B.Tech.

Seminar Report

on

SUPERSONIC CHANNEL AIRFOILS

FOR REDUCED DRAG

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
in
Aerospace Engineering

By

Ashish Gupta
Roll No: 99D01003

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay

29 October 2000
Abstract

The concept of supersonic channel-airfoil can be applied to the leading

edges of wings, tails, fins, and other appendages of the aircraft,
atmospheric entry vehicles, and the missiles in the supersonic flight. By
creating a channel sized to choked at the design condition, most of the
wall on which the stagnation region pressure acts is removed; this
results in significantly reduced total drag. The effectiveness of
supersonic channel-airfoil in reducing drag without paying any
penalties in the other areas like lifting capacity, heating rates or
enclosed volumes, concept is found to be beneficial at conditions in
which the leading edge is significantly blunted and the channel has to
open at supersonic Mach number normal to the leading edge.

i
Contents

Abstract i
List of Figures iii
List of Tables iv
Nomenclature v

1 Motivation 1
2 Introduction 2
2.1 Organization of Report…………………………………………………….4
3 Foundation of the Concept 5
3.1 Stagnation Flow……………………………………………………………6
4 Supersonic Airfoils 8
4.1 Conventional Airfoils………………………………………………………8
4.2 Unconventional Airfoils…………………………………………………..10
4.2.1 Reverse-Flow Airfoils……………………………………………...10
4.2.2 Jet Wings.....................................................................................…...11
4.2.3 Supersonic Channel-Airfoils………………………………...…..….12
5 Design of Supersonic Channel-Airfoils . 14
5.1 Channel Design………………………………………………………....…14
5.1.1 Large Channel Thickness……………………………………….…...14
5.1.2 Small Channel Thickness……………………………………… ...…15
5.2 Aerothermodynamic Design…………………………………………….....17
6 Experimental Results 20
7 Conclusion 23
8 References 24

ii
List of Figures

1. Component of Aircraft Drag………………………………………………….2

2. Supersonic Channel Airfoil…………………………………………………...3
3. Blunted Diamond Airfoil……………………………………………………...3
4. Drag Buildup of Typical Supersonic Aircraft Configuration…………………5
5. Flow Over a Supersonic Blunt Body…………………………………………6
6. Flow Through Normal Shock Wave………………………………………….6
7. Effect of Wing Sweep on Wing Drag Coefficient…………………………....8
8. Ideal Supersonic Airfoils……………………………………………………..9
9. Effect Of Shape on the Coefficient of Drag………………………………….9
10. Parasite Drag Vs Mach Number…………………………………………….10
11. Reverse-Flow Airfoil………………………………………………………...11
12. Jet Wings…………………………………………………………………….11
13. Supersonic Channel Blunted Airfoil………………………………………...12
14. Blunted Diamond Shape Airfoil…………………………………………….12
15. Un-chocked Flow Condition…………………………………………….…..15
16. Chocked Flow Condition……………………………………………….…...16
17. Schematic of Various Channel geometries………………………………....16.
18. Heat Transfer Rate Comparison………………………………………….…17
19. Schematic of “Chocked” Flow Structure……………………………….…...18
20. Comparison of the Baseline and Optimized SCA Performance…………….19
21. Computed Drag Breakdown in Laminar Flow……………………………....21
22. Computed Drag Breakdown in Turbulent Flow…………………………….21
23. Drag Coefficient Vs Angle of Attack in Laminar Flow…………………….22
24. Drag Coefficient Vs Angle of Attack in Turbulent Flow…………………..22

iii
List of Tables

1. Geometric Parameter of Two-Dimensional Airfoils…………….20

2. Drag For Various Geometries…………………………………....20

iv
Nomenclature

Symbols

c : Chord of Airfoil.
h : Height of Flight.
M8 : Free Stream Mach Number.
qw : Heat Transfer Rate.
rn : Radius of Leading Edge of the Nose.
rnl : Radius of Leading Edge of Lip.
t : Thickness of Airfoil.
tc : Thickness of the Channel.
tc* : Critical Value of the Channel Thickness.
x : Stream Line Distance From Stagnation Point.
a : Angle of Attack.
? : Angle of Inclination of the Channel Wall.

Abbreviations

NC : No Channel.
SNSC : Sharp Nose Straight Channel.
RNSC : Round Nose Straight Channel.
RNDC : Round Nose Diverging Channel.
SCA : Supersonic Channel Airfoil.

v
Chapter 1

Motivation

The supersonic vehicle like High speed civil transport aircraft, single-stage-to-orbit and
multistage launch vehicles, tactical and strategic hypersonic and supersonic missiles,
hypersonic cruise aircraft and planetary entry vehicle s, etc are extremely sensitive to
aerodynamic drag, which effects their range, payload mass fraction and economic
feasibility. Many techniques e.g. yawed and swept wings, antisymmetric arrangement of
wings and bodies, warping of delta wings, Polymer additives, Injection through slots,
porous sections, etc are used to reduce the aerodynamic drag. The concept of supersonic
channel-airfoil is one of them. Today when the economic feasibility is one of the major
issues thus if some means if lift/drag ratio of the aircraft increases by just 10% then there
would be a significant impact on the economy and success of that vehicle. A discussion
of the effect of drag reduction on supersonic vehicles is given by Bushnell [1]. Drag
reduction allows lower fuel requirements and can lead to reduced operating costs and
reduced sonic booms and noise effects.
The concept of supersonic channel-airfoils was pointed out in the forties of the
previous century. Various different types of channel flow concept are described by
Kuchemann as unconventional design possibilities [2]. Here the concept is to open the
channel at supersonic cruise condition. The channel begins at the leading edge of the
airfoil with the freestream air flowing passively through the channel. The supersonic
channel airfoil concept is found to reduce total drag and increase L/D ratio by over 30%
for laminar flow and over 20% for turbulent flow condition relative to geometries without
channel. Thus results in increased vehicle range, increased speed, improved fuel
efficiency and enhanced performance.

1
Chapter 2

Introduction

The range, payload mass fractions, economic feasibility, and other performance criteria
of high-speed aerospace vehicles are currently being studied (like the high-speed civil
transport, launch vehicles, and planetary entry vehicles) are extremely sensitive to
aerodynamic drag and heating. The drag on the supersonic vehicle can be classified into
three different categories:
1. Skin friction drag.
2. Drag caused by lift.
3. Zero lift bluntness (thickness wave) drag.
Fig.1 illustrates the components of aircraft drag.

Fig.1 Components of aircraft drag.

Skin friction drag is caused by fluid viscosity and is a function of the total wetted surface
area of the vehicle. Drag caused by lift consist of induced drag and the component of the
wave drag, which is the function of the inclination of the vehicle surface with respect to
the freestream direction at a non-zero lift orientation. Finally, the zero- lift bluntness drag
is the wave drag from the vehicle thickness and bluntness of the leading and the trailing
edges in a zero- lift orientation. Here the aim is to reduce the zero lift bluntness drag and
to improve the aerothermodynamic performance of the channel airfoil relative to a

2
baseline no-channel airfoil. The zero lift bluntness drag increases rapidly with free stream
Mach number and can be responsible for well over one-third of the total drag.
The concept is to open the channel at supersonic cruise condition. The channel
begins at the leading edge of the airfoil with the freestream air flowing passively through
the channel.

Fig.2 Supersonic Channel- Airfoil.

Fig. 2 illustrates this concept for the typical symmetric diamond airfoil. The concept can
be applied to any type of airfoils used in supersonic vehicles. With the help of channeled
airfoil it is possible under certain flow condition to remove efficiently the zero- lift
bluntness drag. For the no-channel airfoils the surface pressure in the stagnation region is
high and responsible for much of the drag experienced by the airfoil. While the channel
increases the wetted surface area, the increase in skin friction drag can be reduced by
maintaining a subsonic flow and hence, a much lower dynamic pressure through the
channel. Overall, the channel will yield lower wave drag and increased skin friction drag
relative to a no-channel section. The thickness of channel also plays the important role in
the reducing the drag. With a sufficiently small channel a normal shock exit in front of
the leading edge thus creates a chocked entrance condition. The normal shock decelerates
the channel entrance flow and reduces the gradients around the channel lip relative to no-
channel airfoil. But due to chocked entrance condition the maximum rate of heat transfer
increases relative to no-channel airfoil. Thus leading edge of the airfoil is significantly
blunted [Fig.3] to enhance the aerothermodynamic performance of the airfoil. Supersonic
airfoil channel concept can also be applied to the leading edges of tails, fins, struts and
other appendages of the aircraft, atmospheric entry vehicles and missiles.

Fig.3 Blunted Diamond Airfoil.

3
2.1 Organization of Report

The report is arranged as follows. Chapter 3 explains the foundation of the concept. In
Chapter 4, some conventional and unconventional supersonic airfoils are discussed.
Chapter 5 deals with the design of the supersonic channel airfoil. Chapter 6 shows the
comparison with the baseline airfoil with the various type of supersonic channel-airfoil.
Lastly, Chapter 7 with the conclusion of the report.

4
Chapter 3

Foundation of the Concept

In supersonic flow, shock waves are formed. They not only effect the boundary layer and,
hence, the skin friction drag and the point of separation, which controls the form drag, but
also produce an abrupt change of pressure. This gives rise to additional drag known as
wave drag. Drag buildup of typical supersonic aircraft configuration is shown in Fig. 4.
In order to reduce the wave drag in supersonic flow the nose of the body must be sharp
and pointed. This confines the shock wave to only a small region. But there are many
drawbacks with the sharp nose and is discussed in chapter 4. Also at the subsonic, off-
design condition, such as takeoff, landing, climb and maneuvering flight, blunted leading
edges are desirable so that the flow separation is prevented. Ideally, the airfoils
considered for such application would be significantly blunted during subsonic
maneuvering phases of the flight but then perform more like sharp leading-edge airfoils
at supersonic cruise. However, the same blunted wing will experience higher drag at
supersonic cruise condition relative to a wing with a sharp leading edge. The main
problem in the supersonic flow is the stagnation region where density, pressure and
temperature are very high, which causes the destruction at the leading edges and reduces
the aerodynamic performance of the body. The concept of the channel-airfoils is to
remove the zero-lift bluntness drag and to enhance the Aerothermodynamic performance
using artificially blunted leading edge concept.

Fig. 4 Drag buildup of typical supersonic aircraft configuration [1].

5
3.1 Stagnation Flow

The curved bow shock which stands in front of the blunt body in a supersonic flow is
sketched in Fig. 5. Here the shock wave stands a distance d in front of the nose of the
blunt body; d is defined as the shock detachment distance. Point `a` corresponds to a
normal shock wave. Away from point a, the shock wave gradually becomes curved and
weaker, eventually evolving into a Mach wave at large dis tance from the body.

Fig. 5 Flow over a supersonic blunt body [4].

A shock wave is an extremely thin region, typically on the order of 10-5 cm, across which
the pressure, density, temperature, and entropy increase; the Mach number, flow velocity,
and total pressure decrease; and the total enthalpy stays the same. The fig.6 shows the
detail view of the normal shock wave.

Fig. 6 Flow through normal shock wave [4].

6
Thus across the bow shock wave near to the leading edge supersonic flow decelerate to
subsonic flow. But the amount of change in flow property depends upon the strength of
the shock wave. The strength of the shock wave is given by [3]:

Shock Strength = 2? (M2 – 1) / (? + 1)

Thus at high Mach number the strength of the bow shock wave increases causing large
change in flow property. Proceeding from the shock in the direction of the body,
temperature continues to increase and velocity slowly decreases to zero at the stagnation
region. Supersonic and hypersonic flows are associated with high kinetic energy of the
molecules and when these gas particles cross the shock layer, kinetic energy is converted
to internal energy which raises the temperature of the stagnation region to a very high
value. This causes the catastrophic effect to the leading edges of the body. Thus by
carving channel near the stagnation region the property of the flow near the leading edges
changes drastically. The flow near the stagnation region does not stop but moves
passively through the channel ceasing the increase in abrupt pressure rise near the
stagnation region, hence reduces the zero- lift wave drag.

7
Chapter 4

Supersonic Airfoils

4.1 Conventional Airfoils

At the supersonic flight condition shock waves exists in front of the wing. The primary
drag problem in the supersonic flight comes from the bow shock wave which forms
ahead of the wing. The bow shock wave causes an area of very high pressure to form just
in front of the wing. This causes a large increase in pressure drag. There are two
conventional ways for the designer to deal with the bow shock wave:
1. Sweeping of wings.
2. Supersonic Airfoils.
Although wing sweep reduces the Mach number normal to the leading edge, obtaining
the subsonic leading edges on the main wing, tail surfaces, and the fins of hypersonic
cruise vehicles requires excessive sweep, and such vehicles are often impractical [2].
Fig.7 shows the effect of wing sweep on wing drag coefficient. For a practical aircraft to
achieve nearly global range, its wing leading edges at hypersonic cruise must be
supersonic.

Fig. 7 Effect of wing sweep on wing drag coefficient [1].

8
Linearized supersonic theory indicates that for an airfoil of a given thickness the shape
that gives minimum zero- lift bluntness drag is the sharp diamond (double wedge) airfoils.
One solution to the drag caused by the bow shock wave is to make the leading edge of the
wing very sharp. Fig. 8 shows some supersonic airfoil. This design feature will allow the
bow wave to attach to the leading edge thus eliminating the area of high pressure ahead
of the wing. However, very sharp leading edges are not practical for the numbers of
reasons:
a) Very sharp leading edges are difficult and expensive to manufacture.
b) Some blunting is required for structural strength.
c) The flow over wings with sharp leading edges is very susceptible to separation
even at low angle of attack and flight speed.
d) The heat transfer to sharp leading edges at high Mach number is severe.
Thus the blunting of the leading edge is required at high Mach number.

Fig. 8 Ideal Supersonic Airfoils.

It is clearly seen from the Fig. 9 that the blunting of the leading edges aerodynamic drag
increases relative to the sharp leading edge airfoils. Again the blunted airfoil causes the

9
 Fig. 9 Effect of shape on the coefficient of drag [3].

shock wave to detach from the leading edge which causes the lower heating effect. Thus
optimization has to be made between the two. The complete graph of the parasite drag vs.
Mach number is shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10 Parasite drag Vs Mach number.

4.2 Unconventional Airfoils

There are many possibilities for the design and the working mechanism of the channel-
airfoils [2]. Some of them are discussed here:
1. Reverse-flow airfoil.
2. Jet wing.
3. Supersonic channel-airfoil.

10
4.2.1 Reverse-flow airfoil

Fig. 11 shows a channeled (ducted) airfoil with reverse flow inside [2]. The air which
emerges from the duct at its front end divides into two streams which turn around the two
parts of the airfoil (which need not be symmetrical, as in Fig. 11, but would have
different shapes on a lifting airfoil); these streams join again when they enter the rear end
of the duct. This air circulates permanently around the two halves of the airfoil, and it is
separated from the external flow by a dividing streamline which encloses the whole body.
This streamlines now has two free stagnation points. The front part of the airfoil can be
designed so that the flow along the wall of the duct accelerates and that the pressure then
stays at a prescribed constant value from where the wall begins to curve. In this case no
viscous drag is left behind. Work must then to be done on the viscous flow inside the duct
to add ene rgy to it and to keep it moving. But still this type of airfoil concept requires the
future development.

Fig. 11 Reverse flow airfoil.

4.2.2 Jet wings

Fig. 12 shows a jet wing , again with a duct through the airfoil but the flow in the same
direction as the mainstream [2]. A certain mass of air now enters the wing at the intake in
the leading edge and is ducted to some device which supplies energy to the air. A
propulsive system is required to supply the energy to the air. Thus jet wing combines
with the generation of lift and thrust. But still no detailed assessment of this scheme has
been made.

11
 Fig. 12 Jet wing.
4.2.3 Supersonic channel-airfoil

The main objective of this report is to discuss passive- flow airfoil. Fig. 13 shows the
schematic channel airfoil. This concept is different from the previous two because it does
not have any type of propulsive system and the flow through it is passively in the
direction of the flow [5].

Fig. 13 Supersonic channel blunted airfoil.

This concept can be applied to any type of supersonic airfoil but for the process of
illustration we consider here baseline blunted diamond airfoil [fig.14]. Diamond airfoil is
selected because of its very low drag. In fact, for a given t/c, no airfoil in supersonic
flight has lower thickness-wave drag than the sharp diamond airfoil. The channel-airfoil
geometries are created by carving away a slice about the centerline of the baseline
geometry. This creates sharp leading and trailing edges in the channel airfoil.

12
 Fig. 14 Blunted diamond shape airfoil (baseline).

The design of this type of airfoil is discussed in the next chapter. The main result of this
concept is same as that of the reverse- flow airfoil i.e. it removes the zero- lift bluntness
drag effectively.

13
Chapter 5

Design of Supersonic channel-airfoil

Design of supersonic channel- airfoil is the most critical for the concept
to success. The design of channel and the aerothermodynamic design of
the leading of the airfoil are discussed here. Here, the design of blunted
channeled diamond airfoils (Fig. 13) is discussed but this concept can be
applied to any supersonic airfoil as stated earlier.

5.1 Channel design

The channel is designed to decrease the zero- lift bluntness drag relative
to an airfoil without channel (Fig. 14). For the no- channel airfoil the
surface pressure in the stagnation region is high and responsible for
much of the drag experienced by the airfoil. However, when the channel
concept is used, the vehicle surface that experienced most of the high,
near- stagnation pressure is removed. This reduction in sectional drag
coefficient can increase cruise efficiency or can be utilized to reduce the
amount of wing sweep. Use of channel will thus lead to lower wave drag.
When the channel concept is us ed, two different leading edge structures
are possible:

1. Large channel thickness.

2. Small channel thickness.

5.1.1 Large channel thickness

If the channel is sufficiently large, flow enters the channel

supersonically without a normal shock existing in front of the channel.
This type of flow structure is same as that of supersonic engine inlets. If

14
the value of the thickness of the channel is greater than a critical value
t c * , where tc* is the maximum channel thickness for which the chocked flow condition
exists. Thus if the value of tc > t c * , then much of the bow shock is
swallowed by the channel. The value of tc* depends on the flight Mach
number and the airfoil leading- edge radius. The Fig. 15 depicts the flow
condition near the leading edge of the channel airfoil. When this type of
f l o w condition exits in front of the leading edge then the rate of heat
transfer is much higher than that of no- channel airfoil. Also skin friction
increase s due to increase in surface area as the supersonic flow condition
exist ins i d e the channel. Thus this structure is not of great interest in
this type of application.

Fig. 15 Un- chocked flow condition.

5.1.2 Small channel thickness

The second type of flow structure occurs if the channel thickness is

sufficiently small. If tc < t c * , then a chocked flow condition exists, a
normal shock rest in front of the channel, and the flow enters the channel
subsonically (Fig. 16).

15
 Fig. 16 Chocked flow condition.

In this case the flow decelerated significantly through the shock, and the
overall flow structure is similar to that of the no- channel airfoil. An
effective blunt body is generated by the channel, and the heat- transfer
rate at the channel lip is much lower than for the baseline airfoil.
Because low leading- edge heat transfers are required for hypersonic
vehicles, the chocked flow is of greater interest in this application with
respect to no chocked flow condition. The channel contour must be
design such that the flow inside the channel must remain subsonic. In his
paper Ruffin [5] various geometries for his analysis, some of them are
shown in Fig.17. It has been seen that the diverging channel has the
better results over the straight channel.

Fig. 17 S chematic of various channel geometries.

16
5.2 Aerothermodynamic design

For Supersonic and hypersonic vehicles heat- transfer considerations

dictates the design of the nose and leading edges. The heat transfer of
such vehicles is most severe at stagnation points, which occurs at
leading edges and nose of the vehicle. The theoretical and numerical
predictions of the stagnation point heating are described in Ref. 6 & 7.
According to which stagnation point heating varies inversely with the
square root of the nose radius; hence, to reduce the heating, increase the
nose radius. This is written in mathematical form as:

1
qa /v r n

Therefore, vehicles flying hypersonically have blunt leading edges,

otherwise heating would me lt the sharp (i . e . rn = 0) leading edges [Fig.
14]. According to Ruffin [8], the maximum heat transfer rate at the
leading edge is a function of the channel thickness, nose radius, the
channel lip radius and the freestream conditions. He showed that because
of the small lip radius the maximum heat transfer rate for a channel
airfoil ( R N S C ) is higher than that for a baseline no- cha n n e l ( N C ) airfoil
[Fig. 18 ] .

F i g . 1 8 Heat transfer rate for NC and RNSC airfoil at M 8 =2.4,

a = 0 0 , h=12 km. x/c is streamline distance/chord.

17
Thus optimization has to be made to ensure aerothermodynamic
performance. According to Ruffin [8], there are six variables that can
affect the aerothermodynamic performance [Fig. 19 ] :

1. t/c : thickness to chord ratio.

2. r n : nose radius.
3. t c : channel thickness, chosen to maintain chocked flow.
4. ? : angle of inclination of the lower channel wall.
5. r n l : radius of the ‘lip ’ at the channel wall.
6. a : angle of attack.

F i g . 1 9 Schematic of “chocked” flow structure.

Various numerical techniques were utilized [8] to put the geometric

constrains on the airfoil leading- edges design to have optimum
performance.
r n = t/ 2 a n d rn l = 0 . 5 ( r n – tc / 2 )
According to him, the maximum channel size is limited by the
requirement to keep the flow inside it chocked condition and is a
function of the freestream Mach number and the nose radius . Using
numerical techniques he showed that at Mach number 4.0,

t c = 0.6 r n – 0 . 0 0 0 5

18
Using this optimized supersonic channel- airfoil difference in
performance with the baseline airfoil is given below [Fig. 20 ].

F i g . 2 0 Comparison of the baseline and optimized SCA performance [8].

Thus using this optimized air foil a drag coefficient is found to be

reduced significantly.

19
Chapter 6

Experimental Results

The concept of supersonic channel-airfoil have found to have significant effect on the
drag, causing to increase the L/D by over 30% for laminar flow and over 20% for
turbulent flow relative to geometries without channel. Above results were being
estimated using different channeled geometries [Fig. 17] by numerical techniques for
both laminar and turbulent flow. The effect of channel thickness, blunted lips and
divergence of the channel were studied. In his experiment Ruffin [5] took the following
geometries:

Airfoils tc rnl ? t rn c
NC 0.05 0.005 1.0
SNSC-1 0.004 0 0 0.05 0.005 1.0
SNSC-2 0.008 0 0 0.05 0.005 1.0
SNSC-3 0.016 0 0 0.05 0.005 1.0
SNSC-4 0.002 0 0 0.05 0.005 1.0
RNSC 0.004 0.0005 0 0.05 0.005 1.0
RNDC 0.004 0.0005 0.1 0.05 0.005 1.0

Table 1 Geometric parameter of two-dimensional airfoils.

The effect of channel thickness on the drag is shown in table 2.

Airfoils tc cd cd decrease, %
NC 0.01748
SNSC-1 0.004 0.01168 33
SNSC-2 0.008 0.00614 65
SNSC-3 0.016 0.00378 78

Table 2 Drag for various geometries.

The drag breakdown on the various geometries in laminar flow: M8 =2.4, a = 0o ,
h =12km is shown [Fig. 21].

20
 Fig. 21 Computed drag breakdown in laminar flow.

The drag breakdown on the various geometries in turbulent flow: M8 =2.4, a = 0o ,

h =12km is shown [Fig. 22].

Fig. 22 Computed drag breakdown in turbulent flow.

21
The effect on drag coefficient with increase in angle of attack in laminar flow: M8 =2.4,
h =12km is shown [Fig. 23].

Fig. 23 Drag coefficient Vs Angle of attack in laminar flow.

The effect on drag coefficient with increase in angle of attack in turbulent flow: M8 =2.4,
h =12km is shown [Fig. 24].

Fig. 24 Drag coefficient Vs Angle of attack in turbulent flow.

22
Chapter 7

Conclusions

The concept of supersonic channel-airfoil can be applied to the leading edges of wings,
tails, fins, struts, and other appendages of aircraft, atmospheric entry vehicles, and
missiles in supersonic flight. It is designed to be beneficial in which the leading edge is
significantly blunted and the Mach number normal to leading edge is supersonic. The
concept of supersonic channel-airfoil have found to have significant effect on the drag,
causing to increase the L/D by over 30% for laminar flow and over 20% for turbulent
flow relative to geometries without channel.

23
References

1. Hefner, J.N., and Bushnell, D.M., “An overview of Concept for Aircraft Drag
Reduction,” Special Course on Concept of Drag Reduction, AGARD Rept. 645,
von kármán Inst., Rhode-St-Genese, Belgium, 1977, pp. 1.1-1.30.
2. Kuchemann, D., The Aerodynamic Design of Aircraft, Pergamon, Oxford, 1978,
pp. 228, 493.
3. Douglas, J.F., Gasiorek, J.M., Swaffield, J.A., Fluid Mechanics, Addison-Wesley,
U.K., 1999, pp. 396.
4. Anderson, J.D., Fundamental of Aerodynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991,
pp. 412, 483.
5. Ruffin, S.R., Gupta, A., and Marshall, D., “Supersonic Channel Airfoils for
Reduced Drag,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 38, No. 3, 2000, pp. 480-486.
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Air.” Journal of Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 25, No 2, 1958, pp. 73-85.
7. Anderson, J.D., Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1989, pp. 250-300.
8. Gupta, A., and Ruffin, S.R., “Aerothermodynamic Design of Supersonic Channel
Airfoils for Drag Reduction,” Journal of Aerospace-SAE 1997 Transactions, Vol.
106, Sec. 1, 1997, pp. 1647-1656.
9. Gupta, A., and Ruffin, S.R., “Optimal Artificially Blunted Leading- Edge Airfoils
for Enhanced Aerothermodynamic Performance,” Journal of Spacecraft and
Rockets, Vol. 36, No. 4, July-August 1999, pp. 499-506.
10. Gupta, A., and Ruffin, S.R., “Aerothermodynamic Performance Enhancement of
Sphere-Cones Using the Artificially Blunted Leading- Edge Concept,” Journal of
Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 37, No. 2, March-April 2000, pp.235-241.
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Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 98, 1985, pp. 130, 158-171.
12. Jones, R.T., “Aerodynamic Design for Supersonic Speed,” Advances in
Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1959, pp. 34-52.

24
13. Finley, P.J., “The Flow of a Jet from a Body Opposing a Supersonic Free
Stream,” Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 26, Pt. 2, 1966, pp. 337-370.
14. Warren, C.H.E., “An Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Coolant Gas at
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400-417.

25