THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestion breaking down of foods into nutrients in preparation for absorption Absorption the passage of nutrients from the GI tract into either the blood or the lymph

Obstacles

Encountered by the Digestive System

1. Swallowing and breathing should not interfere with each other. 2. Food must pass to the wall of the diaphragm to reach the stomach. 3. The movement of the food in the tract must be unidirectional down the GI tract and in a pace where reactions are permitted to reach completion. 4. Food must be lubricated with enough amount of water. Regulation is needed to keep the smooth and consistent flow of the intestinal contents. 5. When the digestive enzymes are breaking food down, they need it in finely divided form, suspended in enough water so that every particle is accessible. 6. Residues must be excreted by voluntary evacuation. 7. Cells must be protected against the action of the digestive enzymes that digest carbohydrates, proteins, and fat which are the components of the cells.

Anatomy of the Digestive Tract

GI

Tract a flexible muscular tube: mouthesophagussmall intestinelarge intestine rectumanus the inner space within the GI tract is called lumen
MOUTH chews and mixes the food with saliva PHARYNX directs the food from mouth to esophagus *epiglottis closes off air passages during eating *bolus swallowed food ESOPHAGUS passageway of food from the mouth to the stomach; consists of two sphincters, the upper and the lower esophageal sphincter, that prevents food backflow STOMACH grinds and churns swallowed food, the bolus retains in the upper part of the stomach, little by little transferred to the lower portion where juices are added to form a semiliquid mass called chyme SMALL INTESTINE pyloric sphincter; chyme bypasses the opening from the common bile duct, which is dripping fluids into the SI from pancreas and gallbladder; chyme travels down the duodenum jejunum - ileum ANUS RECTU M LARGE INTESTINE ileocecal valve; withdraws water from the chyme,

Secretions of Digestion
Five organs of the digestive system produce secretions: salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, liver, and the small intestine. These secretions are the major source of variety of enzymes and water. The enzymes hydrolyze the molecules to break into smaller pieces. 1. Saliva released by the salivary glands, moisten the food to smoothly flow down the esophagus. Saliva consists of water, salts, and enzymes that initiate the digestion of carbohydrates. It protects the mouth from harmful substances. 2. Gastric Juice a mixture of water, enzymes, and HCl, which is released by the cells of the stomach. The acid may cause heartburn if it happens to reflux into the esophagus. The acidic environment of the stomach prevents bacterial growth and kills most bacteria coming from the food. To protect the stomach cells from being destroyed by the acid, their goblet cells secrete mucus. 3. Pancreatic Juice and Intestinal Enzymes pancreas secretes these juices by a way of ducts leading to the duodenum. The juice contains enzymes that digest carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. It contains NaHCO3, which neutralizes the chyme arriving in the small intestine. 4. Bile It is produced by the liver and is stored and concentrated in the gall bladder. The gall bladder squirts the bile into the duodenum when fat arrives there. The main function of bile is to emulsify fats. 5. Protective Factors Bacteria in the GI tract produce a couple of vitamins, including the significant amount of vitamin K.

The Final Stage

Undigested residues are not absorbed and continue to the digestive tract. These enter the large intestine or colon where the intestinal bacteria degrade some of the fiber into simpler compounds while retrieving all the materials that it can recycle.

Absorption
Most of the absorption process happens in the small intestine. The small intestine has hundreds of folds, which are contoured into thousands of fingerlike projections. These projections called villi are covered by microvilli to trap the nutrient particles and transport them into the cells. In the crevices between the villi lie the crypts tubular glands that secrete the intestinal juices in the small intestine. Villi in constant motion; lined by a thin sheet of muscle that supports its movement. Microvilli where nutrient molecules are trapped and are further digested by the enzymes. Nutrients are absorbed by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport. Simple diffusion water and small lipids; cross freely in the intestinal cells Facilitated Diffusion H2O-soluble vitamins; needs a specific carrier protein for transport Active transport glucose and amino acids; movement across concentration gradient When a nutrient crosses the villus, it enters either the blood-stream (H2O soluble) or lymphatic system (ADEK and fats; chylomicrons).

Gastrointestinal Hormones and Nerve Pathways

The nervous and endocrine systems coordinate all the digestive and absorptive processes.

1. Maintenance of the pH of the stomach (1.5-1.7) Food entering the stomach stimulates the cells of the wall of the stomach to release gastrin. Gastrin stimulates the stomach glands to secrete HCl. When pH 1.5 is reached, the acid turns off the gastrinproducing cells. The cells stop releasing gastrin and HCl release is inhibited. Nerve receptors in the stomach wall also respond to the presence of food and stimulate the gastric glands to secrete juices and the muscles to contract. 2. Opening and Closing of the Pyloric Sphincter Relaxed pyloric sphincter acidic chyme slips through When the pyloric sphincter senses the acid, it closes. The muscle then relaxes when the chyme is already neutralized by the pancreatic juices. 3. Regulation of the secretion of pancreatic juice Presence of chyme stimulates the cells of the duodenum to release secretin into the blood. When secretin reaches the pancreas, it stimulates the pancreas to release its bicarbonate-rich juices. The bicarbonate neutralizes the chyme. Enzymes of the pancreatic juice a. Carbohydrates carbohydrases b. Proteins protease c. Lipids lipase 4. Secretion of Bile Fat in the intestine stimulates the intestinal walls to secrete cholecystokinin (CCK). This hormone traveling by way of blood to the gall bladder stimulates it to contract, thus releasing bile into the small intestine. Once the fat is emulsified and the enzymes have begun to work on it, the fat no longer provokes release of the hormone. CCK and gastricinhibitory peptide slow down the GI tracts motility during fat digestion so that all reactions will reach to completion. Gastric-inhibitory peptide inhibits the secretion of gastric acid.