusion
Volumetric
Inclusion Gas, Slag
Ultrasonic Examination is ideal for detection of Planar discontinuities Discontinuities parallel to scanning surface Longitudinal Beam Discontinuities in oblique / angle Angle Beam
99
Reference Blocks
Three types of references used
Flat Bottom Hole (Normal beam / Long.) Side Drilled Hole (Angle Beam / Shear) Notches (Shear / Angle beam)
A B C A C A C
B Distance Amplitude Correction Curve (DAC)
Reference blocks shall be acoustically similar and should have same shape, thickness. IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
100
Flaw Sizing and Characterisation

Scanning technique Probe movement to determine the discontinuitys Location, Length and Orientation Ultrasonic Signal gives the information about the discontinuitys Characterisation / Type
Sharp High Ampl. Signal Planar type of discontinuity Wide Low Ampl. Signal Volumetric Type of discontinuity
101
Flaw Sizing
Flaw Location Flaw Length
S t P d
Stand Off (S) = P sin Depth (d) = P cos

Amplitude
Probe Travel
Length
d t
ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF PRODUCTS

Plates Tubular Products Pipes & Tubes, Fittings Forgings & Bars Casting Fabricated components - WELDS
103
Ultrasonic Examination
Casting Restricted / Difficult due to Coarse grain Forging Widely used as the fine grain exists Long. & Angle beam used Semi finished products Billets, Rods Rolled Products
Plates both contact & immersion - Long. & Angle , Pipes & Tubes Immersion - Long. & Angle
Welding Usually Angle
104
PLATE
Scanning on any major surface of plate After heat treatment Longitudinal / Straight & / or Shear / Transverse Beam
According to the stage & defects expected
Scanning 100% or on Grids 100 to 225 mm grids Calibration Reference

Long. Back wall Shear - 3 10% Notch
Acceptance
Long. Shear Sizing Total loss of back reflection -<5% - Area Equal to or greater than reference (DAC) 6 / 20 dB method
105
TUBES & PIPES Scanning on OD Shear / Transverse beam Scanning in axial and circumferential directions
OD Notches Thk.
Calibration Reference
3% 10% Notch on ID & OD Both in Axial and Circumferential
ID Notches
Acceptance Indication less than reference (DAC) Generally automatic scanning using immersion
FORGING
DISC Forging
Straight beam Axial - Flat face & Radial Thk.
CLYLINDRICAL Forging
Straight beam Axial & Radial
HOLLOW Forging
Straight beam and Angle Beam Axial and Radial from OD OD / ID Ratio < 2
Calibration Reference
St. Beam FBH / Back Reflection Angle Beam 3 / 5 / 10% Notches on OD and ID
T
Angle Beam Scanning in two perpendicular & opposite directions

CASTING
Low Frequency 0.5 2 MHz Reference blocks with FBH Surface condition - Rough
To be machined to accommodate scanning Amplitude correction
Difficulty exist in ultrasonic examination

Coarse grain structure Lower S/N Ratio Different configuration and shape
DAC
108
WELDS
Parent metal Weld Joint configuration Welding Process Weld Discontinuities Code, Specification & Procedure Equipment, Transducer & Calibration Examination method / Technique Reference Scanning sequence Signal Evaluation & Reporting
UE OF WELD - BASE METAL

Carbon Steel Alloy steel Stainless Steel Combination of CS, SS & Alloy steel Aluminum Titanium, Copper etc. Similar / Dissimilar
Thk. of metal joined Attenuation Velocity of propagation Impedance
Heat Treatment Machining
UE OF WELD GEOMETRIES/CONFIGURATION
Lap Fillet Corner Groove Butt Sq. Butt Single Double Discontinuities Lack of penetration & Lack of fusion
UE OF WELD - WELDING
Welding Joining of metal by fusion, Appln. of heat, Pr. Welding Process
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) Submerged arc welding (SAW) Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) Electron beam welding (EB welding) Laser, Electron Beam, Electro Slag, Explosive welding etc.
Discontinuities
Crack Slag (SMAW, SAW) Tungsten inclusion (GTAW) Porosity (GMAW) Debonding (Explosive)
UE OF WELD - DISCONTINUITIES
Type
Planar - Crack, LP, LF, Under Cut, Debonding Volumetric - Slag, Porosity, T/I
Origin
Process parameters Current, Speed, Heat input, Heat treatment Joint configuration Welder performance Manipulation, weaving
Orientation
Joint configuration Weld configuration ( Passes / layers)
Inductance / Occurrence
Fabrication / Manufacturing All In-service Planar Crack
Location
Anywhere in the weld, HAZ, Parent metal
UE OF WELD - EXMINATION
Examination technique Contact, Immersion, Intensity Equipment Transducer
Single, TR, Pitch catch Frequency Sensitivity
Long. Normal Shear Angle Long Angle Lamination in PM, Weld discontinuity Part thk., Weld Geometry, Defect type, Matl. Type Coarse grain structure
Calibration CRT Calibration, Range - Part thk. Reference

FBH - Normal - Size, Depth SDH - Angle - Size, position, orientation Notch - Angle - Size, position, orientation DAC Recording level, Acceptance
UE OF WELD - EXAMINATION
Scanning
Manual, Auto Accessibility Area, Coverage Direction Movement Overlap Speed Scanning sensitivity
115
UE OF WELD EXAMINATION - CODE

Surface preparation Weld preparation Scanning
St. Beam PM discontinuity recorded not for accp. / rejection Angle beam
Direction perpendicular to axis of weld 2 direction Manipulation to cover full volume of weld 6 / 12 / 20dB Drop Method for Sizing For transverse defects parallel to weld axis
Evaluation
Signal crossing 20% DAC Investigate Acceptance as per referring code
Cladding / Overlay
PE Tech., Single / Duel Crystal, Calibration
Reference hole at interface and FBH up to interface in PM & Overlay
116
Discontinuity Representation
Planar Crack, LP, LF
Very Sharp, High Amplitude
Volumetric Slag, Incln.
Wide, Medium Amplitude.
Volumetric Porosity
Sharp, High Amplitude, Vanishes when probe rotated / moved
117
Other Techniques
Tandem Technique Pitch Catch
Time-of-flight Diffraction Technique (TOFD) Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) Projection Scan ( P-Scan) Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) Technique
118
Applications of Ultrasonic Examination

Defect Detection in material Thickness Measurement Bond testing Online monitoring of material for acceptance Corrosion mapping Pre-Service Inspection (PSI), In-service Inspection (ISI) and Life Extension of Components Stress analysis by velocity measurement
Advantages & Limitations of UE

Single side accessibility is enough Very good for planar defects Depth positioning is possible Sizing is accurate Discontinuity of different orientation can be easily identified Good & High sensitivity of defect detection Immersion Technique Used for In-Service Inspection (ISI) and life prediction of components
Specimen shape odd & irregular shape difficult to examine Specimen Metallurgy coarse grain difficult to examine Data & Signal Acquisition may not be possible in the conventional analog / digital equipments Technical knowledge is required for interpretation
120
ON-LINE MONITORING OF FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH STUDIES
121
On Line Studies of Fatigue Crack Growth

-30 -20 -10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Notch 10.155 10.210 10.115 10.165 10.215 10.125 10.175 10.2175 10.135 10.195 10.21788 10.145 10.205 10.220
10
20
30
122
LEAK TESTING
123
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR LEAK TESTING TO PREVENT MATERIAL LEAKAGE LOSS WHICH INTERFERES WITH SYSTEM OPERATION TO PREVENT HAZARDS ENVIORNMENT CONTAMINATION
TO DETECT UNRILIABLE COMPONENTS WHOSE LEAKAGE EXCEED THE ACCEPTABLE LIMIT TO ENSURE RELIABILITY AND SERVICEBILITY AND TO PREVENT PREMATURE FAILURE OF SYSTEMS UNDER PRESSURE OR VACUUM
LEAK TESTING
LEAK TESTING
FORM OF NDE
DETECTION & LOCATION OF LEAK MEASUREMENT OF FLUID LEAKAGE IN EITHER PRESSURISED OR EVACUATAED COMP. / SYS.
LEAK
EXISTANCE OF PHYSICAL OPENING MAY BE CRACK, CREVICES, HOLE, FISSURES OR PASSAGE WHICH ADMITS FLUIDS ESCAPE
LEAKAGE ?
SELECTION OF LEAK TESTING

MAINLY DEPENDS ON THE TYPE AND NATURE OF COMPONENTS MORE STRINGENT WHEN HAZARDOUS FULIDS & GASSES HANDLED MASS SPECTROMETER HELIUM LEAK DETECTION UNDER VACUUM
PROVIDES ACCURATE LEAK RATE HIGHER SENSITIVITY SENSITIVITY UP TO 10 -13 Pa.m3 / Sec.
126
Tracer gas Pr Rise in Evacuated Sys
Pr.
TIME REAL OUT GAS VIRTUAL

127
SENSITIVITY OF VARIOUS METODS

METHOD MIN DETECT ABLE LEAK RATE (Pa m3/Sec) Time Limited COMMENTS
Mass Loss (Pr. Change) Ultrasonic Chemical Penetrants Bubble Thermal Conductivity Halogen
Generally limited to sizable leaks. Gives good overall quantitative measure. No inf. On leak location & time consuming Leak location only. Fast. No clean up. Can detect from distance. Useful for large leaks Simple to use. Location only. May plug small leaks. Requires cleaning. Leak location. Fluids may plug small leaks. Requires cleaning Simple, compact, portable, inexpensive, sensitive to a number of different gasses, operates in air Operates in Air. Sensitive with SF6 (-12). Portable, requires cleaning, losses with use, sensitive to ambient, halide gasses Most sensitive for vacuum testing. Expensive. Relatively complex. Not portable as that of Halogen Detectors. Much less sensitive when used with pressure testing.
0.05 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 10 -10
Mass Spectrometer
10 -12
PRESSURE CHANGE TEST

CAN ALSO BE TERMED AS
PRESSURE HOLD, PRESSURE DECAY, PR. DROP / LOSS PRESSURE RISE, PRESSURE GAIN
TECHNIQUES
PRESSURISED SYSTEM EVACUATED SYSTEM FLOW MEASUREMENT METHOD
ADVANTAGES
NO SPL. TACER REQUIRED PR. / VAC. GAUGES ALREADY INSTALLED CAN BE USED
LIMITATIONS
LONGER TIME REQD. NO PRECISE LEAK LOCATION
PR. CHANGE TECH. OF LEAK TESTING BARAMETRIC OR ATM. PR.

PR. CAUSED BY EARTHS ATM. DECREASE WITH INCREASED ALTITUDE STD. BAROMETRIC PR. AT SEA LEVEL = 101.325 k.Pa
GAUGE PRESSURE
PRESSURE ABOVE ATM. PRESSURE UNITS k.Pa (GAUGE)
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PR. ABOVE ABS. ZERO VALUE CORRESPONDING TO EMPTY SPACE EQUAL TO SUM OF LOCAL ATM. PR. & GAUGE PR. UNIT k.Pa.
PR. CHANGE RATES

CONST. TEMP. WITH PR. CHANGE
dP/dT = (P1 P2) / dT
CONST. VOL. WITH PR. CHANGE

P1 / P2 = T1 / T2 or P1 = (T1 / T2) x P2
TEMP. CORRECTION
dP/dT= [(P1+101) (T1+273) / T2 + 273)] / dT (SI Units kPa, C) dP / dT = [P1 P2 (T1 / T2)] / dT (For all abs. units)
TYPES
PR. CHANGE TESTS FOR PRESSURISED SYSTEM PR. CHANGE TESTS FOR EVACUATED SYSTEM
VAC. UNITS: 1 TORR = 133 Pa; 760 TORR = 101.325 k.Pa OUTGASSING PUMPDOWN TIME T = 2.3 V /S {T in Sec, v- Vol in Cu.m, S Pumping Speed in Cu.m/Sec} LEAKAGE RATE Q = (P2 P1) V / t (SI Units)
131
BUBBLE LEAK TESTING

PRESSURE DIFFERENCE ESTABLISHED LIQUID IS PLACED PRESSURE SIDE IN CONTACT AT LOWER
BUBBLE FORMATION ON THE EXIT SIDE CLASSIFICATION

LIQUID FILM APPLICATION LIQUID IMMERSION TECHNIQUE FOAM APPLICATION
132
TRACER GASES
AIR, AMMONIA, NITROGEN HELIUM MOST SUITABLE FOR LOW LEAKAGES LIQUID FILM APPLN.
SOAP SOL: 1 PART LIQ DETERGENT + 1 PART GLYCERINE + 4.5 PARTS WATER ALCOHOL + ETHYLENE ADDED FOR ANTI FREEZE
SENSITIVITY
10 -3 Std. CC / Sec SHOP / FIELD CONDN. 10 -5 Std. CC / Sec LAB CONDN.
133
PREPARATION OF SPCIMEN / COMPONENT

CLEANING FREE FROM OIL, GREASE, PAINT SEALING OF OPENINGS SOAK TIME REC. 15 Min SPECIAL TECH.
HEATING OF SEALED COMP., APPLY SOLN. PARTIAL VAC. CREATION ON TEST LIQ. CRYOGENIC IMMERSION & TESTING AT AMB. TEM. SOL.
VACUUM TECH. FOR BUBBLE TESTING

VAC. CHAMBER SUITABLE FOR COMP. VAC. BOX METHOD FOR LARGE & ODD COMP.
135
136
137
HALOGEN LEAK TESTING

RESPONDS TO MOST GASEOUS COMPOUNDS THAT CONTAINS HALOGEN HALOGENS Cl, F, Br, I TOXIC NON-TOXIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS PREFERRED REFREGERENT 12 [R12] & R 22 USED
R 12 Dichlorodifluromethane R 22 Monochlorodifluromethane R 12 & R 22 are non-toxic inert tracers Common Names: Freon, Genetron, Isotron
STORED IN LIQUIDS UNDER PR. AT ROOM TEMP.
138
GAS PROPERTIES
Properties Chemical Formula Molecular Wt Leakage rate relative ti Air Boiling Pt at atm pr. C Boiling Pt at atm pr. F Liquid density at boiling pt. kg/m3 Liquid density at boiling pt.lb/ft3 Liquid density at 21 C kg/m3 Liquid density at 70F lb/ft3 Vapour pr. Above refrigerant at 21 C kPa gauge R 12 CCl2F2 120.9 1.5 -29.8 -21.6 1486 92.8 1413 82.6 483 R 22 CHClF2 86.4 1.5 -40.8 -41.4 1413 88.2 1209 75.5 842
139
TYPES OF DETECTORS HALIDE TORCH HEATED ANODE HALOGEN DETECTOR ELECTRON CAPTURE DETECTOR HALIDE TORCH DETECTOR
NORMAL FLAME PALE BLUE WITH AIR ALONE GREEN WITH PRESENCE OF HALIDE SENSITIVITY 10 -4 Std. CC / Sec. FOR LOCATION OF LEAKS ON PRESSURISED SYSTEM SCAN ALWAYS FROM TOP
TYPES OF DETECTORS
RED HOT PLATINUM, AND CERAMIC HEATER ELEMENTS ASSY EMITS +VE IONS CYLINDRICAL CATHODS COLLECTD IONS HALOGEN VAPOURS INCREASES EMMISSION ALSO INCREASES THEREBY INDICATION OF LEAK REFREGENT GASES Cl, Fl ETC. SENSITIVITY 10 -9 Std. CC / Sec.
141
142
MASS SPECTROMETER LEAK DETECTOR

MOST SENSITIVE & ACCURATE PORTABLE SUITABLE FOR ALL TYPES OF COMPONENTS MSLD CONSISTS MASS SPECTROMETER HIGH VACUUM SYSTEM ELECTRONIC CONTROLS PORTS FOR STD. LEAK & COMPONENTS LEAK TESTING METHODS VACUUM LEAK TESTING PRESSURE LEAK TESTING PRESSURE VACUUM COMBINATION
143
NDE in Various Levels

NDE is used in design to understand the effect of discontinuity during operation / service condition The discontinuity type, size and orientation is very much important for design consideration NDE used in pre-service and in-service inspection to assess the integrity of the components / system during commissioning and service NDE is used for Component / System life prediction and life extension
APPLIED STRESS
YIELD TENSILE STRENGTH
(a) The Strength of materials approach
Factor of safety Even with large factor of safety Failures and accidentsMaterial behave differently in presence of defects
NDT & Fracture Mechanics Fracture mechanics approach damage tolerance approach (propagates the idea of live with discontinuities) A material property, fracture toughness (KIc) is defined and this characterizes the material behaviour in presence of discontinuities which the earlier strength of materials design approach has not taken into account. KIc can be experimentally determined The stress intensity factor (KI) the stress distribution around a discontinuity is given by KI = G a where G is geometric constant, is the working stress and a is flaw size Failure criteria : KI = or > KIc
To determine KI,, flaw size information needed and is provided by NDT Life extension and life prediction methods flaw size
APPLIED STRESS
YIELD TENSILE STRENGTH
(a) The Strength of materials approach
APPLIED STRESS
FLAW SIZE
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
(b) The Fracture Mechanics approach Comparison of classical design philosophy with fracture mechanics approach
NDE
NDE is used to inspect pipelines to prevent leaks that could damage the environment. Visual inspection, radiography and electromagnetic testing are some of the NDE methods used.
Remote visual inspection using a robotic crawler.
Magnetic flux leakage inspection. This device, known as a pig, is placed in the pipeline and collects data on the condition of the pipe as it is pushed along by whatever is being transported.
Radiography of weld joints.
148

Non-Destructive Examination 2

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NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION / EVALUATION

NON-DESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION / EVALUATION

ADVANCED NDE METHODS

NRT ADV NDE

LIQUID PENETRANT EXAMINATION

BASIC PRINCIPLE CAPILARY ACTION

MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION

Methods & Means of Generation of Magnetic Field

Magnetic Fields in and around the job

Magnetic Field Strength & Field distribution Demagnetization

Magnetic Particle Testing Techniques

Magnetic Particle Test Equipments & Accessories Equipments

Magnetic Particle Indication

EDDY CURRENT EXAMINATION

ECT PRINCIPLE & COIL ARRANGEMENT

Eddy Current Inspection

Pipe with damage

Variation in Radiographic Density

SOURCES OF RADIATIONS X RAY

Main disadvantage of these sources

GAMMA RAY SOURCES

0.45 (Avg) 0.66

GAMMA CAMERA / EXPOSURE DEVICE

Fluorescent Screens and Filters

Coded Requirements on Image

RADIOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE TIME X Ray

Exposure Chart X - Ray

Variation or Change in Exposure Parameters

Selection of Radiographic Techniques

Radiographic Techniques - Configuration

Image Quality Indicators (IQI) / Penetrameter

Step and Hole

Plate and Hole

Radiographic Quality / Sensitivity

Evaluation of Radiographs / Interpretation

High Energy Radiography

Advanced radiographic Techniques High Resolution Technique

Real Time Radiography (RTR)

0.05 0.08 0.10

Radiation monitoring and Control

Evaluation of Radiographs Some typical Weld Discontinuities

Micro Focal Radiography

Radiographic Image Processing

TYPES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

Transverse / Shear Wave

Surface / Raleigh Wave

Lamb / Plate Wave

WAVE PROPAGATION Transmission, Reflection & Refraction

Oblique Incidence at interface

Mode conversion and critical angles

Wave Propagation Beam Divergence, Near Field, Far Field

Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beam

Effect Of Frequency Beam Characteristics

Attenuation (Absorption / Noise)

Characteristic of Transducer Crystals

Amplifier Time Base Generator Pulse Generator Clock or Timer

CRT Presentation Thk. Length A SCAN B SCAN

Pulse Echo Sound in pulses transmitted and received

Pulse Echo Technique

CALIBRATION OF TESTING SYSTEM

ASTM Reference Blocks

Types of Discontinuities & their Detection Planar

B Distance Amplitude Correction Curve (DAC)