Vol. 1 No.

The Official Publication of the Research Center, La Consolacion College Manila

June-July 2005

MARKET STRUCTURE AND THEORIES OF THE FIRM

By Mr. Cristobal M. Pagoso

This paper is an attempt to examine and evaluate the four major types of market structure: pure competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition and oligopoly; and to explore the characteristics of price and output decisions within these market structures. A market is said to be purely competitive if (1) there is large number of sellers and buyers of the commodity, each too small to affect the price commodity, (2) the output of all firms in the market are homogeneous, ie. The product of any seller is considered as exactly alike in all respects to the product of any other seller, (3) there is perfect mobility of resources, i.e, there is freedom of entry into and exit from the industry. Monopoly refers to the form of market organization in which there is a single firm producing a commodity or a service for which there are no close substitutes. Thus, the firm is the industry and faces a negatively sloped industry demand curve for the commodity or service. Monopolistic competition refers to the market organization in which a relatively large number of small producers or suppliers are offering similar but not identical products. An example of this is given by the many jeans available in the market (for example Levis, Freego. Prego, Lee, BNY, JAG, Bench, Guess, etc) another example is given by the many different brands of bath soaps available in the market like Safeguard, Lux, Camay, Johnson, Palmolive, Ivory, etc. Oligopoly is a market structure characterized by a small number of firms and a great deal of interdependence among them. Each oligopolist formulates his policies in relation to what his rivals might make. Since there are only small number of firms here, any change in the firms marketing or price

strategy would influence the sales and profit of competitors. Pure Competition 1. Pure and perfect competition Economists make a distinction between pure and perfect competition. A market is said to be perfectly competitive if it contains all the characteristics of pure competition plus an additional characteristic, i.e. consumers; resource owners and firms in the market have perfect knowledge of present and future prices and costs. Perfect knowledge means that a person knows the price of a commodity being charged in the markets Based on this knowledge; he can make his decision as to whether to buy from one market or the other based on price differences. 2. The Demand Curve When there are large numbers of sellers and buyers of a commodity, each would be too small a unit to affect the price of commodity. The demand curve under a purely competitive market is given, as perfectly elastic thus, the firm can sell any amount it can produce at that price. 3.Price and output in the long-run When we talk of long-run equilibrium price and output, we are referring to the situation toward which the market price and output and the short-run equilibrium price and output tend in a period of time long enough to allow the completing by firms of all desired adjustments, the entry of new firms and the departure of old ones. At any one time adjustments in price and output with existing plant

tend to bring the market price and output to the shortrun equilibrium figure. But over a longer period, the various adjustments will bring the market price and output and the short-run equilibrium figure to the long-run equilibrium level. If all long-run adjustments are completed, the short-run and long-run equilibrium levels will be the same. In addition, the market price and output will be equal to them. 4. An evaluation of a competitive market As we have seen, the final long-run equilibrium position for each firm under a purely competitive situation implies some basic characteristics. Pricing will settle at the level where they are equal to minimum average cost. The marginal cost curve intersects, and is therefore equal to, average cost at the point of minimum average cost. In the long-run equilibrium position, everything being equal, the equilibrium point is reached where MR (P)= AC=MC. This triple equality implies that, although a competitive firm may realize economic profits or losses in the short-run, it will just break even by producing in accordance with the principle MR (P)= MC=AC. This triple equality suggests some highly desirable feature and shortcomings of the competitive price system. Monopoly 1. The Demand Curve The difference between a pure monopolist and a purely competitive seller lies in the demand side of the market. The purely competitive seller faces a perfectly elastic demand schedule. The monopolistic demand curve is different. Because the pure monopolist is the industry, its demand curve is the industry demand curve. The industry demand curve is not perfectly elastic, but rather, is negatively sloped. As a result, the monopolist wants to sell more of the commodity or services; he must lower its price. Thus, for the monopolist, MR<P and his MR curve lies below his demand curve. 2. The long-run Entry of new firms into an industry characterized by pure competition is easy in the long run while entry into a monopolistic industry is difficult and is often blocked either by natural or artificial forces. One of the barriers to entry into a monopolistic industry is the question of size or economies of scale. Capitalization usually runs in

millions or billions of pesos. The production and eventual distribution of energy, for example, is a very expensive proposition.

Figure 1. Demand Curve The sources of raw materials are cases in point. A country or a company might have control of strategic raw materials like aluminum, bauxite, uranium, etc. and would, thus, exercise monopolistic control over these materials. Patent ownership and research is another case in point. Patents held by the monopolist prevent other firms from duplicating the product. 3. Price Discrimination In some cases, a monopolist may find it possible and profitable to separate two markets. There are several reasons why price discrimination occurs. First, the monopolist can keep the market apart and to charge a different price for the product in each of the markets. Secondly, for price discrimination to be effective and profitable, the elasticity of demand at each price level must differ among the markets. 4. Regulation of Monopoly There is a tendency for a monopolist to maximize profits. Being the only one in the market, a monopolist normally would not think too much of consumers welfare. If monopolies were not regulated, the cost of energy would be costing much more now or the cost of dextrose or other medicines would be much more expensive than their prices now. Public welfare dictates that the government should take a more active role on the regulation of the monopolies. Monopolies cannot be just left alone by the government in the same way as other industries in the more competitive models are left alone.

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There

are

two

parties

involved

here:

the

monopolist who tends to maximize profit and the consumers who must be protected by the government and given a fair deal by the monopolist. Thus, the economic problem involved here is the determination of the rate that will induce the monopolist to furnish the amount of product consistent with his costs and the needs and demands of the consumers. Monopolistic Competition 1. Product Differentiation The basic idea behind monopolistic competition is that most firms face relatively close substitutes and that most commodities are not completely homogeneous from one producer to another. This is what we call product differentiation. Firms in a purely competitive market produce a standardized product; monopolistically competitive producers turn out variations of a given product. A number of firms produce toothpaste, for example. However, the product of each firm differs from its rivals in various ways. When a consumer wants to buy toothpaste, he specifies the brand of toothpaste he wants. He goes to a store and orders Colgate or Close-up or whatever brand he wants. Product differentiation has several dimensions. Real differences can exist when functional feature, material, design, are important aspects of product differentiation. Imaginary differences can exist through effective use of advertising, packaging, trademarks, and brand names. There are other conditions where differentiation can exist: the location of the store, the reputation of the firm marketing the product, the courteousness of the sales staff, the availability of the credit, and others. Because of product differentiation, the producers would spend significant amounts for advertising and promotion to increase sales. In a market characterized by monopolistic competition, competition centers not only on price but also on product quality, advertising and sales promotion. 2. Adjustments: Open Entry A large number of firms existing in the industry suggest that the size of each firm is not so big and that effective collusion would be extremely difficult. So long as pure profits exist for firms in the industry and potential entrants believe that they can also make profits, entry will be attempted. As new firms enter, they compete for the market share of existing firms, causing the demand curve and the marginal revenue curve faced by each to shift downward. The increase in the number of supplies pushes the whole cluster of price ranges for individual firms downward.

Figure 2. Monopolistic Competition The entry of new firms into the industry will affect the production costs of existing firms. This will shift the demand curves faced by individual firms downward, thus, decreasing the market share of each firm. In addition, cost curves of the firms would move upwards not only because of additional costs brought in by new entrants but also by sales promotion efforts of each firm in an effort to attract more sales. 3. Monopolistic Competition, Competition: A Comparison Monopoly and Pure

First the firm under monopolistic competition is likely to produce fewer goods and charge relatively higher prices, than under pure competition. There is comparatively less number of producers existing under monopolistic competition. This would account for fewer goods produced as compared with a market characterized by pure competition. In addition, less number of firms present under monopolistic competition would enable producers to charge relatively higher prices than under pure competition. Given the demand curve facing monopolistic competition, the firm will produce less than the amount at which price equals marginal cost resulting to less production than under pure competition. Second, in comparison with monopoly, firms under monopolistic competition are likely to have greater output prices, and thus, lower profits. The firms in a product group might obtain pure profits if

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they were to collude, i.e. if entry into the industry is blocked. Producers would prefer a market characterized by pure monopoly because profits are greater here compared with those prevailing under monopolistic competition. From the point of view of the consumers, however, they would be worse off because of higher prices and output restrictions. Third, firms under monopolistic competition may be somewhat inefficient because they tend to operate with excess capacity. This inefficiency is seldom found under pure competition, which could mean the exit of a firm from the industry. Inefficiencies may not be very great in the monopolistic competitive firm because the demand curve is likely to have highly elastic. The more elastic the demand curve, the less excess capacity the firm will likely have.

Collusion involves direct negotiations and agreements among competitors. These are at least three major incentives leading oligopolistic firms toward collusion. (1) They can increase their profits if they can decrease the amount of competition among themselves and act monopolistically. (2) Collusion can decrease oligopolistic uncertainty. If the firm acts in concert, they reduce the likelihood of any one firms taking actions detrimental to the interests of the others. (3) Collusion among the firms already in the industry will facilitate blocking newcomers from that industry. However, once a collusive arrangement is in existence, any single firm has a profit incentive to break away from the group and act independently, thus, destroying the collusive arrangement.

3. The OPEC Oil Cartel To illustrate the nature and behavior of international cartels, let us consider the OPEC cartel. This cartel hit the headlines in the late 1973 when its members precipitated a crisis in the US and the rest of the world by announcing a cutback in oil exports. Then it attracted further attention by taking a series of actions resulting in very large increases in the price of crude oil. For example, the price of Saudi Arabian crude oil jumped from $3 in 1973 to over $10 in early 1974 to about $30 in 1983. OPEC consists of 12 major oil producing countries including Saudi Arabia, Iran, Venezuela, Libya and Nigeria. The OPEC countries impose an excise tax of so many cents per barrel. These taxes are well publicized and, like any excise tax, they are treated as a cost of production by any of the international; oil companies. Thus, by increasing these taxes, the OPEC countries can increase the price of crude oil, since no company can afford to sell oil for less than its production costs plus tax. How far are they likely to increase the price? According to a model, one would expect the OPEC cartel to push the crude oil price up toward the monopoly level, since this would increase their tax revenues. Experts estimate that about $15 billion was transferred by this means from oil consumers to OPEC in 1972. And in just a short time, the figure for 1974 has been estimated at about $80 billion. A cartel must either control output or detect and prevent cheating in the form of under-the-counter price reductions. The OPEC tax system results in the publication by every important OPEC nation of its level of taxes per barrel. Since they are a matter of public record, the price floor of taxes plus-cost is safe, once the companies and the government approve the taxes. Sales and Revenues of Oligopoly

Oligopoly 1. Classification of Oligopoly Market Oligopolies are classified either as pure oligopoly or differentiated oligopoly. If the products produced by the various firms are identical, we have pure oligopoly. This model is found in some of the capital goods industries, such as the cement industry and the oil industry. Mutual interdependence is greater when products are identical than when they are differentiated. Any price or output change by one firm is certain to produce substantial effects upon the sales of competitors that would force them to alter their policies. Differentiated oligopoly, on the other hand, exists in industries where products are not homogeneous. This model is found in most manufactured consumer goods. The car industry and the appliance industry are examples of differentiated oligopoly. Consumers can choose from several car models, different stereo or refrigerator brands. In this market, price changes will have a less direct effect upon competitors because of the partial isolation of the market of each firm. The stronger the differentiation, the weaker will be the feeling of mutual interdependence. 2. Collusion versus Interdependent Action Oligopoly situations usually invite collusion, or a secret agreement between two or more persons or institutions to achieve certain objectives among the industrys firms. Mutual interdependence among the firms could also manifest itself into spontaneous coordination of the policies of the firms.

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Theoretically, from the point of view of profitability, a market characterized by monopoly is the most desirable for the producer. In a monopoly, there is only one producer, thus, profits are exclusively his. In addition, there are no competitors in a monopolistic market. On the other hand, there are several firms in oligopoly. Profits can still be maximized, it is true, but then there are several firms who share the market. Thus, several firms likewise share profits. In the real world, however, it is rather difficult to find monopolies. There are more cases of oligopolies. This can be gleaned if we look at the top corporations of countries. Oligopolies, both in the Philippine and U.S. markets, register the biggest sales and profits.

limit output to maximize profits. The actuation of oil companies right now is a proof of this tendency.

Bibliography Hirschey, M. (2000). Fundamentals of Managerial Economics 5th edition. Forth Worth: Dryden Press Mansfield, E. (2000). Managerial Economics: Theory, Applications, Cases 4th Ed. N.Y.W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. McCormick, R.2001 Managerial Economics London: Prentice Hall International Pindyck,R. and Rubenfield,D.(2000) Microeconomics 4th Edition. NJ Prentice Hall International Poblador, N.1996. The Economics of Firm: Managerial Applications. University of the Philippines Press Salvatore, D. (2001) Managerial Economics in a Global Economy, Singapore: Mc Graw Hill Villegas, B. (1999). Managerial Economics. 3rd Edition. Manila: Sinagtala Publishers, Inc. Fortune, April 18, 2005 BizNews Asia, September-December, 2000

Conclusions and Recommendations 1. There are a large number of sellers and buyers in pure competition, each too small to affect the price of the commodity. Presence of competition pressures prices to go down to a level where producers just have enough profits to continue operation. With more producers entering the market, better quality products and adequate output are assured. Competition should be encouraged by the government to assure more output, better quality products at relatively low or competitive prices. 2. Monopoly is a form of market organization in which there is a single firm producing a commodity or a service for which there are no close substitutes. Since there is only one producer, there is a tendency to increase prices and limit output to maximize profit. Through measures, like, anti-trust laws, monopolies would be minimized by the government to lessen abuse by monopolies 3. Monopolistic competition refers to the market organization in which a relatively large numbers of small producers or suppliers are offering similar but not identical products. Prices here are relatively lower compared to monopoly; but are relatively higher than under pure competition. From the point of view of output, output is greater here than under monopoly; but lesser compared to pure competition. This type of market organization should be encouraged because better quality products at relatively low prices are assured. In addition, producers can look forward to reasonable profits.

Mr. Cristobal M. Pagoso Faculty School of Business and Accountancy Research Interests: Economic education and Labor economics Contact numbers: 736-02-35 loc 35

It is the aim of the LCCM Research Digest to be the sounding board of up to date ideas and actions related to research and classroom management and material delivery of the faculty in the different schools of the College. The LCCM Research Digest encourages and welcomes condensed versions or a short summary of research or review essays, conference papers, lecture notes, teaching guides, and other classroom material /innovation for its bimonthly publication.

3. Oligopoly is a market structure characterized by a small number of firms and a great deal of interdependence among them. High sales and there is a tendency for oligopolistic firms to increase prices and
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4.

REVISITING ATI-ATIHAN: A MORE MEANINGFUL CELEBRATION THROUGH CULTURAL TOURISM

By: Ms. Joy Shelaah B. Era

What if the economic benefits of the tourist trade outweigh culture? How do we counter the commercialization of culture led by the tourism industry?
Commercialization of culture transpires when aspects of culture (such as arts and crafts, religious practices, events and festivals) are seen as commodities, when they are performed primarily to earn/profit from the tourist trade. As a point of departure, this paper looks at the origin and transformation of one of the countrys famous festivals and discusses the adverse effects of the commercialization of culture.

ingredient to sell. Tourism also provides income through tourism components (food, accommodation, transportation, souvenirs, etc.). For instance, according to DOT Statistics (1999), the no. 1 reason of tourists for going to the Philippines are the warm, friendly people (51%), not nature, but the peoples culture. Fiestas The Philippines is known to be a land of Fiestas. Every town, city or province has a patron saint or a foundation day to celebrate. They are held as a form of thanksgiving, to pay homage to a patron saint, in celebration of a bountiful harvest, a re-enactment of a historical event, or a fulfillment of a religious vow and each The core of this paper is to look at the Ati-Atihan Festival, its origins and transformations. The Ati-Atihan The Ati-Atihan Festival is held in the town of Kalibo in the province of Aklan on the island of Panay every third Sunday of January in honor of the Sto. Nino (Child Jesus). Celebrants paint their faces with

Cultural Tourism
Cultural tourism is a type of tourism that is motivated primarily by cultural attractions (Getz1,991; Cruz, 2000:141). According to Tourism Principles, Practices and Philosophies, 1982, Cultural tourism covers all aspects of travel whereby people learn from each others way of life and thought. It is the subset of tourism concerned with a country or region's culture, especially its arts. Cultural tourism includes tourism in urban areas, particularly historic or large cities and their cultural facilities such as museums and theatres. It can also, less often, include tourism to rural areas; for outdoor festivals, the houses of famous writers & artists, sculpture parks, and landscapes made famous in literature (Wikipedia, 2005). Cultural tourism benefits both the tourists and the host community. For the tourists, travel is not just fun but becomes a learning experience. For the locals/host community, it provides an avenue for social interaction with the outside world. When planned properly, tourism can result to the following positive impacts on the host community: 1).preservation and restoration of cultural heritage, 2). revival of traditional arts and culture, 3.) cultivation of cultural pride and sense of identity and cross-cultural exchange (Inskeep, 1991). While the tourism industry is under the business sphere, it uses culture as the main

Source: www.alibata.org/miscelleaneous/atiatihan.html 6

Research Digest

black soot and wear bright, outlandish costumes as trhey dance in revelry during the last three days of this two-week long festival. The famous festival become a hodge-podge of Catholic ritual, social activity, indigenous drama, and a tourist attraction, the celebration which stretches for several days. Days before the festival itself, the people attend novena masses for the Holy Child or Sto. Nino and benefit dances sponsored by civic organizations. The start of the revelry is signaled by rhythmic, insistent, intoxicating drumbeats, as the streets explode with the tumult of dancing people. The second day begins at dawn with rosary processions, which ends with a community mass. The merrymaking is then resumed. The highlight of the festival occurs on the last day, when groups representing different tribes compete. Costumes including the headdress are made of abaca fibers, shells, feathers, bamboo, plant leaves, cogon, grass, sugar cane flowers, beads, trinkets and an assortment of pieces of glass, metals and plastic. The day end with a procession of parishioners carrying bamboo torches and different images of the Sto. Nino. The contest winners are announced at a masquerade ball that officially ends the festival. During the Ati-atihan, streets are filled with people singing and dancing in striking costumes. Faces blackened with soot, parade participants moved to the rhythm of drum beats and the clanging sound of tin cans crying Hala, bira! which means to strike a blow. Schools bands and orchestras add music, and the revelers celebrate late into the night. The devotion can be traced back to pre-colonial times when our ancestors worshipped many gods. The Spaniards cleverly assimilated the devotion of our ancestors from their gods to the Sto. Nino. Or When Magellan set foot in our islands in 1521; he presented the cross and gave the image of the Sto. Nino as a gift to Lapu Lapu and his wife, Queen Juana. The Spaniards cleverly assimilated the devotion of our ancestors from their gods perhaps, because of its similarity in size to their pagan gods, they regarded the Child Jesus as one of their gods.. The Ati-Atihan was originally a pagan celebration. The Ati-Atihan was the celebration of the sale of a portion of the island of Aklan by the Aeta Chief King Marikudo to 10 Bornean Datus led by Datu Puti who escaped from the tyrant Sultan Makatunaw of Borneo. In celebration of the joyous event, the natives and the Malayan Datus, joined together in a frenzy of dancing and drinking, eating and singing to their hearts content. According to Maragtas (Monteclaro P, 1907), there were occasional skirmishes that occurred between the Malays and the Aeta or Ati even after the barter of Panay. A peace pact ended the strife; and the two warring groups celebrated to emphasize their oneness in spirit. The Malays covered themselves with soot so as to look like the Ati and so began the first Ati-Atihan (in Aklanon, literally meaning to pretend to

be Ati) which translates into the Tagalog word AtiAtihan, now the more popular term for it. This happy event was said to have coincided with the celebration of the Sto. Nino feastday. According to Fr. Gaspar de San Agustin in Conquistas de las isles Filipinos, Akean (Kalibo) was so big that it alone had 1,000 inhabitants. In 1750, Fray Andres de Aguirre, a basque companion priest of Spanish explorer Miguel Lopez de Legaspi came to baptize one thousand residents of Madyanos (original name of Kalibo, then the capital of the confederation of Madyaas) the one thousand natives were converted to the Christian faith, became subjects of Spain, and were baptized in mass on the third Sunday of January, the feast of the Holy Child Infant.

A Full Blown Carnival of Commerce Today, the Ati-Atihan has evolved into a full blown carnival of commerce eroding its religious significance. Dance groups who compete are sponsored by commercial names such as SMB (San Miguel Beer), sanitary Napkins and shampoo products. Each group carries its sponsors logo and product replica so that most of the time, what you see are giant beer bottles and sanitary packs leading the procession instead of the image of the Sto. Nino. It is not anymore a devotion to the Sto. Nino because food and drinks is the mark of the Ati-Atihan Festival. In 1999, the same concern was expressed by the religious sector. Bishop Gabriel V. Reyes has expressed concern that the annual Ati-Atihan festival has deviated from its religious nature and has become too commercialized. Last 2004, it became worse. In the procession covered by Ernie Valdez (2004) the image of the Sto. Nino has been sooted with black facial make up in the procession. There have also been accounts on animal sacrifices. Photos of exotic and endangered species of animal (such as an owl, big lizard and bat fruit) were killed by the locals for fun and display4. The activities in the festival that are religious in nature are the field mass and novena only while the rest are all commercial activities: cockfighting, higante (giant) parade, beauty contests, photography, fireworks display, parade contests, an event full of shopping, mingling, buying, selling, displaying banners, beating on their drums, dancing on the streets and downing their drinks. While it can be argued that tourism through festivals keep traditions alive, the commercialization led by tourism activities in the long run would actually kill the tradition. Repetitions of a tradition

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without fully understanding its relevance is fruitless. Tourist trade may provide income to the place; however, it has displaced the townsfolk who are there for the religious devotion. Festivals that are manifestations of the peoples culture and beliefs and celebrated within the ritualistic context for the particular society is now performed primarily for tourist consumption. How then can meaningfully? festivals be celebrated

the case of the Ati-Atihan festival it means the Aklanons) are not powerless to act against the changes brought by the commercialization of culture. They have the power and should be empowered to minimize the negative effects of tourism in culture. Let cultural tourism be a tool to promote, preserve and develop our culture. By doing so, we become more humans and humane.

Bibliography 1. There should be a vigilant, concerted effort from the host community, the local and national government, the religious and business sectors to focus the celebration on the Sto. Nino. Although commercial establishments are there to give financial support, their role in the celebration must not destroy the significance of the event. Furthermore, the turning point of the festival must be after the mass, everyone who wants to participate in the celebration must attend the mass. Reverence and respect to the icon of the Sto. Nino should be emphasized by prohibiting the soothing of black facial make up in the Sto. Nino. Policies and guidelines should be in place and are to be strictly implemented. For the competitions, the participating tribes are encouraged to stick to indigenous material focus on creativity by including simplicity, variety and relevance in the criteria. To prevent animal slaughter, those who have committed intolerable acts can be penalized or even arrested. 2. Information dissemination on the history and the significance of the festival to be distributed to local and foreign tourists. The feast of Sto. Nino is an enriching experience. Being there just for fun forfeits the essence of cultural tourism. As advocated by Inskeep (1991 as cited by Cruz, 2000:74), to minimize the negative socio-cultural effects of tourism, both residents and tourists should be educated about each others culture. 3. The drinking and partying should be limited/controlled because this has led to acts of crimes and vandalism. Drugs and liquor become part of the celebration leading to violent incidents such as the death of 2 teenagers and injuries of several others in the 1999 celebration. 4. Security measures should be set. In the 2005 celebration, a shooting rampage broke out after the mass when a policeman killed 2 police officers and wounded 20 people including 5 policemen, two media persons and 15 merrymakers and bystanders (Philippine Daily Inquirer,2005: A1) While cultural change is inevitable, the agents of the tourism trade especially the host community (in ________(1982). Tourism Philiosophies Manila Principles, Practices &

Cruz, Reil. (2000).Principles of Tourism.Manila Delos Reyes, Feleilizabeth(2000). Aloma M, Walking Towards the Splendour of God A Directory of Religious Shrines in the Philippines, pp. 150-151 DOT.(1999). DOT Statistics.Manila Tirazona, Benny. 1999. Ati-Atihan Souvenir Program. Wikipedia. Ati-Atihan, retrieved on June 6, 2005 from www.wikepedia.com Ati-Atihan retrieved on June 5, www.sulit_palomok.com/ati-atihan.html 2005 from

Ms

Ms. Joy Shelaah B. Era Area Chair-Tourism Dept School of HRM & Tourism Research Interest: Tourism and cultural studies; Humanities Contact Numbers: 736-02-35 loc 60

LCCM Research Digest is published by the Research Center La Consolacion College Manila S231 Gregor Mendel Science Center 8 Mendiola St., Manila Vol. 1 No. 2 June-July 2005 Editorial Board Sr. Imelda Mora, OSA President Mr. Geronimo Suliguin Jr. Director-Research Center Dr. Divina Edralin Consultant Carmela R. Claud Lay-out & Design For comments, suggestions and contribution, call (632) 736-0235 loc. 21 or 313-05-09 or e-mail us at resc@lccm.edu.ph. Also visit http://researchdigest.blogspot.com.

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