AP EURO Intro Prologue: The West Before 1300 Early Humans and Their Culture The Earth is about

out 6 billion years old Human-like beings walked on the Earth between 3 and 5 million years ago Homo Sapians emerged around 200,000 years ago with the earliest full remains found being 90,000 years old Humans are cultural beings The ways of living built up by a group and passed on from one generation to another Includes behavior, material things, ideas, institutions, and beliefs The Paleolithic Age Lasted from the earliest use of stone tools about one million years ago to about 10,000 People were hunters, gatherers and fishers, but not producers Learned to make sophisticated tools of stone and wood, control and use fire, acquired a language and the ability to pass it on There was a division if labor by sex Men engaged in hunting, fishing, making tools, and fighting against others Women were less mobile because of child bearing Women gathered nuts, berries, and wild grains, wove baskets, and made clothes Women probably discovered how to use seeds for agriculture The Neolithic Age 10,000 years ago, people in the Middle East began to shift away from hunter -gatherer culture and to agricultural culture Invention of pottery made it viable to store surplus foods and liquids Cloth was made from flax and wool Since crops required care, people built permanent structures near the best fields 4,000 years before Mesopotamia, urban centers popped up all over the world There was a mastery of smelting and new ways to make metal and wooden tools Writing was invented These are characteristics of civilization For the first time, humans learned to smelt tin and copper into bronze- called the Bronze Age Early Civilizations to About 1000 B.C.E Mesopotamian Civilization First civilization which arouse in the valley between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers Called Mesopotamia Rich alluvial plains made the production of food surpluses possible Founded by the Sumerians Controlled southern area Fought with each other and their neighbors A people to the North with a Semitic language established a capital and Akkad and absorbed Sumerian culture There was a Sumerian resurgence around 2100 B.C.E.
B.C.E.

Internal dissensions and an invasion by a Semitic people called the Amorites put an end to an identifiable Sumerian group Amorites established capital at Babylon and controlled region around 1900 B.C.E Babylonian Kingdom fell apart around 1600B.C.E. There were invasions from the north by the Hittites and the east by the Kassites Hittites raided and took what they wanted back to their homes in Asia minor Kassites remained and ruled for five centuries Egyptian Civilization Nile River was the center of Egyptian civilization Made life possible in lifeless desert of the Sahara River flooded every year When it receded, it left behind a fertile mud that was good for growing crops Construction and maintenance of irrigation ditches kept rivers water and with careful organization and planning, the Egyptians produced agricultural prosperity that was unmatched at that time Nile provided transportation and united the long country Nature isolated the Egyptians Seas, deserts, cataracts, and other natural things made it difficult for foreigners to reach the Egyptians or conquer them The Kingdoms of Egypt The Old Kingdom Menes unified Upper and Lower Egypt Central control in Egypt was very important because it needed irrigation for survival Lasted from 2700-2200 B.C.E. Royal power was absolute Pharaoh governed through his family and appointed and removed officials at will Peasants were regulated, their movement restricted and burdened by heavy taxes King lived and died in luxury and people raised pharaoh to exalted level Egyptians worked for king because they believed he was a living god upon whom they depended upon Pharaoh was direct source of law and justice Religion dominated Egyptian life and government was merely an aspect of religion By the time of the third dynasty (2125-2027), the pharaohs achieve total supremacy and ruled over internal peace and prosperity Capital at Memphis just above Nile River delta Pharaoh was a living god People were his servants Power of the Kings waned as nobles and priests gained influence and independence Egyptian governors (nomes) gained control of large tracts of lands and they began hereditary passing of their positions Old Kingdom collapsed about 2200 and gave way to chaos in the First Intermediate Period from 2200 to 2052

Governors (nomarchs) of Thebes gained control of Egypt and established the Middle Kingdom 12th dynasty reestablished pharaoh power, but not over nobles Brought order, peace and prosperity to troubled land Encouraged trade Extended Egyptian power north to Palestine and South to Ethiopia The Middle kingdom collapsed in the 13th dynasty Resurgence of local power Started Second Intermediate Period Egypt suffered an invasion in 1700 Hyksos people, Semitic people from the East invaded Hyksos came from a region ranging from Palestine to the Eastern edge of the Mediterranean In 1575, Egypt saw great nationalism as Hyksos were overthrown and the 18th dynasty reunited Egypt Began the New Kingdom Pharaohs created absolute government based in a powerful army and an expanding Egyptian empire because they had been humiliated in 2nd Intermediate Period Expanded to the south and took over Syria, Palestine, and beyond the upper Euphrates River Not checked until they got into a conflict with the Hittite empire of Asia Minor Both powers were weakened, but Egypt survived Was later conquered and re-conquered by different empires Palestine and the Religion of the Israelites People of all three major religions trace their origins to Palestine and people of it before 1200 B.C. E. and the Hebrew Bible Israelites are rarely mentioned in the history of their neighbors and their history is pieced together from sources and the Bible Abraham of Ur in Mesopotamia wandered west around 1900 B.C.E. and came upon the land of the Canaanites Some settled there while other wandered into Egypt They were led out of Egypt by the thirteenth century and wandered in the desert till they reached Canaan Established a united kingdom which peaked under David and Solomon around the tenth century B.C.E. Sons of Solomon split the kingdom into Israel in the north and Judah in the South (capital is Jerusalem) Northern Israel fell to the Assyrians in 722 and its people were lost and scattered In 586, Judah was defeated by the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II Destroyed Temple of Solomon and took thousands of hostages to Babylonia When Persians defeated Babylonia, the Jews were freed and returned to their native land Palestine was ruled by other kingdoms until 1948 when Israel was established Israel would be of little interest if not for its religious achievements Contributed monotheistic God who was creator and ruler of the universe Dates back to the eighteenth century B.C.E. prophets Jewish God is neither a human nor natural force

 Those who believe in him cannot picture him in any form God made a covenant with Abraham that his followers were Gods chosen people and if they followed his laws given to Moses, they would be rewarded Powerful ethical element included in Jewish thought God is ever, but just and requires that people act righteously to achieve a good after-life Prophetic tradition was a powerful ethical force who criticized falling away from the laws and path to righteousness Prophets placed God in history, saying that misfortunes occurred because Jews were unrighteous and promised redemption in the form of a messiah Christians believe messiah was Jesus Christ of Nazareth Jewish religion and beliefs in a righteous god requiring human righteousness is key in western culture The Greeks Western civilization began with the Greeks Northern, Greek-speaking people settled the area surrounded by the Aegean Sea in the second millennium B.C.E. Established new ideas and culture that spread and influenced other region, like the Roman Empire The Greeks of the Classical Age 500-400 B.C.E. The Minoan civilization on the island of Crete was literate and kept records that reveal a king with extensive bureaucracy The Minoans influenced the Mycenaeans who dominated land Greece in the Bronze Age When Mycenaean culture collapsed, Greece enter its Dark Ages The Greeks found cities on all sides of the Mediterranean Sea, but their main focus was the Aegean Sea and the lands around it Cities on the Eastern part of the Mediterranean put Greece in touch with more advanced Eastern civilizations The Polis This was the characteristic Greek institution Began as agricultural villages and many stayed that way, making the term city-state inaccurate All were independent political units The polis was thought of as a community of relatives All citizens belonged to subgroups, clans and tribes even though they came from common ancestors Worshipped common gods in common ceremonies Originally the polis refers to a high rock that was defensible, such as the Acropolis or Acrocorinth of Athens and Corinth High places and surrounding farms originally made up Polis Farmland and availability determined location Well inland and defensible from pirate Later, the agora grew which was the center of Greek social life Marketplace Debate place

Conversations took place The Polis in full flower between 750 and 700 True monarchy had disappeared Kings survived as ceremonial figures only Original polis was an aristocratic republic dominated by a king and nobles Greece vastly expanded from the eighth to the sixth century Learned new techniques from Far East from Syrian trading post Borrowed a writing system from Semitic people and added vowels to make the first Alphabet Colonization gave Greeks a sense of culture Led to establishment of Greek religious ceremonies and festivals Greek religion Believed in many gods Religion played an important role in Greek life Connected to Greek art, literature and life of the polis Greek pantheon consisted of 12 gods that lived on Mount Olympus (Olympians) Each polis was guided by an Olympian and was worshipped specially, but all Greeks worshipped all Gods Each polis has an athletic festival to honor its gods to which all Greeks were invited Did little to attend to human fears, hopes and passions Used other Gods to attend to these characteristics Sparta In 725, Sparta conquered Messenia and reduced the population to serfs or helots A century later, the helots revolted After the revolt, the Spartans were forced to reconsider their way of life Spartans instituted reforms that turned the city into a military academy and camp Reforms attributed to Lycurgus New system exerted direct control over each Spartan from birth to old age Officials decided which infants were physically fit to survive At 7, boys were turned over to instructors to be trained At 20, young men were forced into the army where they lived in the barracks until 30 He could marry, but rarely got to visit his wife Became a full citizen at age 30 Military service was required until 60 Women in Sparta Educated to subordinate themselves to the idea of service to Sparta No military training, but they were required to give their children over for service Nothing could interfere with the ability to win glory and respect of his peers by bravery in war The Spartan constitution Mix of monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy Two kings with limited power Council of elders with judicial powers

Board of five elected ephors who controlled foreign policy, oversaw generalship of kings on campaigns, preside over the assembly, and guarded against helot rebellion Sparta was admired for its stability and its ability to mold people into a single pattern, subordinate to an ideal Athens Athens was typical aristocratic polis in the seventh century Aristocrats held power and had best land Dominated religious and political life Governed by a council of nobles called the Areopagus Economic problems led to political issues in Athens In 594, Solon was given drastic power to revise the constitution Economic reforms that restructured debts and credits Changes to the constitution All male adults whose fathers were citizens were also citizens All citizens were divided into four classes based on wealth Established a Council of Four Hundred to check the power of the Areopagus Established a popular assembly This constitution was overthrown by Pisistratus who established his own rule The idea of democratic polis had been created and would later be used The government of Hippias, son of Pisistratus, was overthrown in 510 and further reforms took place Under taken by founder of Athenian Democracy Clisthenes Made the deme or small towns in the country (the basic unit of civic life) Replaced phratry as evidence of citizenship Further extended the number of people who could become citizens Established a Council of Five Hundred who dealt with foreign policy and finances Final authority rested with the assembly composed of all adult male citizens Debate was free and open Any adult male Athenian could offer legislation and amendments Reforms fosters patriotism amongst people and freedom allowed them to achieve economic prosperity Where ever he lived, the Greek knew that his way of life was different from the monarchs in the east Determined to preserve the polis Defeated King Darius of Persia who tried to put Hippias back in power at the Battle of Marathon in 490 (led by Miltiades) Secured freedom for Athens and gave Athenians confidence Persia tried to reconquer Greece under Xerxes in 480 City states created a defensive league Sparta led land forces and held off Persians at Battle of Thermopolyae Athens led navy and won at Battle of Salamis Under Pericles, the Athenian constitution became more democratic All decisions had to be approved by the popular assembly (the people themselves) Officials decided regardless of class No standing army, police force, and no way to coerce the people

Slaves, women and resident aliens could not participate The Peloponnesian Wars The Division of Greece into two sphere of influence Sparta led a loose alliance Athens led a tight alliance where financial payment replaced military service Athens used money for defense and own purposes Athens controlled alliance power and used it to increase its power, wealth and glory Intense rivalry and occasional conflict characterized the two alliances Peloponnesian war erupted between the two and was recorded by Thucydides Ended in 404 with the defeat of Athens Greek prosperity and confidence never recovered Undermined the polis War, destruction of farmlands, crops, and houses, interruption of commerce, and using up reserves made it impossible to recover to normal civil life Civil strife, class conflict, pressure of want, disease, need for foreign armies and poverty were the legacy People abandoned patriotism, morality and family for factions Democratic revolutions were characterized by confiscations of property, executions, exiles, and atrocities This left permanent scars and destroyed the community feeling necessary for the polis Greek Political Philosophy and the Crisis of Polis Socrates (469-399) Found that people of government had technical information and skill, but lacked an understanding of human behavior Held a contempt for democracy because it relied upon ignorant amateurs to make important decisions People held him in contempt Still believed that polis had legitimate claim on the loyalty an obedience of citizens Realized difficulties of life in the polis and criticized short comings Fought for and sought to put polis on sound foundation of reason Plato (429-347) Pupil of Socrates who became greater then Socrates First to place political ideas in philosophical context Used dialogues to present ideas and created The Academy as center of philosophical research Believed in the Polis and its value Virtues were order, harmony, and justice Main objective was to produce good people Accepted Socrates doctrine of identity of virtue and knowledge and made it clear as to what real knowledge was The episteme were fit to rule People with a body of true and unchanging wisdom, open only a few philosophers whose training, intellect and character allowed them to see reality

These people would prefer life of contemplation, but would accept responsibility to serve Training of these people was outlined in Republic and required specialization of function and a subordination of the individual to the community Justice meant that people should only do what their nature was fit to do Saw that polis suffered from internal stress, class struggle, and factional division Destroy casues of strife and create harmony Private property The family or anything that stood in the way of the citizen and loyalty to the polis Aristotle Founded the Lyceum in Athens Pupils were less concerned with math Focused on gathering, ordering and analyzing all human knowledge Had many subjects Aristotles method Began with empirical evidence Applied reason to evidence to discover inconsistencies and difficulties Introduced metaphysical principles to explain the problems or reconcile inconsistencies He and Plato recognized purposes apart from and greater than the will of individual human beings in nature and social life Believed the purpose of most things could be discovered through observations of behavior whereas Plato believed that purposes lie in ideas Moderate and had common sense Metaphysics gave meaning and reality to the body and mind Knowledge gave room for both reason and experience Ethics aimed at good life while allowing decent wealth and comfort Less interested in the best state than in the best state practically possible Believed in best possible constitution, politeia Moderate and gave power to middle class which should be large Middle class lacked arrogance and malice Combine practical analysis of political and economic realities with moral and political reasoning of the defenders of the polis The ablest defense of the polis came to its demise The Empire of Alexander the Great The conquest of the Greeks by the Macedon Empire in the north brought an end to the polis Ruled by a king who was approved by army and came from a line Under Phillip II, a powerful army was developed Around 355, Phillip began his conquest of Greece with little resistance The Battle of Chaeronea ended Greek autonomy and freedom Phillip was assassinated in 336 and Alexander the Great replaced him Alexander led the army across Asia and conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Persia and Mesopotamia Had plans for consolidation of the empire and building roads, cities and harbors

He died in 323, before his ideas could be utilized His generals fought over the lands he had conquered and there was no real successor Alexander ended the polis as the center of Greek life, but spread Greek culture Greek cities lost political freedom that they had as a foreign monarchy ruled them Greek cities slowly changed from sovereign states to municipalities under military empires

Rome The Republic and Expansion in the Mediterranean From 753 to 509, Rome was ruled by kings In 509, a revolt by nobles replaced the monarchy with a republic Dominated by aristocratic Senate By 265, the Romans had conquered most of southern and central Italy Did not destroy Latin cities or kill people Towns near Rome were given citizenship statue Others became municipalities Citizens retained the right to local self government and could become a citizen by moving to Rome Followed Rome in foreign policy and sent troops to fight in the Roman legion Some became allied with Rome through treaty Provided troops which served under Roman officers Did not pay taxes to Rome Romans placed colonies on some conquered lands Veterans were placed there Retained citizenship Enjoyed home rule Served as a garrison to suppress rebellion Status of conquered lands was not permanent which made conquered lands hold out for new status and gave them a stake in the future of Rome Made most allies remain loyal even when put to the deepest test The Punic Wars Romes expansion brought it nose to nose with Carthage to the south Rome and Carthage fought two Punic Wars (264-241 and 218-202) Rome was victorious in both, but at great cost and ruled the entire western Mediterranean The Romans than turned to the east and Alexanders Empire By 168, the Romans governed Greece as a kingdom protectorate Expansion was done unplanned New territories were acquired as a result of wars that Romans felt were defensive or preventive Foreign policy was aimed at securing Rome and neighbors generally did not agree, leading to conflict Expansion led to various political problems Romans made Sicily, Sardinia, Spain and Corsica provinces Subjects were not Romans and simply paid tribute Extending citizenship stopped at the borders of Italy

Roman expansion changed Roman culture and political life Started close association with the Greeks Romans admired Greek art, literature, and philosophy, but hated its politics Roman religion was close to Greek religion from the start Adopted Greek philosophy as well Rome conquered Greece militarily while Greece conquered Rome culturally From Republic to Empire New overseas political and economic problems undermined the Roman constitution During the Punic Wars, farm lands were destroyed and bought up by wealthy nobles Returning veterans did not have land and settled in urban areas People of Rome became divided into poor and rich, haves and have nots and privileged and deprived By 133, political leaders realized something had to be done Between 133 and 121, brother Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus tried to carry out limited land redistribution Met intense and violent opposition Both were killed as land owners looked to protect their interests Political and military turmoil characterized the empire Those who gained power had the backings of their armies Marius (157-86) defeat roman enemies in North Africa Sulla (138-78) established a dictatorship after military victories One successful general served as example for other ambitious ones Unequal distribution of wealth and land meant more people were willing to serve in the army The Roman Senate no longer truly controlled the army By the middle of the first century, Gnaeus Pompey and Julius Caesar were struggling for power They tried to share political power, but all cooperation stopped by 49 Caesar defied the Roman Senate and led his army across the Rubicon River He defeated the Senate and Pompey in a civil war Caesar governed Rome alone until his assassination in 44 Caesars nephew Octavian took control after Caesars death and became the leader of Rome after his naval victory at Actium The Principate and the Empire Octavian realized that he cannot hold complete power like his uncle Created a political structure Appeared to share power with the Senate and people of Rome In reality, he was a monarch and his government was a monarchy Senate called him the first citizen and heaped upon him important political powers and honors Gave him semi-religious title Augustus Historians know refer to Romes first emperor as Augustus and his government as the principate Union of political and military power gave Rome the ability to install rational, efficient, and stable government in the provinces Augustus gave great prosperity

Brought in wealth by the conquest of Egypt during civil war Increase in commerce and industry made peace possible and gave way to vast public works projects Return to successful small farming The high point of Roman culture came under Augustus Cicero gave orations in courts and in the Senate Wrote treatises on rhetoric, ethics, and politics which combine Greek philosophy with Roman values Believed in world government by divine and natural law that human reason could perceive and human institutions reflect Left important legacy for Middle Ages and the Renaissance Last great Roman voice of the republic Vergil was the most important Augustan poet Aeneid was his greatest work Glorified the civic greatness represented by Augustus and the peace and prosperity that he brought to Rome The problem of Augustuss successors was the position of the ruler and his relation to the everyday person Augustus tried to hide his monarchy, but his successors abandoned pretenses Rulers were called imperator and Caesar Augustus could not legally name a successor because his power came from the people and was voted to him by the Senate Designating heirs by giving them shares in imperial powers and responsibilities Augustus could enlist the active cooperation of the upper class and the Senate, which made him successful Election of magistrates was moved to the Senate Senate became major center for legislation Exercised important judicial powers The Senates real power was illusionary and was a legislative and administrative extension of emperors power Provinces accepted Roman rule easily and flourished economically In the East, emperor was considered a God and he was dedicated in Italy Imperial policy combine was to unify the empire but still respect local customs and differences Roman citizenship spread and almost all people were citizens by 212 C.E. Latin became the language in the west The East spoke Greek and adopted Greek culture while still respecting and adopting roman aspects of life The army played an important role in the spread of Roman culture and religion Legionnaires married local women and settled in that province when their term was over Administratively, Rome was a collection of small towns and cities with little to do with the countryside Roman policy was to raise urban centers to the status of municipalities with the rights and privileges attached to them Left responsibility in the hands of local councils and magistrates elected by the local aristocracy

Romans enlisted the upper class of the provinces in their government Spread roman law and culture Won the loyalty of influential people The first two centuries were the Golden Age Difficult times were ahead though Literary effort reveal flight from reality and the present to the past and romanticism Zeal of the upper class to serve their community as local officials disappeared Emperor had to intervene to correct abuses and force nobles to serve People did not want to serve because they had to collect the taxes and revenues for the emperor Magistrates even fled to avoid their offices The wealth that was brought in during the civil war and from the east could not sustain itself There was a decline in population Cost of government continued to increase Emperors had to maintain a standing army Subsidize food and entertainment to keep people of Rome happy Pay for bureaucracy To wage defensive wars against barbarians attacking borders This caused the emperor to raise taxes, increase pressure on subjects, and bring inflation by debasing Roman currency Christianity The Peace, stability and prosperity of Roman Empire made rise of Christianity possible Jesus was born in Bethlehem in the time of Augustus in Judaea Effective teacher in the tradition of the Jewish prophets Jesus had success and won a following which caused suspicion among upper class Message of love, charity and humility along with criticism of the Jewish religious practices angered religious community Jesus was put to death around Jerusalem in C.E. 30 He rose on the third day His religion was spread passed Palestine to the rest of the Mediterranean by Paul of Tarsus It was especially popular with poor and uneducated in inner cities At first, the churches and organizations were not very well organized By second century C.E. Christians accepted the authority and leadership of a bishop Extended power over Christian communities in overlying towns Further strengthened by the doctrine of Apostolic Succession which said power that Jesus gave disciples was passed on to bishops The religion did not have the trust of the pagan world or the imperial government Little persecution occurred in the first two centuries Division was the greatest threat Majority haled to conservative, traditional beliefs This became the Catholic Church Its teachings were deemed orthodox and others were heretics Canon had been created that included the Old Testament, the Gospel, and the Epistles of Paul by the end of the second century

The church was the depository of Christian teaching and the bishops were the receivers Drew up creeds to which Christians should adhere Orthodox Christians had to accept the creeds, cannons of holy writings, and bishop authority Rome became the most important center of Christianity Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire By the time that Christianity was established, Rome had entered a period of instability known as the crisis of the third economy There were massive pressures on Romes frontiers Persians pressed from the East German endangered the north and the west When the empire moved force to one area, it weakened another The roman empire became composed of slaves, gladiators, barbarians and convicts forced to fight The emperor was dependant on the military for power Military spending put massive economic pressure on Rome There was no credit financing Emperor compelled the people to provide food, supplies, money, and labor Upper classmen were forced to serve and cover budget caps from their own pockets The changes in authority, army, and tax systems undermined the authority and the morality of the ruling class The Emperor Diocletian broke up the empire into four administrative units at the end of the third century Each had its own ruler and capital It was not affective Constantine temporarily reunited the empire Established his capital at Constantinople in 330 Fracturing resulted in empires east and west halves acting as independent entities East became the Byzantine empire and thrived in the 15th century The west became rural and subject to increasingly barbarian attacks at the same time (this side was really where the decline happened) The villa, a fortified country estate became the basic unit of life Coloni were personal landowners who gave their service to local magnate in return for economic assistance and protection Cities shrank to tiny, walled fortresses ruled by military commanders and bishops Lack of roads and increase in crime from robbers led to a decline in trade and communication, leading to greater self reliance and more primitive styles of life The Christian church was the only thing that provided unity The new central position of the christen church was deeply rooted in political and cultural turmoil People turned to various kinds of religion, including Christianity Traditional religious institutions collapsed Christianity offered a rich and attractive philosophy Had a God who had suffered, died, was resurrected, mystical,

 Had sacred rites, a moral code, a strong sense of community, spiritual equality amongst gender, wealth, A promise of immortality The church was efficient and its doctrines of man under a loving Gods were attractive The church prospered in the 3rd century, but it was briefly persecuted as well In 303, Diocletian persecuted the church It backfired and generated sympathy for the Christians Constantine began to look to the Christian God He won at the Battle of Milvian Bridge This resulted in his support of the Christian cause He did not outlaw pagan worship, but he tolerated Christians and gave various official privileges to the church After him, only one emperor did not support Christians Theodosius forbade the celebration of pagan cults and abolished pagan calendars After his death, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire This establishment of the church aroused new problems Favored position of the church attracted converts for the wrong reason Problem of the relationship between church and state arose Christianity might fall under the stat3 It had first been erected when government was crumbling In 378, emperor Valens was defeated by German tribes at the Battle of Adrianople The Romans passively permitted settlement after settlement of barbarians In 410, Rome was sacked by Visigoths In 476, Romulus Augustulus was replaced by barbarian Odoacer, marking the end of the Roman Empire Power passed from Rome to chieftains in different areas Europe Enters the Middle Ages The barbarians now controlled the west, but they were willing to learn The Romans retained their culture The German and Roman cultures were fused during German invasion, but Roman culture was stronger Collapse of the Roman Empire marked the beginning of the Middle Ages in the west Early Middle Ages 476-1000 Birth of distinct western culture Period of recovery from the collapse of the Roman empire Force experimentation with new ideas and new institutions Western European culture was a mix of surviving Graeco-Roman, new Germanic, and evolving Christianity Experimentation required because of invasions, local political and economic turmoil, the replacement of paganism with Christianity, and the new threat of militant Islam The Byzantine Empire Power shifted to the Eastern half of the roman empire centered in Constantinople

Between 324 and 1453, the empire expanded into splendor and then contracted and collapsed Between 324 and 632, the empire saw greatest territorial expansion and it political and cultural golden age Roman law was collated and revised under Justinian to aid the growth of central government Constantinople became the cultural crossroads of the East Islamic Armies began to besiege the empire Emperor Leo II repelled them, but made Christians upset by forbidding the use of images in churches Contributed to the schism between Western and Eastern Christianity In 1071, the Seljuk Turks overran the eastern provinces of the empire Western Christians sacked Constantinople in 1204 The Ottoman Turks took over Constantinople in 1453 and ended the empire The Rise of Islam Muhammad was the founder of Islam Became prophet at 40 Religion was named Islam Adherents are called Muslims Use Quran as religious text Islam recognizes Jesus, but believes him to be another prophet and not son of god Monotheistic Islam as a religion Must pray 5 times a day Generous almsgivings required Fasting during the daylight hours during one month Must make a pilgrimage to Mecca Able to forge an Arab culture and imposed it by force making it a spiritual force that unified the Arabs By the middle of the eighth century, Muslims had conquered the southern and Eastern Mediterranean as well as parts of Spain and had pushed into Mesopotamia, Persia, and beyond Caused Europeans to develop a lasting suspicion of Muslims Army led by Charles Martel defeat Arabs at Poitiers Prevented further Muslim incursion Resulted in less trade and Muslim dominance of the Mediterranean New Importance of the Christian Church The control of the Mediterranean by the Muslims resulted in a distinctive western cultural Shipping in the Mediterranean and Mediterranean cities decreased People who would be engaged in shipping moved into the inner region and farmed on lands of great land owners Domains of these landholders became the basic social, political and economic units of society The Christian church became more important Local bishops and the church filled the vacuum caused by a lack of authority

Local cathedral became the center of urban life Local bishop became the highest officials in cities The church had the hierarchical structure and the educated people scattered throughout the empire Church strengthened itself through monasticism Purest forms of religious practices in the Middle Ages Evolved into the belief that clergy were superior to the state Bishops also made a claim to power within the church itself They were always opposed to intervention by the state Took advantage of imperial weakness and distraction to develop papal primacy Raised roman pontiff to supremacy in the church when defining orthodox church doctrine and practice Put Pope in position to make secular claims which conflicted with the state Charlemagne There was an absence of political leadership in the Middle Ages There was a struggle between the king looking for loyalty from his local people and the groups of magistrates to preserve local autonomy and local customs There was only one person who achieved centralized power during this time period: the Frankish King Charlemagne Charlemagne Kingdom included France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, western Germany, Italy and Corsica Developed strong political ties with local nobles and the church Was considered churchs protector Crowned Emperor on Christmas 800 by Pope Leo III This created a revival of Western Roman Empire called the Holy Roman Empire He ruled through is counts Strategically located within administrative districts Counts were often local magnates who had guns and self-interest to enforce the rules of the king They were never completely loyal or completely controlled politically Acquired great wealth through looting and conquered lands Used it to attract scholars to capital of Aachen Wanted them to use skills to upgrade skills of clerics and bureaucrats Rebirth of antiquity occurred as scholars collected, studied, and preserved ancient manuscripts After the death of Charlemagne and his son, Louis the Pious, the kingdom was divided into three equal parts by the Treaty of Verdun The Middle section called Lotharingia which composed Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Alsace and Lorraine, and Italy The Western Section was made of modern France The Eastern Section was made of Germany Long term loyalty to the monarch of various regions was unattainable Monarchs fought each other and nobles looked out for their own interest The papacy lost its power as it backed one king after another in an attempt to keep political power

There were attacks from the Scandinavian Vikings to the north, the Magyars to the east, and the Muslims in the South Local populations became reliant on local strongmen for protection Feudal and Manorial Society Middle Ages were a time of fragmentation and decentralization in which the weak sought protection from the strong Feudal Society refers to the social, political, military, and economic system that emerged in response to these conditions A regional prince or local lord is dominant Mutual trust and fidelity are the highest virtues People need assurance that they can rely on others in dire situations The Vassalage and the Fief Vassalage involved a promise to refrain from actions that may in any way threaten the lords well-being and to perform for him when he please (usually military aid) After this, a person was granted a fief A fief is the physical and material wherewithal to meet the vassals obligations Take the form of liquid wealth More likely, it was a grant of land This sometimes resulted in confusion One vassal could be the vassal of multiple lords Personal loyalty and service became secondary to acquiring land The Manorial System Became prominent where feudalism did not Village farms owned by landlords were called manors Peasants labored under a lord who gave them land and tenements in return for their service and a portion of the crops Some peasants were free and had their own and They had certain rights despite giving land and service to a landlord Those who entered without any land were unfree serfs Serfs owed labor to their lord multiple days of the week They had to pay certain dues as well Serfs were discontent and escaped multiple times Church and State in the High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages (1000-1300) Mark a period of political expansion and consolidation Also saw intellectual flowering The borders of Europe were secured against invaders There was also the emergence oof monarchies in the major countries Parliaments also appeared to secure the rights of the nobles, clergy, and townspeople against the monarchy There was a revival of commerce, the growth of towns, emergence of a rich merchant class, and the ancestors of modern capitalists The Pope and the church also established itself as the authority independent of secular monarchs Occurred during the Investiture Struggle Church had internal reforms as well led by monastery of Cluny

Demanded higher moral standards of clergy Required separation of church and state Political officials had previously appointed bishops Under Pope Gregory VII, the papacy declared its independence Bishops were to be installed by ecclesiastical power in the church and empowered by the pope Concordat of Worms in 1122 found that the Pope would give bishops their religious powers and politicians gave them their lands The clergy became independent and the pope asserted itself as an independent power The Division of Christendom From the start, there was a difference in language and culture between the western and eastern church Eastern patriarchs had a strong mystical orientation and submitted to the church In the west, the pope refused to submit to secular monarchs West required celibacy, whereas the east allowed priests, but not bishops to take wives East used leavened bread whereas the west used unleavened East objected to the wests description of the holy spirit and its use of icons There was a more severe conflict though East put more emphasis on the Bible and ecumenical council than the pope and Roman primacy Roman popes claimed they had power based on Bible stories East would not accept this East preferred local autonomy of the church The Rise of Towns Thanks to an improved climate, agricultural expansion and an end to invasion, the population of Europe began to grow Resulted in the rebirth and the creation of Roman towns In the Middle Ages, the seaports of Italy had maintained trade and culture better than others This resulted in a new merchant class which achieve greatest success after the First Crusade Bourgeois first appeared as a negative term to describe the newly powerful townspeople New addition to the traditional social ranks of knight, cleric, and serf First designated merchant groups who made prosperity around old Roman towns and cities They were condemned by the clergy because they were in banking and trade Nobility was also threatened because merchants had found a new way to make money that threatened their political and social power Common people admired the merchants and saw their success as making economic opportunity for them New towns became magnets for skilled and ambitious peasants Gain freedom from serfdom Found new vocations Some peasants experienced new social mobility and became gentlemen

Merchants disliked the traditional laws and customs which gave clergy and nobility special privilege Notions of morality and work threatened urban life and further progress Merchants lobbied for commercial freedom wherever they settled They had support of the townspeople Against tolls, tariffs, and petty regulation that restricted trade and commercial activity People wanted a government in which tradesmen and craftsmen determined policy Policy made by overlords was exploiting towns and not nurturing growth This brought towns into conflict with static agriculture Merchant Guilds and protective associations sprang up to advance business interests and the well-being of their members Towns also allied with kings against the nobility and townspeople became a force to break feudal system The Crusades In 1095, Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade at Clermont in France Liberate the Holy Land from the Muslims Promised a release from mortal sin and suffering in purgatory should they die Three great armies and tens of thousands from France, Italy and Germany gathered and converged on the Middle East They captured Jerusalem in 1099 Jerusalem again felt to Muslims by the Middle of the next century Other Crusades were attempted, but never achieve success Later crusades stimulated trade between east and west and merchants of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice benefited The Rise of New Monarchies Monarchies began to establish their authorities againt the nobility There were different degrees of authority in every country, but all had authority over law, military affairs, and taxation England William, Duke of Normandy, conquered England in 1066 by defeating the AngloSaxon Army at Hastings William was crowned King of England by right and hereditary claims He also remained Duke of Normandy, giving him extensive lands in France He organized the new nation shrewdly Subjected noble vassals to the crown, but consulted with them about questions regarding the state Balance between monarchial rule and noble elements in the political body Williams successors pressed their authority more boldly against the church and the nobility Henry II aroused strong opposition to Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury Henrys agents killed Becket in his cathedral English resistance to monarchy turned into rebellion under the brother Richard the Lion-Hearted and John Crusades to the Holy Land put high taxation on the nation

Johns conflicts with the Pope led to his excommunication and English exclusion from the church which resulted in a lack of services Rebellion led to the Magna Carta in 1215 The Magna Carta Victory of the English noblemen, clergy, and towns over the monarchy Restored the internal political balance The monarchy remained intact with power as well France English conquests in Normandy roused the French and made it possible for the Capetian Dynasty to make a true monarchy after the Frank Dynasty ended William of Normandy was a vassal of the French king when he took England French Kings were concerned about their power Louis VI made an alliance with Flanders Louis VII found allies in Northern cities and amassed huge wealth to build a royal army Philip II Augustus inherited resources and bureaucracy from his predecessors Resisted French nobility Focused upon retaking French land from the English He defeated the English in the first great battle of Europe at Bouvines on June 27, 1214 Victory unified France around the monarchy and laid foundations for future French political and military ascendancy Louis IXs piety lent moral authority to the monarchy Bureaucracy shifted from a tool of exploitation to an instrument of order and justice in France French associated the king with justice and grew national pride and close to him Holy Roman Empire The empire consisted of Germany, Burgundy, and Northern Italy Two centuries of feuding and disunity resulted in German fragmented until modern times Fredrick I Barbarossa established the Hohenstaufen Dynasty, succeeding the Ottonians He set out to reestablish power of the emperors after a long conflict between the church and state called the investiture controversy Led to fierce feuds between church and state Popes excommunicated Fredrick II four times and the feud became deadly before he was removed and defeated by German princes After, Germany was politically primitive to other European countries The church launched a new invasion into power in Europe Occurred especially under Pope Innocent IV Church became criticized for political self-aggrandizement The Emerging Contours of Europe The political contours of Europe that would exist from 1300 to 1500 were about set France and England had stable monarchies which competed economically and politically

Holy Roman emperors preside over the princes instead of ruling The papacy still exuded almost monarchial power In Italy, there were independent city-states that were the chief political units There was strong Arab presence and influence in the Mediterranean The Byzantine Empire remained intact Europe was experiencing strong political stability Universities and Scholasticism An important intellectual flowering occurred from 1100 to 1300 Thanks to Spanish Muslims, the works of Aristotle, the writings of Euclid and Ptolemy, basic works of Greek physicians, works of Arab mathematicians, and large texts of Roman law were available to western scholars Muslims preserved, translated and interpreted these documents This led to the rise of universities in Europe The first important university was founded at Bologna in 1158, specializing in law University of Paris was founded in 1200 and focused on theology Oxford, Cambridge and Heidelberg were founded later Universities required foundation in liberal arts for further study Trivium consisted of grammar, rhetoric and logic Quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music Aristotles works deeply influenced Europe Logic and dialectic tools triumphed over liberal arts Scholars read the teachings of those in their field, summarized and drew their own conclusions Critics feared that logic threatened biblical and other church authority

Chapter 9: The Late Middle Ages The Black Death Preconditions and Causes of the Plague Popular Remedies Social and Economic Consequences New Conflicts and Opportunities The Hundred Years War and the Rise of National Sentiment The Causes of the War Progress of the War Ecclesiastical Breakdown and Revival: The Late Medieval Church The Thirteenth Century Papacy Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair

The Avignon Papacy (1309-1377) John Wycliffe and john Huss The Great Schism (1378-1417) and the Conciliar Movement to 1449 Medieval Russia Politics and Society Mongol Rule (1243-1480) In Perspective Chapter 10: Renaissance and Discovery The Renaissance in Italy The Italian City-State Humanism Renaissance Art Slavery in the Renaissance Italys Political Decline: The French Invasions (1494-1527) Charles VIIIs March Through Italy Pope Alexander VI and the Borgia Family Pope Julius II Niccol Machiavelli The Revival of Monarchy in Northern Europe France Spain England The Holy Roman Empire The northern Renaissance The Printing Press Erasmus Humanism and Reform Voyages of Discoveries and the New Empires in the West and East The Portuguese Chart the Course The Spanish Voyages of Columbus The Spanish Empire in the New World The Church in Spanish America The Economy of Exploitation The Impact on Europe In Perspective Chapter 11: The Age of Reformation Society and Religion Social and Political Conflict Popular Religious Movements and Criticism of the Church Martin Luther and the German Reformation to 1525 Justification by Faith Alone The Attack on Indulgences Election of Charles V Luthers Excommunication and the Diet of Worms Imperial Distractions: War with France and the Turks How the Reformation Spread The Peasants Revolt The Reformation Elsewhere

Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation Anabaptists and Radical Protestants John Calvin and the Genevan Reformation Political Consolidation of the Lutheran Reformation The Diet of Augsburg The Expansion of the Reformation Reaction Against Protestants The Peace of Augsburg The English Reformation to 1553 The Preconditions of Reform The Kings Affair The Reformation Parliament Wives of Henry VIII The Kings Religious Conservatism The Protestant Reformation under Edward VI Catholic Reform and the Counter-Reformation Sources of Catholic Reform Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits The Council of Trent (1545-1563) The Social Significance of the Reformation in Western Europe The Revolution in religious Practices and Institutions The Reformation and Education The Reformation and the Changing Role of Women Family Life in Early Modern Europe Later Marriages Arranged Marriages Family Size Birth Control Wet Nursing Loving Families? Literary Imagination in Translation Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: Rejection of Idealism William Shakespeare: Dramatist of the Age In Perspective Chapter 12: The Age of Religious Wars Renewed Religious Struggles The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) Appeal of Calvinism Catherine de Mdicis and the Guises The Rise to Power of Henry of Navarre The Edict of Nantes Imperial Spain and Philip II (R. 1556-1598) Pillars of Spanish Power The Revolt in the Netherlands England and Spain (1553-1603) Mary I (r. 1553-1558) Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

 Preconditions for War Four Periods of War The Treaty of Westphalia In Perspective Chapter 13: European State Consolidation in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries The Netherlands: Golden Age to Decline Urban Prosperity Economic Decline Two Models of European Political Development Constitutional Crisis and Settlement in Stuart England James I Charles I The Long Parliament and Civil War Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan Republic Charles II and Restoration of the Monarchy The Glorious Revolution The Age of Walpole Rise of absolute Monarchy in France: The World of Louis XIV Years of Personal Rule Versailles King by Divine Right Louiss Early Wars Louiss Repressive Religious Policies Louiss Later Years France After Louis XIV Central and Eastern Europe Poland: Absence of Strong Authority The Habsburg Empire and the Pragmatic Sanction Prussia and the Hohenzollerns Russia Enters the European Political Arena The Romanov Dynasty Peter the Great The Ottoman Empire Religious Toleration and Ottoman Government The End of Ottoman Expansion In Perspective Chapter 14: New Directions in Thought and Culture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries The Scientific Revolution Nicolaus Copernicus Rejects an Earth-Centered Universe Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler Make New Scientific Discoveries Galileo Galilei Argues for a Universe of Mathematical Laws Isaac Newton Discovers the Laws of Gravitation Philosophy Responds to Changing Science Nature as Mechanism Francis Bacon: The Empirical Method Ren Descartes: The Method of Rational Deduction Thomas Hobbes: Apologist for absolute Government John Locke: Defender of Moderate Liberty and Toleration

 The New Institutions of Expanding Natural Knowledge Women in the World of the Scientific Revolution The New Science and Religious Faith The Case of Galileo Blaise Pascal: Reason and Faith The English Approach to Science and Religion Continuing Superstition Witch-Hunts and Panic Village Origins Influence of the Clergy Who Were the Witches? End of the Witch-Hunts Baroque Art In Perspective Chapter15: Society and Economy Under the Old Regime in the Eighteenth Century Major Feature of Life in the Old Regime Maintenance of Tradition Hierarchy and Privilege The Aristocracy Varieties of Aristocratic Privilege Aristocratic Resurgence The Land and Its Tillers Peasants and Serfs Aristocratic Domination of the Countryside: The English Game Laws Family Structure and the Family Economy Households The Family Economy Women and the Family Economy Children and the World of the Family Economy The Revolution in Agriculture New Crops and New Methods Expansion of the Population The Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century A Revolution in Consumption Industrial Leadership in Great Britain New Methods of Textile Production The Steam Engine Iron Production The Impact of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions on Working Women The Growth of Cities Patterns of Preindustrial Urbanization Urban Classes The Urban Riot The Jewish People: The Age of the ghetto In Perspective Chapter 16: The Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion Periods of European Overseas Empires Mercantile Empires

Mercantilist Goals French-British Rivalry The Spanish Colonial System Colonial Government Trade Regulation Colonial Reform Under the Spanish Bourbon Monarchs Black African Slavery, the Plantation System, and the Atlantic Economy The African Presence in the Americas Slavery and the Transatlantic Economy The Experience of Slavery Mid-Eighteenth Century Wars The War of Jenkinss Ear The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) The Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 The Seven Years War (1756-1763) The American Revolution and Europe Resistance to the Imperial Search for Revenue The Crisis and Independence American Political Ideas Events in Great Britain Broader Impact of the American Revolution In Perspective Chapter 17: The Age of Enlightenment Formative Influences on the Enlightenment Ideas of Newton and Locke The Example of British Toleration and Political Stability The Emergence of a Print Culture The Philosophes Voltaire-First Among the Philosophes The Enlightenment and Religion Deism Toleration Radical Enlightenment Criticism of Christianity Jewish Thinkers in the Age of Enlightenment Islam in Enlightenment Thought The Enlightenment and Society The Encyclopedia: Freedom and Economic Improvement Beccaria and Reform of Criminal Law The Physiocrats and Economic Freedom Adam Smith on Economic Growth and Social Progress Political Thoughts of the Philosophes Montesquieu and Spirit of the Laws Rousseau: A Radical Critique of Modern Society Enlightened Critics of European Empires Women in the Thought and Practice of the Enlightenment Rococo and Neoclassical Styles in Eighteenth-Century Art Enlightened Absolutism Fredrick the Great of Prussia

 Joseph II of Austria Catherine the Great of Russia The Partition of Poland The End of the Eighteenth Century in Central and Eastern Europe In Perspective Chapter 18: The French Revolution The Crisis of the French Monarchy The Monarchy Seeks New Taxes Neckers Report Calonnes Reform Plan and the Assembly of Notables Deadlock and the Calling of the Estates General The Revolution of 1789 The Estates General Becomes the National Assembly Fall of the Bastille The Great Fear and the night of August 4 The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen The Parisian Womens March on Versailles The Reconstruction of France Political Reorganization Economic Policy The Civil Constitution of the Clergy Counterrevolutionary Activities The End of the Monarchy: A Second Revolution Emergence of the Jacobins The Convention and the Role of the Sans-culottes Europe at War with the Revolution Edmund Burke Attacks the Revolution Suppression of Reform in Britain The Second and Third Partitions of Poland, 1793, 1795 The Reign of Terror War with Europe The Republic Defended The Republic of Virtue and Robespierres Justification of Terror Repression of the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women De-Christianization Revolutionary Tribunals The End of the Terror The Thermidorian Reaction Establishment of the Directory Removal of the Sans-culottes from Political Life In Perspective Chapter 19: The Age of Napoleon and the Triumph of Romanticism The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte Early Military Victories The Constitution of the Year VIII The Consulate in France (1799-1804) Suppressing Foreign Enemies and Domestic Opposition Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church

 The Napoleonic Code Establishing a Dynasty Napoleons Empire (1804-1814) Conquering an Empire The Continental System European Response to the Empire German Nationalism and Prussian Reform The Wars of Liberation The Invasion of Russia European Coalition The Congress of Vienna and the European Settlement Territorial Adjustments The Hundred Days and the Quadruple Alliance The Romantic Movement Romantic Questioning of the Supremacy of Reason Rousseau and Education Kant and Reason Romantic Literature The English Romantic Writers The German Romantic Writers Romantic Art The Cult of the Middle Ages and Neo-Gothicism Nature and the Sublime Religion in the Romantic Period Methodism New Directions in Continental Religion Romantic Views of Nationalism and History Herder and Culture Hegel and History Islam, the Middle East, and romanticism In Perspective Chapter 20: The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform (1815-1832) The Challenges of Nationalism and Liberalism The Emergence of Nationalism Early-Nineteenth-Century Political Liberalism Conservative Governments: the Domestic Political Order Conservative Outlooks Liberalism and Nationalism Resisted in Austria and the Germanies Postwar Repression in Great Britain Bourbon Restoration in France The Conservative International Order The Congress System The Spanish Revolution of 1820 Revolt Against Ottoman Rule in the Balkans The War of Independence in Latin America Revolution in Haiti Wars of Independence on the South American Continent Independence in New Spain

 Brazilian Independence The Conservative Order Shaken in Europe Russia: The Decembrist Revolt of 1825 Revolution in France(1830) Belgium Becomes Independent (1830) The Great Reform Bill in Britain (1832) In Perspective Chapter 21: Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1820-1850) Towards an Industrial Society Population and Migration Railways The Labor Force The Emergence of a Wage-Labor Force Working-Class Political Action: The Example of British Chartism Family Structure and the industrial Revolution The Family in the Early Factory System Women in the Early Industrial Revolution Opportunities and Exploitation in Employment Changing Expectations in the Working-Class Marriage Problems of Crime and Order New Police Forces Prison Reform Classical Economics Malthus on Population Ricardo on Wages Government Policies Based on Classical Economics Early Socialism Utopian Socialism Anarchism Marxism 1848: Year of Revolutions France: The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon The Hapsburg Empire: Nationalism Resisted Italy: Republicanism Defeated Germany: Liberalism Frustrated In Perspective Chapter 22: The Age of Nation States The Crimean War (1853-1856) Peace Settlement and Long-Term Results Reforms in the Ottoman Empire Italian Unification Romantic Republicans Cavours policy The New Italian State German Unification Bismarck The Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire (1870-1871) France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic

 The Paris Commune The Third Republic The Dreyfus Affair The Hapsburg Empire Formation of the Dual Monarchy Unrest of Nationalities Russia: Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings Reforms of Alexander II Revolutionaries Great Britain: Towards Democracy The Second Reform Act (1867) Gladstones Great Ministry (1868-1874) Disraeli in Office (1874-1880) The Irish Question In Perspective Chapter 23: The Building of European Supremacy: Society and Politics to World War I Population Trends and Migration The Second Industrial Revolution New Industries Economic Difficulties The Middle Class in Ascendancy Social Distinctions Within the Middle Classes Late-Nineteenth Century Urban Life The Redesign of Cities Urban Sanitation Housing Reform and Middle-Class Value Varieties of Late-Nineteenth-Century Womens Experiences Women Social Disabilities New Employment Patterns for Women Working-Class Women Poverty and Prostitution Women of the Middle Class The Rise of Political Feminism Jewish Emancipation Differing Degrees of Citizenship Broadened Opportunities Labor, Socialism, and Politics to World War I Trade Unionism Democracy and Political Parties Karl Marx and the First International Great Britain: Fabianism and Early Welfare Programs France: Opportunism Rejected Germany: Social Democrats and Revisionism Russia: Industrial Development and the Birth of Bolshevism In Perspective Chapter 24: The Birth of Modern European Thought The New Reading Public Advances in Primary Education

 Reading Material for the Mass Audience Science at Midcentury Comte, Positivism, and the Prestige of Science Darwins Theory of Natural Selection Science and Ethics Christianity and the Church Under Siege Intellectual Skepticism Conflict Between Church and State Areas of Religious Revival The Roman Catholic Church and the Modern World Islam and the Late-Nineteenth-Century European Thought Toward a Twentieth-Century Frame of Mind Science: The Revolution in Physics Literature: Realism and Naturalism Modernism in Literature The Coming of Modern Art Friedrich Nietzsche and the Revolt Against Reason The Birth of Psychoanalysis Retreat from Rationalism in Politics Racism Anti-Semitism and the Birth of Zionism Women and Modern Thought Antifeminism in Late-Century Thought New Directions in Feminism In Perspective Chapter 25: Imperialism, Alliances and Wars Expansion of European Power and the New Nationalism The New Imperialism Motives for the New Imperialism The Scramble for Africa Asia Emergence of the German Empire and the Alliance System (1873-1890) Bismarcks Leadership Forging the Triple Entente (1890-1907) World War I The Road to War (1908-1914) Sarajevo and the Outbreak of War (June-August 1914) Strategies and Stalemate: 1914-1917 The Russian Revolution The Provisional Government Lenin and the Bolsheviks The Communist Dictatorship The End of World War I Germanys Last Offensive The Armistice The End of the Ottoman Empire The Settlement at Paris Obstacles the Peacemakers Faced

 The Peace Evaluating the Peace In Perspective Chapter 26: Political Experiments in the 1920s Political and Economic Factors after the Paris Settlement Demands for Revision of the Paris Settlement Postwar Economic Problems New Roles for Government and Labor The Soviet Experiment Begins War Communism The new Economic Policy Stalin Versus Trotsky The Third International Women and the Family in the Early Soviet Union The Fascist Experiment in Italy The Rise of Mussolini The Fascists in Power Motherhood for the Nation in Fascist Italy Joyless Victory France: The Search for Security Great Britain: Economic Confusion Trials of the Successor States in Eastern Europe Economic and Ethnic Pressures Poland: Democracy to Military Rule Czechoslovakia: A Viable Democratic Experiment Hungary: Turn to Authoritarianism Austria: Political Turmoil and Nazi Occupation Southeastern Europe: Royal Dictatorships The Weimar Republic in Germany Constitutional Flaws Lack of Broad Popular Support Invasion of the Ruhr and Inflation Hitlers Early Career The Stresemann Years Locarno In Perspective Chapter 27: Europe and the Great Depression of the 1930s Toward the Great Depression The Financial Tailspin Problems in Agricultural Commodities Depression and Government Policy Confronting the Great Depression in the Democracies Great Britain: The National Government France: The Popular Front Germany: The Nazi Seizure of Power Depression and Political Deadlock Hitler Comes to Power Hitlers Consolidation of Power

 The Police State and Anti-Semitism Racial Ideology and the Lives of Women Nazi Economic Policy Italy Fascist Economics Syndicates Corporations Stalins Soviet Union: Central Economic Planning, Collectivization, and Party Purges The Decision for Rapid Industrialization The Collectivization of Agriculture Flight to the Soviet Cities Urban Consumer Shortages Foreign Reactions and Repercussions The Purges In Perspective Chapter 28: World War II Again the Road to War (1933-1939) Hitlers Goals Italy Attacks Ethiopia Remilitarization of the Rhineland The Spanish Civil War Austria and Czechoslovakia Munich The Nazi-Soviet Pact World War II (1939-1945) The German Conquest of Europe The Battle of Britain The German Attack on Russia Hitlers Plans for Europe Japan and the United States Enter the War The Tide Turns The Defeat of Nazi Germany Fall of the Japanese Empire The Cost of War Racism and the Holocaust The Destruction of the Polish Jewish Community Polish Anti-Semitism Between the Wars The Nazi Assault on Jews in Poland Explanations of the Holocaust The Domestic Fronts Germany: From Apparent Victory to Defeat France: Defeat, Collaboration, and Resistance Great Britain: Organization for Victory The Soviet Union: The Great Patriotic War Preparations for Peace The Atlantic Charter Tehran: Agreement on a Second Front Yalta Potsdam

 In Perspective Chapter 29: The Cold War Era and the Emergence of a New Europe The Emergence of the Cold War Containment in American Foreign Policy Soviet Domination of Eastern Europe The Postwar Division of Germany NATO and the Warsaw Pact The Creation of the State of Israel The Korean War The Khrushchev Era in the Soviet Union Khrushchevs Domestic Policies The Three Crises of 1956 Later Cold War Confrontations The Berlin Wall The Cuban Missile Crisis The Brezhnev Era 1968: The Invasion of Czechoslovakia The United States and Dtente The Invasion of Afghanistan Communism and Solidarity in Poland Relations with the Reagan Administration Decolonization: The European Retreat from Empire Major Areas of Colonial Withdrawal India Further British Retreat from Empire The Turmoil of French Decolonization France and Algeria France and Vietnam Vietnam Drawn into the Cold War Direct United States Involvement The Collapse of European Communism Gorbachev Attempts to Reform the Soviet Union 1989: Revolution in Eastern Europe The Collapse of the Soviet Union The Yeltsin Decade and Putin The Collapse of Yugoslavia and Civil War The Rise of Radical Political Islamism Arab Nationalism The Iranian Revolution Afghanistan and Radical Islamism A Transformed West In Perspective Chapter 30: The West at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century The Twentieth-Century Movement of People Displacement Through War External and Internal Migration The New Muslim Population European Population Trends

 Toward a Welfare State Society Christian Democratic Parties The Creation of Welfare States Resistance to Expansion of the Welfare State New Patterns in Work and Expectations of Women Feminism More Married Women in the Work Force New Work Patterns Women in the New Eastern Europe Transformations in Knowledge and Culture Communism and Western Europe Existentialism Expansion of the University Population and Student Rebellion The Americanization of Europe A Consumer Society Environmentalism Art Since World War II Cultural Divisions and the Cold War Memory of the Holocaust The Christian Heritage Neo-Orthodoxy Liberal Theology Roman Catholic Reform Late Twentieth-Century Technology: The Arrival of the Computer The Demand for Calculating Machines Early Computer Technology The Development of Desktop Computers The Challenges of European Unification Postwar Cooperation The European Economic Community The European Union Discord Over the Union In Perspective