UNIVLkSI1I 1LkNCLCGI MAkA

DLAk1MLN1 CI 8UILDING
IACUL1 CI AkCnI1LC1UkL, LANNING AND
SUkVLING



MLASUkLMLN1 CI SCUND 1kANSMISSICN LCSS
CN CCNCkL1L SLA8 USING S1LLL SLAG AS
CCAkSL AGGkLGA1LS



IIIAn IAknANA 8IN1I A8U 1ALI8
2007273334



SU8MI11LD IN Ak1IAL IULIILLMLN1 CI 1nL
kLUIkLMLN1 ICk 1nL AWAkDS CI 8ACnLLCk CI
CCNS1kUC1ICN MANAGLMLN1 (nCNS.)


AkIL 2009
l

nowadays, ConsLrucLlon lndusLry confronLlng wlLh many lssues on scarclLy of

naLural maLerlal and wasLage exerLlon. Pence, furLher researches needed Lo
overcome Lhe problem arlse, Lhe excesslve usage of naLural maLerlals had creaLed
lnsufflclenL amounL Lo be coped. 1herefore, Lhe ob[ecLlves of Lhls sLudy are Lo
assess Lhe performance of concreLe slab uLlllslng wasLe maLerlal as coarse
aggregaLe Lo achleve Lhe requlremenL of sound Lransmlsslon aL varlous
frequencles and also Lo compare Lhe acousLlcal performance based on waLer-
cemenL raLlo dlfferences. ln order Lo obLaln Lhe flndlngs, Lhls research ls done ln
laboraLory and lL ls fully experlmenLal, where concreLe slab were prepared by
uslng sLeel slag as aggregaLe. 1he laboraLory works are done aL AcousLlcs 1esLlng
LaboraLory 2, laculLy ArchlLecLure, lannlng and Surveylng, ul1M Shah Alam,
Selangor. 1he sLudy focuses on Sound 1ransmlsslon Loss of concreLe slabs uLlllslng
sLeel slag as coarse aggregaLe whlch mlxed lnLo Lwo waLer cemenL raLlos, 0.7 and
0.64. Lach waLer cemenL raLlo concreLe samples comprlse dlfferenL percenLages
of sLeel slag, 0 and 100 by welghL replaclng coarse aggregaLe. 1he experlmenLs
sLarLed by preparlng Lhe cusLomary formwork slzed 1m x 1m, Lhlckness of 73mm.
nexL sLep was Lo prepare Lhe four numbers of LesL samples. Measured Lhe
composlLlon maLerlals accordlngly, mlxed uslng machlne, casL lnLo Lhe cusLomary
formwork and curlng process for 28 days. SubsequenLly, Lhe hardened concreLe
samples were labelled and lnsLalled wlLhln Lhe LesL openlng of orLable Sound
1ransmlsslon Loss Chamber. 1he volumes of Lhe chambers are 9.3m (Chamber 1)
and 11.8(Chamber 2). ConcreLe samples wlLh slag aggregaLe of 0.7 and 0.64 w/c
raLlo obLalned hlgher value, 44d8 and 43d8 respecLlvely, Lhan Lo compare wlLh
conLrol sample LhaL obLalned 41d8 and 43d8, respecLlvely. All samples
experlmenLed had achleved S8l value wlLhln sLandard concreLe value, 40-30d8.
Plgher surface denslLy of Lhe concreLe panel resulLed hlgher S8l value whlch
lndlcaLes slag aggregaLe ln concreLe slab can performed beLLer ln sound lnsulaLlon.
Pence, Lhe ob[ecLlves of Lhls research have been achleved and sLeel slag aggregaLe
can be poLenLlally as an alLernaLlve replacemenL for naLural aggregaLe ln concreLe
due Lo lLs capablllLy and performance.
ll

ACKNUWLEDCEMENT
1hls dlsserLaLlon was successfully done wlLh loLs of supporL and help from many
lndlvlduals. CreaLesL appreclaLlon would llke Lo be express Lo all LhaL had been
conLrlbuLed elLher dlrecLly or lndlrecLly. ueslrably Lo !abaLan erkhldmaLan Awan
(!A) for granLlng scholarshlp award Lo my undergraduaLe years.

llrsLly, l would llke Lo express profound graLlLude Lo my supervlsor, Senlor LecLurer
1n. P[. kamran Shavarebl All, for belng conslsLenLly generous advlce, moLlvaLlon,
consLrucLlve crlLlques and monlLorlng LhroughouL Lhls research. Pls supporLlve,
Llme and Lolerances are hlghly appreclaLed.

Secondly, l would llke Lo exLend my appreclaLlon Lo Pead of rogramme,
AsssoclaLe rofessor Zarlna ?asmln Panur 8L. ParlLh and Senlor LecLurer, AssoclaLe
rofessor SeLl Marlam 8L. Ayop and who have gave absoluLe guldance and
encouragemenL LhroughouL my course ln unlverslLl 1eknologl MA8A.
ConcurrenLly, l would llke Lo Lhanks Lo all laboraLory personnel.

uedlcaLlon of appreclaLlon forwarded Lo all famlly members for glvlng undlvlded
supporL and aLLenLlon all over Lhe years of my sLudles. AddlLlonally, Lhankfulness
Lo few coursemaLes who had glven physlcal help on movlng abouL Lhe samples,
Ahmad 8azld Suklran, Muhammad lalruz 8amll and Mohd Shahrul Azhar Saparl
and Lo all coursemaLes who brlng colours ln beauLlful momenL LhroughouL Lwo
years of sLudy.

llnally, Lo all oLher lndlvlduals whose names are Loo many Lo be menLloned here
for all Lhe lenL-hand glven durlng Lhe produce Lhls reporL.
1hank you.

Iffah Iarhana 8|nt| Abu 1a||b

lll

TABLE UF CUNTENTS
A8S18AC1 ............................................................................................................... l
ACknCWLLuCLMLn1 ............................................................................................ ll
1A8LL Cl CCn1Ln1S ............................................................................................. lll
LlS1 Cl llCu8LS ....................................................................................................vll
LlS1 Cl C8APS ....................................................................................................vll
LlS1 Cl PC1CS ................................................................................................... vlll
LlS1 Cl 1A8LLS .......................................................................................................lx
uLllnl1lCn Cl 1L8MS ........................................................................................... x
CnA1Lk CNL - IN1kCDUC1ICN ................................................................................ 1
1.0. Cvervlew ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1. roblem SLaLemenL ...................................................................................... 2
1.2. Cb[ecLlves of SLudy ....................................................................................... 3
1.3. 8esearch Scope ............................................................................................ 3
1.4. LlmlLaLlon of Lhe SLudy ................................................................................. 4
CnA1Lk 1WC - CCNCkL1L ...................................................................................... S
2.1 lnLroducLlon ................................................................................................. 3
2.2 ConcreLe ln Ceneral ...................................................................................... 3
2.2.1 PlsLory of ConcreLe................................................................................ 3
2.2.2 use as 8ulldlng SLrucLure (Slab) ............................................................. 6
2.2.3 ConsLlLuenL MaLerlals of ConcreLe ......................................................... 6
2.2.3.1 CemenL .........................................................................................6
2.2.3.2 WaLer ............................................................................................8
2.2.3.3 AggregaLes ....................................................................................9
2.2.4 roperLles of ConcreLe......................................................................... 18
2.2.4.1 SLrengLh ......................................................................................18
2.2.4.2 Long 1erm uurablllLy ...................................................................19
2.2.4.3 Lxpanslon and Shrlnkage .............................................................19
2.2.4.4 rlnclples of ConcreLe Mlx ueslgn ...............................................19

lv

CnA1Lk 1nkLL - SCUND 1kANSMISSICN .............................................................. 22
3.1 1heory of Sound ......................................................................................... 22
3.1.1 ueflnlLlon of Sound .............................................................................. 22
3.1.2 Sound and Waves ................................................................................ 22
3.1.3 Sound 1ransmlsslon ............................................................................. 24
3.1.3.1 Alrborne Sound ...........................................................................24
3.1.3.2 lmpacL Sound ..............................................................................23
3.1.4 Alrborne Sound 1ransmlsslon Loss ...................................................... 23
3.1.3 MeasuremenL of Alrborne Sound lnsulaLlon ........................................ 28
3.1.6 revlous LxperlmenLs on Sound lmpacL on ConcreLe ........................... 29
CnA1Lk ICUk - S1LLL SLAG .................................................................................. 31
4.1 SLeel Maklng lndusLry ln Malaysla .............................................................. 31
4.1.1 Cvervlew ............................................................................................. 31
4.1.2 LnvlronmenLal lssue on SLeel 8y-roducLs ........................................... 32
4.2 SLeel slag .................................................................................................... 33
4.2.1 Ceneral................................................................................................ 33
4.2.2 MaLerlal rocesslng 8equlremenL ........................................................ 33
4.2.2.1 CuallLy ConLrol ............................................................................33
4.2.2.2 Washlng ......................................................................................36
4.2.2.3 Crushlng and Screenlng ...............................................................36
4.2.3 Lnglneerlng roperLles ........................................................................ 37
4.2.3.1 hyslcal roperLles ......................................................................38
4.2.3.2 1hermal roperLles .....................................................................38
4.2.3.3 Chemlcal roperLles ....................................................................38
4.2.4 SLeel 8y-roducL ManagemenL ............................................................ 39
4.2.3 use of SLeel Slag AggregaLes ln ConcreLe ............................................. 39
4.3 lssues on 8ulldlng MaLerlal ......................................................................... 41
4.3.1 MaLerlal ShorLage and rlce Plklng ...................................................... 41
4.4 WasLe ManagemenL uLlllsaLlon .................................................................. 42
4.4.1 Lack of ulsposal Area ........................................................................... 42
4.4.2 Pow WasLe Can 8e uLlllsed? ................................................................ 43
4.4.3 usage of WasLe MaLerlal as AggregaLe ................................................ 43
v

4.4.4 SelecLed WasLe MaLerlals ln ConcreLe Mlxes (asL LxperlmenL) .......... 43
4.4.4.1 SLeel Slag AggregaLes (asL LxperlmenLs) ....................................46
4.3 Concluslon .................................................................................................. 47
CnA1Lk IIVL-kLSLAkCn ML1nCDCLCG ............................................................. 48
3.1 Cvervlew .................................................................................................... 48
3.2 MaLerlal ...................................................................................................... 49
3.2.1 CemenL ................................................................................................ 49
3.2.2 Sand .................................................................................................... 49
3.2.3 WaLer .................................................................................................. 49
3.2.4 naLural AggregaLe ............................................................................... 30
3.2.3 LAl Slag ............................................................................................... 30
3.3 Mlx roporLlon ........................................................................................... 31
3.4 1esLlng rocedure....................................................................................... 32
3.4.1 lormwork reparaLlon ........................................................................ 32
3.4.2 Mlxlng and Curlng rocedure .............................................................. 33
3.4.3 1esL Speclmen lnsLallaLlon ................................................................... 38
3.4.4 LlsL of lnsLrumenLaLlons ....................................................................... 60
3.4.3 Sound 1ransmlsslon Loss MeasuremenL rocedures ............................ 60
3.4.3.1 SeL-up rocedures .......................................................................61
3.4.3.2 CallbraLlon rocedures ................................................................62
3.4.3.3 MeasuremenL rocedures ...........................................................62
CnA1Lk ICUk -kLSUL1 AND ANALSIS CI 1nL kLSUL1 ........................................ 63
6.1 8esulLs of Lhe MeasuremenL....................................................................... 63
6.1.1 0.7 WaLer-CemenL 8aLlo ConcreLe Slab wlLh naLural AggregaLe .......... 63
6.1.2 0.7 WaLer-CemenL 8aLlo ConcreLe Slab wlLh LAl Slag AggregaLe ......... 63
6.1.3 0.64 WaLer-CemenL 8aLlo ConcreLe Slab wlLh naLural AggregaLe ........ 67
6.1.4 0.64 WaLer-CemenL 8aLlo ConcreLe Slab wlLh LAl Slag AggregaLe ....... 69
6.2 Analysls and Summary of Lhe 8esulLs .......................................................... 71


vl

CnA1Lk IIVL - CCNCLUSICN, kC8LLMS AND kLCCMMLNDA1ICN .................... 73
7.0 8rlef Concluslon .......................................................................................... 73
7.1 ueLall Concluslon ........................................................................................ 73
7.2 roblems laced uurlng 1hls 8esearch......................................................... 74
7.3 8ecommendaLlon for luLure 8esearch ....................................................... 73
kLILkLNCLS ............................................................................................................. 76
ALNDICLS ............................................................................................................. 83

vll

LIST UF FICURES
llgure 2.1 SkeLches for Lhe vlsual assessmenL of parLlcle shape derlved from
measuremenLs of spherlclLy and roundness .......................................14
llgure 2.2 SkeLches for Lhe vlsual assessmenL of parLlcle shape based on
morphologlcal observaLlons ...............................................................13
llgure 2.3 ulagram lllusLraLlng how mlcrosLrucLure, prlor exposure, and
processlng facLors deLermlne aggregaLe characLerlsLlcs LhaL affecL
mlx proporLlons and properLles of fresh as well as hardened
concreLe. ............................................................................................17
llgure 3.1 vlbraLlons of a sound wave ................................................................23
llgure 3.2 SlmulaLlon of Lhe experlmenL Lo be done Lowards Lhe
concreLe slab .....................................................................................28
llgure 4.1 Cvervlew of Slag producLlon ln modern lnLegraLed sLeel planL ..........34
llgure 6.1 Craph for 0.7 waLer-cemenL raLlo concreLe slab wlLh
naLural aggregaLe ...............................................................................63
llgure 6.2 Craph for 0.7 waLer-cemenL raLlo concreLe slab wlLh
LAl slag aggregaLe .............................................................................63
llgure 6.3 Craph for 0.64 waLer-cemenL raLlo concreLe slab wlLh
naLural aggregaLe ...............................................................................67
llgure 6.4 Craph for 0.64 waLer-cemenL raLlo concreLe slab wlLh
LAl slag aggregaLe .............................................................................69
llgure 6.3 1he value of 8
w
for 0.7 w/c 8aLlo ConcreLe Slab wlLh
73mm Lhlckness .................................................................................71
llgure 6.6 1he value of 8
w
for 0.64 w/c 8aLlo ConcreLe Slab wlLh
73mm Lhlckness .................................................................................72

LIST UF CRAPHS
Craph 4.1 'lron & SLeel' roducLlon lndex from 2006 Lo 2007 shows lncremenL ......31


vlll

LIST UF PHUTUS
hoLo 3.1 Wood was cuL lnLo slzes by uslng Lable saw ..............................................32
hoLo 3.2 Wood [olned LogeLher Lo form square shape before applylng Lhe
plywood base ...........................................................................................................32
hoLo 3.3 Slag aggregaLes sleved Lo obLalned 10mm and 16mm slzes .....................34
hoLo 3.4 Slag aggregaLes sleved accordlngly Lo requlred slzes ................................34
hoLo 3.3 Sand and aggregaLes were alr drled before belng used ............................33
hoLo 3.6 1he well mlxed concreLe are ready Lo be casLed ln Lhe formwork ............33
hoLo 3.7 Well mlxed concreLe poured lnLo Lhe formwork ......................................36
hoLo 3.8 ourlng Lhe second layer ln full ................................................................36
hoLo 3.9 ConcreLe slab were leL dry for 24 hours ...................................................37
hoLo 3.10 Curlng process by spraylng waLer onLo Lhe gunny ..................................37
hoLo 3.11 LefL: Cpenlng Lo be flL by Lhe sample. ....................................................38
hoLo 3.12 Sample placed aL Lhe openlng ................................................................39
hoLo 3.13 1he gap around perlmeLer was sealed uslng waLer-based slllcone (lefL)
and cemenL morLar (rlghL) ........................................................................................39
hoLo 3.14 Sound source wlLh ampllfler ..................................................................61
hoLo 3.13 LocaLlon of 01d8 x" Mlcrophone ln source room ..................................62
hoLo 3.16 8ruel & k[aer LlecLronlc CallbraLor .........................................................62


lx

LIST UF TABLES
1able 2.1 AggregaLe properLles ln relaLlon Lo Lhelr performance ln concreLe, ..........13
1able 2.2 1he deslgnaLed concreLe mlx proporLlon accordlng Lo uCL MeLhod (by
welghL) .....................................................................................................................21
1able 3.1 Sound 1ransmlsslon Class Lxamples ..........................................................26
1able 3.2 Sound 1ransmlsslon Class for Some Common ConcreLe ConsLrucLlon .......27
1able 4.1 1yplcal physlcal properLles of sLeel slag ...................................................38
1able 4.2 1yplcal sLeel slag chemlcal composlLlon .....................................................39
1able 3.1 1he deslgnaLed mlx proporLlon for Lhls experlmenL by welghL ..................31
1able 3.2 1ypes of LesL sample and lLs speclflcaLlon .................................................38
1able 6.1 8esulLs daLa for 0.7 waLer-cemenL raLlo concreLe slab wlLh naLural
aggregaLe .................................................................................................................64
1able 6.2 8esulLs daLa for 0.7 waLer-cemenL raLlo concreLe slab wlLh LAl slag
aggregaLe .................................................................................................................66
1able 6.3 8esulLs daLa for 0.64 waLer-cemenL raLlo concreLe slab wlLh naLural
aggregaLe .................................................................................................................68
1able 6.4 8esulLs daLa for 0.64 waLer-cemenL raLlo concreLe slab wlLh LAl slag
aggregaLe .................................................................................................................70
1able 6.3 Summary of Lhe resulLs..............................................................................72



x

DEFINITIUN UF TERMS
Aggregate
Cranular maLerlal, such as sand, gravel, crushed sLone, or lron blasL-furnace slag,
used wlLh a cemenLlng medlum are essenLlal medlum ln concreLe.

Cement
1he cemenL powder forms a pasLe when mlxed wlLh waLer. 1hls pasLe acLs llke
glue and holds or bonds Lhe aggregaLes LogeLher.

Concrete
ConcreLe ls made by mlxlng cemenL, waLer, coarse and flne aggregaLes and
admlxLures (lf requlred). 1he alm ls Lo make Lhese maLerlals ln measured amounLs
Lo make concreLe LhaL ls easy Lo LransporL, place, compacL and flnlsh, whlch wlll
seL and harden Lo glve a sLrong and durable producL. 1he amounL of each maLerlal
affecLs Lhe properLles of hardened concreLe.

Cur|ng
keeplng concreLe damp for a cerLaln perlod Lo allow lL Lo reaches maxlmum
sLrengLh. Longer curlng wlll glve more durable concreLe.

kecyc|ed Stee|
8ecycled sLeel ls an essenLlal raw maLerlal for boLh Lhe baslc oxygen and elecLrlc
arc furnace sLeel maklng processes.

LAI (LAI S|ag)
AbbrevlaLlon of LlecLrlc Arc lurnace (LAl) sLeel-maklng operaLlon, sLeel scrap ls
melLed ln an elecLrlc arc furnace along wlLh fluxlng agenLs Lo produce slmllar
producLs as LhaL of a 8aslc Cxygen lurnace: sLeel and sLeel slag. ln Lhls process Lhe
SLeel Slag chemlsLry ls based upon Lhe fluxlng pracLlces and Lhe lmpurlLles from
Lhe selecLed scrap.

xl

Irequency
1he number of cycles of vlbraLlon per second. Lxpressed ln PerLz (Pz).

Sound absorpt|on
1he properLles of maLerlal LhaL allows a reducLlon ln Lhe sound energy LhaL
reflecLed by Lhe surfaces of a room. 1he effecL of absorpLlon merely reduces Lhe
resulLanL sound level ln Lhe room produced by energy LhaL has already enLered Lhe
room.

Acoust|cs
1he physlcal quallLles of a room or oLher enclosure (such as slze, shape, amounL of
nolse) LhaL deLermlne Lhe audlblllLy and percepLlon of speech and muslc wlLhln Lhe
room.

A|rborne sound
Sound whlch Lravels or Lransfer Lhrough Lhe alr before reachlng a parLlLlon

Dec|be|
A unlL of sound pressure level, abbrevlaLed d8, ls used Lo calculaLe changes ln
sound and power pressure level.

Impact Sound
1he sound generaLed on a parLlLlon or produced by Lhe colllslon of Lwo solld
ob[ecLs. 1yplcal sources are fooLsLeps, dropped ob[ecLs, eLc., on an lnLerlor surface
(wall, floor, or celllng) of a bulldlng.

Sound 1ransm|ss|on
Sound Lransmlsslon refers Lo a number of processes by whlch sound can be
Lransferred from one parL of a bulldlng Lo anoLher. 1yplcally Lhese are alrborne
Lransmlsslon, lmpacL Lransmlsslon and flanklng Lransmlsslon.

xll

Sound 1ransm|ss|on Loss (S1L)
1ransmlsslon Loss ls a measuremenL of a parLlLlon's ablllLy Lo block sound aL a
glven frequency, or Lhe number of declbels LhaL sound of a glven frequency ls
reduced ln passlng Lhrough a parLlLlon.

Sound 1ransm|ss|on C|ass (S1C)
Sound 1ransmlsslon Class raLes a parLlLlon's reslsLance Lo alrborne sound Lransfer
aL Lhe speech frequencles (123-4000 Pz). 1he hlgher Lhe number, Lhe beLLer Lhe
lsolaLlon.

keverberant Chamber
8everberaLlon chambers are approprlaLe for measuremenL of sound absorpLlon
and Lransmlsslon loss characLerlsLlcs of maLerlals. Chambers can be deslgned wlLh
slngle or double wall consLrucLlon. Chambers can also be flLLed wlLh an lsolaLed
floor.


1

1 CHAPTER UNE - INTRUDUCTIUN
1.0. Uverview


erpendlcularly wlLh Lhe developmenL ln ConsLrucLlon lndusLry and vlslon of 2020
Lo be a developed counLry, some expanslon ln envlronmenL nlche, especlally ln
resldenLlal area whlch slLuaLed wlLhln urban areas ls slgnlflcanL ln order Lo
malnLaln Lhe besL quallLy of llvlng. When Lalklng abouL envlronmenL, vasL
problems had and currenLly faced by earLh and lLs belngs. 1hese lnclude such as
alr polluLlon, waLer conLamlnaLed, soll eroslon, nolse offenslve Lo Lhe nelghbours
and many more. As quoLed by new ?ork ClLy ueparLmenL of ueslgn and
ConsLrucLlon, 2002, Lhey had reallsed LhaL four reasons why Lhey should expand
and lmprove Lhelr pro[ecL wasLe managemenL. llrsLly ls because envlronmenLal
beneflLs of resource conservaLlon, energy savlngs and polluLlon prevenLlon.
AnoLher reason ls LhaL dlverLlng ConsLrucLlon and uemollLlon debrls from landfllls
can save money as Lhe dlsposal slLes are lncreaslngly dlsLanL from Lhe ClLy. 1he
slLe could noL manage Lo handle more wasLes. (new ?ork ClLy ueparLmenL of
ueslgn and ConsLrucLlon, 2002) Pence, Lhls sLudy ls Lo dlg up more on llablllLy of
wasLe maLerlal concernlng acousLlcal aspecLs ln Lhe concreLe slab.

1he concreLe maLerlal ln bulldlng had been expended all over Lhe world, Lherefore
lL ls wlse Lo examlne more on whaL are Lhe characLerlsLlcs mlghL brlng abouL lf Lhe
composlLlon had been replace by oLher maLerlal, whlch ln Lhls sLudy concernlng
Lhe measuremenL of sound Lransmlsslon loss onLo concreLe panel uLlllslng sLeel
slag as coarse aggregaLe. ln consequence, lL ls done by experlmenLed few
concreLe samples ln reverberanL chamber.



2

1.1. Problem Statement


Malaysla has been progresslng Lowards becomlng an excepLlonally prosperous,
lndusLrlallzed and urbanlzed naLlon due Lo lLs unparalleled naLlonal vlslon 2020
and Lhe resulLanL economlc growLh over Lhe pasL decade. 1he ma[or
consequences of Malaysla's rapld urbanlzaLlon are vlewed as 'soclal
LransformaLlon' wlLh a greaLly lncreased generaLlon of munlclpal solld wasLe.
(Murad & Slwar, 2007)

ConcreLe as bulldlng maLerlals have excellenL envlronmenLal credenLlals. 1he raw
maLerlals requlred for concreLe are amongsL Lhe mosL abundanL maLerlals on LarLh
and Lhe uk ls self-sufflclenL ln Lhese maLerlals. Local sourclng of Lhese commonly
occurrlng raw maLerlals and reglonal end producL dellvery reduce Lhe economlc
and envlronmenLal cosLs of haulage. racLlslng lndusLrlal Lcology, Lhe use of by-
producLs from oLher lndusLrles, e.g. fly ash, pulverlsed fuel ash (lA)/ground
granulaLed blasL furnace slag (ggbs) as SupplemenLary CemenLlLlous MaLerlals, and
recycled and secondary aggregaLes ln concreLe furLher reduces envlronmenLal
lmpacLs. (1he ConcreLe CenLre on behalf of Lhe uk ConcreLe laLform
SusLalnablllLy 1ask lorce, 2007)

ConcreLe and masonry walls are accepLed as belng solld and robusL and Lhls
beneflL should noL be underesLlmaLed. 8uL lL cannoL be assumed LhaL all oLher
forms of consLrucLlon offer Lhe same degree of robusLness and securlLy. 1he
lmpllcaLlon ls only robusL ln Lerms of rellably meeLlng Lhe sound lnsulaLlon
requlremenLs. (1he ConcreLe CenLre on behalf of Lhe uk ConcreLe laLform
SusLalnablllLy 1ask lorce, 2007)

MosL of experlmenLs done regardlng Lhe performance of concreLe slab uLlllslng
sLeel slag as aggregaLe only focused on deflnlng Lhe sLaLes of durablllLy and Lhe
sLrengLh. Powever, no experlmenL had been done concernlng performances of
3

concreLe panel uslng sLeel slag as coarse aggregaLe ln Lerm of sound lnsulaLlon. 8y
Lhls research, lL mlghL help Lhe lndusLry Lo make use more of Lhe unwanLed wasLe.


1.2. Ub|ectives of Study


1. 1o measure Lhe sound Lransmlsslon loss properLles of concreLe panel uslng
sLeel slag as coarse aggregaLes Lo lnsulaLe sound.
2. 1o compare Lhe resulLs wlLh Lhe followlng varlaLlons:
a. ulfferenL proporLlon of sLeel slag ln Lhe concreLe mlxLures (0 and 100
replacemenL)
b. ulfferenL waLer-cemenL raLlos whlch are 0.7 and 0.64.


1.3. Researcb Scope


llrsLly ls Lo examlne and uLlllze Lhe wasLe ln Lhe concreLe LhaL acLs as addlLlve
maLerlal. 8aLher Lhan oppose Lhe unwanLed wasLe for no good reason, lL besL Lo
research on whaL beneflL LhaL Lhe wasLe can glve Lo Lhe lndusLry and Lo Lhe world
generally. 8esldes, managlng Lhe wasLe for no good reason mlghL have hlgher
nlche Lo be look over Lhan reuse lL.

1hls research ls Lo be done by LlLeraLure 8evlew and ln Lerms of envlronmenL, and
wlll be carrled-ouL ln AcousLlcs 1esLlng LaboraLory 2, laculLy ArchlLecLure, lannlng
and Surveylng, ul1M Shah Alam, Selangor. 1he samples of concreLe were casLed ln
slze of 1m x 1m wlLh 73mm Lhlckness. 1he composlLlons of Lhe concreLe based on
waLer-cemenL raLlo (0.7 and 0.64) proporLlon deslgnaLed. MeasuremenLs of
Sound 1ransmlsslon Loss are Lo be Laken for all of samples.

4

ln Lhe vlew of Lhe facL LhaL prevlous experlmenLs done on performance of sLeel
slag as aggregaLe ln concreLe slab were more concenLraLed on sLrengLh and
durablllLy, Lhls research ls focuslng more on Lhe ouLcome of envlronmenLal-sclence
nlche, Lo be more speclflc, ln Lerm of acousLlcs.

1.4. Limitation of tbe Study

8esearches on concreLe denslLy had resulLed LhaL concreLe lLself ls a heavy
maLerlal. lor Lhls reason, Lhls sLudy focused on Lhlckness noL more Lhan 73mm.
AddlLlonally, Lhe number of slag aggregaLe avallable ln LaboraLory of laculLy
ArchlLecLure, lannlng and Surveylng, ul1M Shah Alam were llmlLed lf Lhe sample
Lhlckness Lo be more Lhan 73mm.

3

2 CHAPTER TWU - CUNCRETE
2.1 Introduction

laln concreLe ls a mlxLure of few maLerlals of cemenL, sand, aggregaLe and waLer,
ln lLs own proporLlon raLlo. 1hls Lremendous dlscovery of concreLe properLles and
lLs speclal feaLures had made lL as a wldely-use bulldlng maLerlal ln Lhe fleld.

Among Lhem are raw maLerlal avallablllLy, Lhe ablllLy of concreLe Lo Lake Lhe shape
of Lhe form lL ls place ln, and Lhe ease wlLh whlch lLs properLles can be modlfled.
(MaroLLa, 2003)

ConcreLe ls aggregaLe sLablllzed wlLh orLland cemenL pasLe or asphalL cemenL so
LhaL a dlfferenL maLerlal ls formed whlch ls no longer made up of parLlcles. 1he
maLerlal formed ls conLlnuous and rlgld ln Lhe case of orLland cemenL concreLe,
and seml-rlgld ln Lhe case of asphalL concreLe. (MaroLLa, 2003)


2.2 Concrete in Ceneral
2.2.1 History of Concrete


MaroLLa, 2003 menLloned ln hls book LhaL Lhe developmenL of cemenLlng
maLerlals sLarLs from Lhe anclenL LgypLlan Llme and Lhe 8omans, as Lhere are
many proof LhaL Lhey are use Lhe masonry consLrucLlon. Pe also sLaLed LhaL Lhe
LgypLlans used a heaLlng process Lo produce Lhe cemenL, whlle Lhe 8omans, Lhen
englneered a llLLle blL by addlng llme morLars whlch had lncrease Lhelr durablllLy
whlch can help sLrucLure Lo sLand sLlll.
Cne of Lhe besL-known concreLe sLrucLures ls Lhe anLheon ln 8ome. (eck, 2006)
1oday, due Lo lLs superlor properLles, Lhe producLlons of Lhe concreLe Lransplre ln
all parLs of Lhe world.
6

2.2.2 Use as Building Structure {Slab]


AcousLlcs need Lo be consldered. Cenerally concreLe slabs are a greaL way Lo
reduce muslc or conversaLlon nolse belng Lransferred from one level of a home Lo
anoLher, and beLween rooms on Lhe same level. 1hese nolses wlll noL be
LransmlLLed Lhrough a slab. (ueparLmenL of Lhe LnvlronmenL, WaLer, PerlLage and
Lhe ArLs, 2008)

8elnforced concreLe slab panel are among Lhe mosL common sLrucLural elemenLs,
buL desplLe Lhe large number of slabs deslgned and bullL, Lhe deLalls of Lhe elasLlc
and plasLlc behavlour of slabs are noL always appreclaLed or properly Laken lnLo
accounL. 8egardless of whlch deslgn meLhod ls used, Lhe resulLlng slab musL be
servlceable aL Lhe worklng load level, wlLh deflecLlons and cracklng remalnlng
wlLhln accepLable llmlLs. (ark & Camble, 2000)

Slnce Lhe purpose of slabs ls Lo separaLe beLween Lwo areas elLher verLlcally or
horlzonLally, lL ls Lherefore Lo have a cerLaln level of reslsLance. ark and Camble
added, MosL bulldlngs musL be deslgned Lo some level of flre reslsLance ln
addlLlon Lo Lhe varlous sLrucLural elemenLs. 1he flre reslsLance of mosL relnforced
concreLe sLrucLures ls lnherenLly falrly hlgh..."


2.2.3 Constituent Materials of Concrete
2.2.S.1 Cement


CemenL ls a flnely pulverlzed, dry maLerlal LhaL by lLself ls noL a blnder buL
develops Lhe blndlng properLy as a resulL of hydraLlon (l.e. from chemlcal reacLlon
beLween cemenL, mlnerals and waLer). CemenL ls called hydraullc when Lhe
hydraLlon producLs are sLable ln an aqueous envlronmenL. 1he mosL commonly
7

used hydraullc cemenL for maklng concreLe ls orLland cemenL, whlch conslsLs
essenLlally of reacLlve calclum slllcaLes". (MehLa & MonLelro, 2006)

CemenL ls produced by flrlng and subsequenLly guldlng naLural mlneral raw
maLerlals obLalned from quarrles. llrlng aL approxlmaLely 1400C ln a klln
produces so-called orLland cemenL cllnker, whlch afLer grlndlng and addlng
calclum sulphaLe (gypsum) Lo conLrol hardenlng process becomes orLland
cemenL". (eck, 2006)
orLland cemenL ls essenLlally calclum slllcaLe cemenL, whlch ls provlded by flrlng
Lo parLlal fuslon, aL a LemperaLure of approxlmaLely 1300C, a well-homogenlzed
and flnely ground mlxLure of llmesLone or chalk (calclum carbonaLe) and a
approprlaLe quanLlLy of clay or shale." (newman & Choo, 2003)

All developed counLrles have Lhelr own naLlonal sLandards for cemenLs. 1hese
sLandards deflne Lhe permlLLed cemenL composlLlon and seL performance
requlremenLs for properLles such as seLLlng Llme and developmenL of compresslve
sLrengLh. ln Lhe pasL, naLlonal cemenL sLandards ln many counLrles have been
sLrongly lnfluenced by Lhose developed ln Lhe uk and publlshed by Lhe 8rlLlsh
SLandards lnsLlLuLlon (8Sl) and by Lhose developed ln Lhe uSA and publlshed by Lhe
Amerlcan SocleLy for 1esLlng and MaLerlals (AS1M). ln 1991, 8Sl publlshed revlsed
cemenL sLandards. 1hls Luropean SLandard (Ln 197-1) was adopLed ln 2000 by Lhe
followlng Luropean counLrles: AusLrla, 8elglum, uenmark, llnland, lrance,
Cermany, Creece, lceland, lreland, lLaly, Luxembourg, norway, orLugal, Spaln,
Sweden, SwlLzerland and Lhe unlLed klngdom. 1he ob[ecLlve of Lhls sLandard (ln
common wlLh sLandards for oLher maLerlals) ls Lo remove barrlers Lo Lrade."
(newman & Choo, 2003)

As ln slmllar research LhaL been sLudled on Lhe sound absorpLlon characLerlsLlcs of
porous concreLe, Lhe maLerlals used ls Lhe normal orLland cemenL whose speclflc
gravlLy ls 3.14 and blalne flneness ls 3200cm/g conLalnlng 21.4 of SlC
2
(slllcaLes),
3.97 of Al
2
C
3
(alumlna) and 62.72 of CaC (calclum). (ark eL.al, 2004)

8

1he Lype of cemenL Lo be used ln Lhls research wlll be Lhe normal orLland cemenL
whlch also noLed as CLM l ln 8S Ln 197-1:2000.
1he sLandard 8S Ln 197-1: 2000 llsLs flve maln Lypes of cemenL:
CLM l orLland cemenL
CLM ll orLland-composlLe cemenL
CLM lll 8lasLfurnace cemenL
CLM lv ozzolanlc cemenL
CLM v ComposlLe cemenL" (Lyons, 2007)

1herefore, Lhe auLhor would llke Lo make lL as an example for Lhe experlmenL
sLage, by geLLlng as close speclflcaLlon as menLloned.

2.2.S.2 Wuter


ln Lhe producLlon of concreLe, waLer plays an lmporLanL role. lL ls used Lo wash
aggregaLes, as mlxlng waLer, durlng Lhe curlng process and Lo wash ouL mlxers.
1he use of lmpure waLer may resulLs ln aggregaLe parLlcles belng coaLed wlLh sllL,
salL or organlc maLerlals. AggregaLes LhaL have been conLamlnaLed by such lmpure
waLer may produce dlsLressed concreLe due Lo chemlcal reacLlons wlLh Lhe cemenL
pasLe or poor aggregaLe bondlng. (MaroLLa, 2003)

1he general rule ls LhaL lf waLer ls of a quallLy sulLable for sulLable for drlnklng,
Lhen lL ls saLlsfacLory for maklng concreLe, (8S Ln 1008: 2002) (Lyons, 2007)

1he use of waLer conLalnlng aclds or organlcs subsLances should be quesLloned
because of Lhe posslblllLy of surface reacLlons or reLardaLlon. 1he oLher concern
wlLh curlng waLer ls Lhe posslblllLy of sLalnlng or dlscoloraLlon due Lo lmpurlLles ln
Lhe waLer. (MaroLLa, 2003)

2.2.S.S Aggregutex


ln maklng concreLe, aggregaLes musL be graded so LhaL Lhe smaller parLlcles
of flne aggregaLe flll Lhe volds creaLed by Lhe coarse aggregaLe. 1he cemenL pasLe
fllls Lhe volds ln Lhe flne aggregaLe Lhus formlng a dense mlx. (Chudley & Creeno,
2004)

AggregaLe ls a granular maLerlal, such as sand, gravel, crushed sLone, or lron blasL-
furnace slag, used wlLh a cemenLlng medlum Lo form hydraullc-cemenL concreLe or
morLar. Slnce Lhere are 60-80 of Lhe volume concreLe fllled by aggregaLes, Lhe
englneers or researchers all around Lhe world Lo vlew aggregaLes as merely as
lnerL flllers. (Alexander & Mlndess, 2003)

AggregaLe characLerlsLlcs LhaL are slgnlflcanL for maklng concreLe lnclude poroslLy,
gradlng or slze dlsLrlbuLlon, molsLure absorpLlon, shape and surface LexLure,
crushlng sLrengLh, elasLlc modulus, and Lhe Lype of deleLerlous subsLances presenL.
(MehLa & MonLelro, 2006). 1hey also added LhaL evenLhough Lhe chemlcal
reacLlons beLween waLer and cemenL produclng Lhe complex hydraLlon producLs
wlLh adheslve properLy, Lhe aLLendance of aggregaLe also lmporLanL Lo Lhe
properLles of hardened concreLe. lus aggregaLes play ma[or role ln deLermlnlng
Lhe cosL and workablllLy of concreLe mlxLures whlch ls lnapproprlaLe Lo LreaL
aggregaLe less respecL Lhan cemenL.

naLural aggregaLe conslsLs of rock fragmenLs LhaL are used ln Lhelr naLural sLaLe, or
are used afLer mechanlcal processlng such as crushlng, washlng, and slzlng.
Crushed sLone, and sand and gravel are Lhe Lwo prlmary sources of naLural
aggregaLe. SulLable aggregaLe conslsLs of clean, uncoaLed parLlcles of proper slze
range, shape, physlcal soundness, hardness and sLrengLh, and chemlcal properLles.
Crushed sLone can subsLlLuLe for sand and gravel ln mosL appllcaLlons. Angular
parLlcles of crushed sLone are deslrable ln asphalLlc mlxes, because lnLergranular
10

conLacL beLween Lhe angular parLlcles provldes sLrengLh. Powever, Lhe rounded
parLlcles of sand and gravel are preferable ln cemenL concreLe, because rounded
parLlcles lmprove Lhe workablllLy of Lhe weL concreLe. (AggregaLes lnformaLlon
and uaLa, 2009)

ConvenLlonal concreLe aggregaLe conslsLs of sand (flne aggregaLe) and varlous
slzes and shapes of gravel or sLones. Powever, Lhere ls a growlng lnLeresL ln
subsLlLuLlng alLernaLlve aggregaLe maLerlals, largely as a poLenLlal use for recycled
maLerlals. Whlle Lhere ls slgnlflcanL research on many dlfferenL maLerlals for
aggregaLe subsLlLuLes (such as granulaLed coal ash, blasL furnace slag or varlous
solld wasLes lncludlng flbreglass wasLe maLerlals, granulaLed plasLlcs, paper and
wood producLs / wasLes, slnLered sludge pelleLs and oLhers), Lhe only Lwo LhaL
have been slgnlflcanLly applled are glass culleL and crushed recycled concreLe
lLself. (ConcreLe AggregaLe SubsLlLuLes, 2008)


2.2.S.S.1 Sources onJ Types of Aqqreqotes


AggregaLes can come from elLher naLural or manufacLured sources. naLural
aggregaLes come from rock, of whlch Lhere are Lhree broad geologlcal
classlflcaLlons (8oberLs, eL al., 1996):
* lgneous rock. 1hese rocks are prlmarlly crysLalllne and are formed
by Lhe coollng of molLen rock maLerlal beneaLh Lhe earLh's crusL (magma).
* SedlmenLary rocks. 1hese rocks are formed from deposlLed
lnsoluble maLerlal (e.g., Lhe remalns of exlsLlng rock deposlLed on Lhe boLLom of an
ocean or lake). 1hls maLerlal ls Lransformed Lo rock by heaL and pressure.
SedlmenLary rocks are layered ln appearance and are furLher classlfled based on
Lhelr predomlnanL mlneral as calcareous (llmesLone, chalk, eLc.), slllceous (cherL,
sandsLone, eLc.) or arglllaceous (shale, eLc.).
11

* MeLamorphlc rock. 1hese are lgneous or sedlmenLary rocks LhaL
have been sub[ecLed Lo heaL and/or pressure greaL enough Lo change Lhelr mlneral
sLrucLure so as Lo be dlfferenL from Lhe orlglnal rock.

ManufacLured rock Lyplcally conslsLs of lndusLrlal byproducLs such as slag
(byproducL of Lhe meLallurglcal processlng - Lyplcally produced from processlng
sLeel, Lln and copper) or speclalLy rock LhaL ls produced Lo have a parLlcular
physlcal characLerlsLlc noL found ln naLural rock (such as Lhe low denslLy of
llghLwelghL aggregaLe). (avemenL Culde lnLeracLlve AuLhors, 2003)

1he commonesL form of aggregaLe are from Lhe parLlcles of naLural rock,
however Lhe use from recycled aggregaLes ln concreLe have been approved for a
number of years. ArLlflclal and recycled maLerlals accounL for only a Llny fracLlon
of Lhe LoLal aggregaLe produced. (eck, 2006) (newman & Choo, 2003)
SubsequenLly, many researchers Lry Lo flnd alLernaLlve ways Lo noL uslng naLural
source Lo use maybe from wasLes, recycle or arLlflclal maLerlals, and eLc.

1he appearance of vlsual concreLe can be lnfluenced by aggregaLe colour and
surface LreaLmenLs. 1he sLandard 8S Ln 12620: 2002 speclfles Lhe approprlaLe
properLles lncludlng maLerlals, slze, gradlng and shape. AggregaLes for concreLe
are normally classlfled as llghLwelghL, dense or hlgh-denslLy. SLandard dense
aggregaLes are caLegorlzed by slze as flne (l.e. sand) or coarse (l.e. gravel). (Lyons,
2007)


2.2.S.S.2 Purpose onJ Role of Aqqreqotes


AggregaLe Lyplcally accounLs for 70 Lo 80 of Lhe concreLe volume, lL ls
commonly LhoughL of as lnerL flller havlng llLLle effecL on Lhe flnlshed concreLe
properLles. Powever, research has shown LhaL aggregaLe ln facL plays a subsLanLlal
role ln deLermlnlng workablllLy, sLrengLh, dlmenslonal sLablllLy, and durablllLy of
12

Lhe concreLe. Also, aggregaLes can have a slgnlflcanL effecL on Lhe cosL of Lhe
concreLe mlxLure. (ConcreLe AggregaLe SubsLlLuLes, 2008)

AggregaLes are Lhe essenLlal elemenL ln Lhe concreLe LhaL makes lL as an
englneerlng maLerlal. lurLhermore, lL glves Lhe necessary properLles of Lhermal
movemenL LhaL are largely compaLlble Lhan sLeel, and manageable from a
sLrucLural polnL of vlew - whlch pure pasLe would noL do. Cenerally, aggregaLes
more sLable and durable Lo be lncorporaLed lnLo concreLe mlxLures LhaL resulLs
durablllLy. 1hus, lL helps Lo produce an englneerlng maLerlal ln Lwo lmporLanL
consLlLuenL, aL Lhe same Llme Lransformlng Lhe blnder phase lnLo a useful maLerlal.
1hey fulfll Lhe baslc requlremenLs of successful englneerlng: Lo produce a producL
LhaL ls flL-for-purpose ln Lhe mosL economlcal way. (Alexander & Mlndess, 2003)

Alexander and Mlndess Look a quoLe from Legg, 1974:
1be cooclosloo becomes loescopoble tbot oqqteqotes ote oot slmply
flllets oseJ to Jllote tbe expeoslve wotet-cemeot poste ooJ tbos moke o
cbeopet ptoJoct. cooomlcs ote lmpottoot, bot slqolflcoot lmptovemeots lo
tbe wotkoblllty of tbe ftesb cooctete ote coottlboteJ by ptopet cbolce of
oqqteqotes. 5ocb cbolce lofloeoces blqbly lmpottoot ptopettles of botJeoeJ
cooctete os well, socb os volome stoblllty, oolt welqbt, teslstooce to
Jesttoctlve eovltoomeots, stteoqtb, tbetmol ptopettles ooJ povemeot
sllppetloess.

CuallLles LhaL lndlcaLe Lhe usefulness of aggregaLe parLlcles Lo Lhe
consLrucLlon lndusLry are:
1. WelghL.
2. SLrengLh of Lhe parLlcles Lo reslsL weaLherlng, especlally repeLlLlve freezlng
and Lhawlng.
3. SLrengLh as demonsLraLed by Lhe ablllLy of Lhe mass Lo LransmlL a compresslve
force.
13

4. SLrengLh as demonsLraLed by Lhe ablllLy of Lhe lndlvldual parLlcles Lo reslsL
belng broken, crushed, or pulled aparL.
3. SLrengLh of parLlcles Lo reslsL wear by rubblng or abraslon.
6. Adheslon or ablllLy Lo sLlck Lo a cemenLlng agenL.
7. ermeablllLy of Lhe mass, or Lhe ablllLy Lo allow waLer Lo flow Lhrough,
wlLhouL Lhe loss of sLrengLh or Lhe dlsplacemenL of parLlcles.


2.2.S.S.S Sbopes onJ Surfoce Textures


ConcreLe aggregaLes are requlred Lo meeL mlnlmum sLandards of
cleanllness, sLrengLh, and durablllLy, and Lo be subsLanLlally free of deleLerlous
subsLances. MaLerlals LhaL are sofL, very flaky, and Loo porous or LhaL can reacL
deLrlmenLally ln concreLe should be excluded. AggregaLes for concreLe are
characLerlzed by uslng sLandard LesL. 1hls ensures LhaL Lhe aggregaLes conform Lo
mlnlmum speclflcaLlon crlLerla. (Alexander & Mlndess, 2003)

AggregaLe parLlcle shape and surface LexLure are lmporLanL for proper
compacLlon, deformaLlon reslsLance, and workablllLy. 8ounded parLlcles creaLe
less parLlcle-Lo-parLlcle lnLerlock Lhan angular parLlcles and Lhus provlde beLLer
workablllLy and easler compacLlon. llaL or elongaLed parLlcles Lend Lo lmpede
compacLlon or break durlng compacLlon and Lhus, may decrease sLrengLh. (WhlLe,
2007)
arLlcle shape noL only Lo Lhe baslc shape of aggregaLe parLlcles, buL also Lo oLher
measures such as angularlLy, flaklness, and so on. Shape can be descrlbed ln Lerms
of Lhree geomeLrlc properLles: 'spherlclLy', 'roundness' and 'form' (owers, 1933,
Calloway, 1994, Alexander and Mlndness, 2003)

arLlcle shape and surface LexLure lnfluence Lhe properLles of freshly mlxed
concreLe more Lhan Lhe properLles of hardened concreLe. 8ough-LexLured,
angular, and elongaLed parLlcles requlre more waLer Lo produce workable concreLe
14

Lhan smooLh, rounded compacL aggregaLe. ConsequenLly, Lhe cemenL conLenL
musL also be lncreased Lo malnLaln Lhe waLer-cemenL raLlo. Cenerally, flaL and
elongaLed parLlcles are avolded or are llmlLed Lo abouL 13 percenL by welghL of Lhe
LoLal aggregaLe. unlL-welghL measures Lhe volume LhaL graded aggregaLe and Lhe
volds beLween Lhem wlll occupy ln concreLe. 1he vold conLenL beLween parLlcles
affecLs Lhe amounL of cemenL pasLe requlred for Lhe mlx. Angular aggregaLe
lncrease Lhe vold conLenL. Larger slzes of well-graded aggregaLe and lmproved
gradlng decrease Lhe vold conLenL. AbsorpLlon and surface molsLure of aggregaLe
are measured when selecLlng aggregaLe because Lhe lnLernal sLrucLure of
aggregaLe ls made up of solld maLerlal and volds LhaL may or may noL conLaln
waLer. 1he amounL of waLer ln Lhe concreLe mlxLure musL be ad[usLed Lo lnclude
Lhe molsLure condlLlons of Lhe aggregaLe. Abraslon and skld reslsLance of an
aggregaLe are essenLlal when Lhe aggregaLe ls Lo be used ln concreLe consLanLly
sub[ecL Lo abraslon as ln heavy-duLy floors or pavemenLs. ulfferenL mlnerals ln Lhe
aggregaLe wear and pollsh aL dlfferenL raLes. Parder aggregaLe can be selecLed ln
hlghly abraslve condlLlons Lo mlnlmlze wear. (AggregaLe > ConcreLe 8aslc Pome,
2009)

(Spher|c|ty = nomlnal dlameLer /maxlmum lnLercepL,
koundness = average radlus of corners and edges/radlus of
maxlmum lnserLed clrcle)
liqure 2.1 5ketches for the visuo/ ossessment of portic/e shope
derived from meosurements of sphericity ond roundness

13

liqure 2.2 5ketches for the visuo/ ossessment of portic/e shope bosed on
morpho/oqico/ observotions
(llgure 2.1 and llgure 2.3 from Slms and 8rown, 1998)


1ob/e 2.1 4qqreqote properties in re/otion to their performonce in concrete,
%8;(7$,
&6<4&)(4;

Slgnlflcance LffecLs on concreLe
arLlcle Shape Shape lnfluences
parLlcle packlng and
lnLernal aggregaLe
lnLerlock
very lmporLanL lnfluence on concreLe
workablllLy, and hence mlx-waLer
requlremenL. May also lnfluence
concreLe sLrengLh - angular parLlcles
are preferred for lmproved sLrengLh.
llaky parLlcles can reduce sLrengLh
arLlcle Surface
1exLure
Surface LexLure can
affecL surface
frlcLlonal properLles
ln a mlx, and
Lherefore mlx
'harshness'
lnfluences concreLe workablllLy and
mlx-waLer requlremenL (buL less so
Lhan shape). 8ougher LexLure
lmproves aggregaLe bond. lf
excesslve can cause dlmenslonal
lnsLablllLy ln concreLe an assoclaLed
cracklng.
(Alexander & Mlndess, 2003)

16

2.2.S.S.4 Aqqreqote Cborocteristics


A knowledge of cerLaln aggregaLe characLerlsLlcs (l.e., denslLy, gradlng, and
molsLure sLaLe) ls requlred for proporLlonlng concreLe mlxLures. oroslLy or
denslLy, gradlng, shape and surface LexLure deLermlne Lhe properLles of plasLlc
concreLe mlxLures. ln addlLlon Lo poroslLy, Lhe mlneraloglcal composlLlon of
aggregaLe affecLs lLs crushlng sLrengLh, hardness, elasLlc modulus, and soundness,
whlch ln Lurn, lnfluence varlous properLles of hardened concreLe conLalnlng Lhe
aggregaLe. 1he dlagram below lllusLraLlng Lhe varlous lnLerrelaLlons LhaL Lhe
aggregaLe characLerlsLlcs LhaL are slgnlflcanL Lo concreLe properLles are derlved
from Lhe mlcrosLrucLure of Lhe parenL rock, prlor exposure condlLlons, and
processlng facLors. (MehLa & MonLelro, 2006)

SelecLlon of aggregaLes ls an lmporLanL process. AlLhough some varlaLlon
ln aggregaLe properLles ls expecLed, characLerlsLlcs LhaL are consldered when
selecLlng aggregaLe lnclude:

* gradlng
* durablllLy
* parLlcle shape and surface LexLure
* abraslon and skld reslsLance
* unlL welghLs and volds
* absorpLlon and surface molsLure

Cradlng refers Lo Lhe deLermlnaLlon of Lhe parLlcle-slze dlsLrlbuLlon for
aggregaLe. Cradlng llmlLs and maxlmum aggregaLe slze are speclfled because
gradlng and slze affecL Lhe amounL of aggregaLe used as well as cemenL and waLer
17

requlremenLs, workablllLy, pumpablllLy, and durablllLy of concreLe. ln general, lf
Lhe waLer-cemenL raLlo ls chosen correcLly, a wlde range ln gradlng can be used
wlLhouL a ma[or effecL on sLrengLh. When gap-graded aggregaLe are speclfled,
cerLaln parLlcle slzes of aggregaLe are omlLLed from Lhe slze conLlnuum. Cap-
graded aggregaLe are used Lo obLaln unlform LexLures ln exposed aggregaLe
concreLe. Close conLrol of mlx proporLlons ls necessary Lo avold segregaLlon.
(AggregaLe > ConcreLe 8aslc Pome, 2009)
















liqure 2.l uioqrom i//ustrotinq how microstructure, prior exposure, ond
processinq foctors determine oqqreqote chorocteristics thot offect mix
proportions ond properties of fresh os we// os hordened concrete.
(MehLa & MonLelro, 2006)

arenL 8ock
rlor exposure
and processlng
facLors
arLlcles
characLerlsLlcs
- Slze
- Shape
- 1exLure
ConcreLe mlx
proporLlonlng
oroslLy/denslLy
roperLles of
plasLlc concreLe
- ConslsLency
- Coheslveness
- unlL welghL
MlcrosLrucLure
Mlneraloglcal
composlLlon
Crushlng sLrengLh
Abraslon reslsLance
LlasLlc Modulus
Soundness
roperLles of hardened
concreLe
1. ulLlmaLe sLrengLh
2. Abraslon reslsLance
3. ulmenslonal sLablllLy
4. uurablllLy
18

2.2.4 Properties of Concrete


1he properLles of ConcreLe are lLs baslc quallLles. 1he four maln properLles of
concreLe are workablllLy, coheslveness, sLrengLh and durablllLy. ConcreLe has
Lhree dlfferenL sLaLes, plasLlc, seLLlng and hardenlng. lasLlc sLaLe ls when Lhe flrsL
mlxed of Lhe concreLe. lL ls sofL and can be moulded lnLo dlfferenL shapes.
ConcreLe ls plasLlc durlng placlng and compacLlon. SeLLlng sLaLe ls where concreLe
begln Lo sLlffen and no longer sofL. SeLLlng Lakes place afLer compacLlon and
durlng flnlshlng. Pardenlng sLaLe ls where afLer Lhe concreLe has beglns Lo galn
sLrengLh and harden. AL here, lL shows Lhe properLles of sLrengLh and durablllLy.
(CCAA, 2004)


2.2.4.1 Strength


SLrengLh of Lhe mass ls needed lf Lhe aggregaLe ls Lo be used as a base Lo supporL
Lhe welghL of a bulldlng, plpellne, or road, or lf lL ls Lo be used ln orLland cemenL
concreLe or blLumlnous concreLe. 1he sLrengLh of lndlvldual parLlcles Lo reslsL
belng broken, crushed, or pulled aparL ls lmporLanL when Lhe aggregaLe ls Lo be
sub[ecLed Lo a load. ressure on a parLlcle can crush or break lL, allowlng
movemenL of ad[acenL parLlcles. lallure of Loo many parLlcles causes enough
movemenL Lo consLlLuLe fallure. (MaroLLa, 2003)

AggregaLe lncreases Lhe sLrengLh of concreLe and ls a fundamenLal
economlcal facLor because lL Lakes up a large volume of Lhe concreLe and ls much
less expenslve Lhan an equlvalenL volume of cemenL. 1o make very sLrong
concreLe requlres a low w/c and sLrong aggregaLe. (Cracklng uams Advanced Level,
2009)

19

2.2.4.2 Iong 1erm urublllty

SlgnlflcanL lmprovemenLs ln durablllLy Lhrough Lhe use of such maLerlals as
granulaLed blasL-furnace slag, fly ash, slllca fume, and denslfled cemenLs wlll resulL
ln sLrucLures wlLh longer llfe and lower malnLenance cosLs. lnsLrumenLaLlon and
monlLorlng of sLrucLural performance for corroslon deflecLlon and cracklng wlll
lead Lo lmproved and lnLelllgenL maLerlals and meLhods wlLh predlcLable long llves.
(nawy, 1999)


2.2.4.S Fxpunxlon unJ Shrlnkuge


ConcreLe has a very low coefflclenL of Lhermal expanslon. Powever, lf no provlslon
ls made for expanslon, very large forces can be creaLed, causlng cracks ln parLs of
Lhe sLrucLure noL capable of wlLhsLandlng Lhe force or Lhe repeaLed cycles of
expanslon and conLracLlon. As concreLe maLures lL conLlnues Lo shrlnk, due Lo Lhe
ongolng reacLlon Laklng place ln Lhe maLerlal, alLhough Lhe raLe of shrlnkage falls
relaLlvely qulckly and keeps reduclng over Llme (for all pracLlcal purposes concreLe
ls usually consldered Lo noL shrlnk due Lo hydraLlon any furLher afLer 30 years). 1he
relaLlve shrlnkage and expanslon of concreLe and brlckwork requlre careful
accommodaLlon when Lhe Lwo forms of consLrucLlon lnLerface. 8ecause concreLe
ls conLlnuously shrlnklng for years afLer lL ls lnlLlally placed, lL ls generally accepLed
LhaL under Lhermal loadlng lL wlll never expand Lo lLs orlglnally placed volume.
(Wlklmedla loundaLlon, 2009)


2.2.4.4 Prlnclplex of Concrete Mlx exlgn


8efore proporLlonlng a concreLe mlx, you need lnformaLlon concernlng Lhe [ob,
such as slze and shapes of sLrucLural members, requlred sLrengLh of Lhe concreLe,
20

and exposure condlLlons. 1he end use of Lhe concreLe and condlLlons aL Llme of
placemenL are addlLlonal facLors Lo conslder. (arLs Pangar lnc., 2003)

1he 8rlLlsh meLhod of concreLe mlx deslgn, popularly referred Lo as Lhe "uCL
meLhod", ls used ln Lhe unlLed klngdom and oLher parLs of Lhe world and has a
long esLabllshed record. 1he meLhod orlglnaLes from Lhe "8oad noLe no 4", whlch
was publlshed ln CreaL 8rlLaln ln 1930. ln 1973 Lhe noLe was replaced by Lhe
"ueslgn of normal ConcreLe Mlxes", publlshed by Lhe 8rlLlsh ueparLmenL of Lhe
LnvlronmenL (uCL). ln 1988 Lhe "ueslgn of normal ConcreLe Mlxes" was lssued ln
a revlsed and updaLed edlLlon Lo allow for changes ln varlous 8rlLlsh SLandards.
1he uCL meLhod uLlllzes 8rlLlsh LesL daLa obLalned aL Lhe 8ulldlng 8esearch
LsLabllshmenL, Lhe 1ransporL and 8oad 8esearch LsLabllshmenL, and Lhe 8rlLlsh
CemenL AssoclaLlon. 1he aggregaLes used ln Lhe LesLs conformed Lo 8S 882 and Lhe
cemenLs Lo 8S 12 or 8S 4027. (Loglcsphere LLd, 1999)

1he 8rlLlsh uCL meLhod ls based on varlous assumpLlons and requlremenLs:
a. Mlxes are speclfled by Lhe welghLs of Lhe dlfferenL maLerlals conLalned ln a
glven volume of fully compacLed concreLe.
b. lL ls assumed LhaL Lhe volume of freshly mlxed concreLe equals Lhe sum of
Lhe alr conLenL and of Lhe absoluLe volumes of lLs consLlLuenL maLerlals.
1he meLhod Lherefore requlres LhaL Lhe absoluLe denslLles of Lhe maLerlals
be known ln order LhaL Lhelr absoluLe volumes may be calculaLed.
c. lL ls assumed LhaL Lhe sLrengLh of a concreLe mlx depends on, Lhe lree
waLer/CemenL 8aLlo, 1he Coarse AggregaLe 1ype, and 1he CemenL
roperLles. (Loglcsphere LLd, 1999)

Cn Lhe basls of LesLs Lhe uCL MeLhod provldes esLlmaLlon of free waLer/cemenL
raLlo, whlch wlll provlde a glven sLrengLh for concreLe made from glven coarse
aggregaLe and cemenL Lypes. lL also provldes esLlmaLlon on a glven workablllLy for
concreLe made from glven flne and coarse aggregaLe Lypes and a glven maxlmum
21

slze of coarse aggregaLe. 1he uCL MeLhod also provldes guldance on Lhe effecLs of alr enLralnmenL ln a concreLe mlx.

As for Lhls sLudy, lL focused on 0.7 and 0.64 waLer-cemenL raLlo. 1he proporLlons are as follows:

1ob/e 2.2 1he desiqnoted concrete mix proportion occordinq to uO Method {by weiqht)


Water-
Cement
kat|o
Grade M|x
Cement
(kg]m3)
Water
(kg]m3)
Aggregate (kg]m3)
Sand
(kg]m3)
16 mm 10 mm
S|ag Natura| S|ag Natura|
0.7 G2S
nA M1 293 203 - 316 - 260 1113
SA M1 -
100
293 203 618.4
-
311.6
- 1113

0.64 G3S
nA M2 320 203 - 337 - 268 1063
SA M2 -
100
320 203 643.6
-
321.2
- 1063

22

3 CHAPTER THREE - SUUND TRANSMISSIUN
3.1 Tbeory of Sound
3.1.1 Definition of Sound


Sound or acousLlcs are lncludlng Lhe generaLlon, Lransmlsslon, and effecLs of sound
waves, boLh audlble and lnaudlble. (1he A,8,C's of nolse ConLrol - A Clossary of
nolse ConLrol 1erms)

Sound ls a vlbraLlon ln Lhe pressure of Lhe alr whlch has effecL our ears and braln.
1hese pressure varlaLlons Lransfer energy from a source of vlbraLlon LhaL can be
naLurally occurrlng, such as wlnd or produced by humans. Sound ln Lhe alr can be
caused by a varleLy of vlbraLlons such as movlng ob[ecLs (vlbraLlng walls, human
vocal chords, eLc.) and movlng alr (horns, mechanlcal fans, eLc.). (McMullan, 2002)


3.1.2 Sound and Waves


1he mechanlcal vlbraLlons of sound move forward uslng wave moLlon. 1hls means
LhaL, alLhough Lhe lndlvldual parLlcles of maLerlal such as alr molecules reLurn Lo
Lhelr orlglnal poslLlon, Lhe sound energy obvlously Lravels forward. 1he waves are
longlLudlnal because Lhe parLlcles of Lhe medlum carrylng Lhe wave vlbraLe ln Lhe
same dlrecLlon as Lhe Lravel of Lhe wave, as shown ln flgure below. 1he sound
waves can Lravel Lhrough sollds, llqulds and gases, buL noL Lhrough a vacuum.
(McMullan, 2002)

Sound ls vlbraLlon, can pass Lhrough many dlfferenL subsLances, ln facL, lL requlres
Lhe presence of a medlum. Sound cannoL Lravel ln a vacuum. 1he mosL common
medlum wlLhln whlch we percelve sound ls, of course, alr. varlous movemenLs
around us cause vlbraLlons ln alr molecules, and Lhls sound energy ls LransporLed
23

ouLwards as waves. Much ln Lhe same way as waves move across Lhe surface of a
pond, so does sound move Lhrough Lhe alr. Cnce Lhe acLlon LhaL caused Lhe waves
ceases, Lhen Lhe pond wlll gradually reLurn Lo lLs orlglnal poslLlon, as lf noLhlng had
happened. (1he hyslcs of Sound, 2006)

Sound also Lravels Lhrough waLer, and can Lravel Lhrough sollds Loo, such as wood,
brlck, lron and so on. 1he ease wlLh whlch lL can do so depends upon Lhe
composlLlon of Lhe medlum, and Lhe naLure of Lhe sound lLself. ulfferenL
frequencles can move more easlly Lhrough cerLaln subsLances Lhan oLhers, and
some frequencles Lravel furLher Lhan oLhers. Approachlng a concerL, for example,
you may well hear Lhe Lhumplng of Lhe bass drum before all else. (1he hyslcs of
Sound, 2006)

Waves Lravel as a Lransfer of energy wlLhln a medlum - a wave ls essenLlally a
sequence of compresslons (movlng LogeLher) and rarefacLlons (movlng aparL) of
molecules.


liqure l.1 vibrotions of o sound wove

Sound waves are llke any oLher wave moLlon and Lherefore can be speclfled ln
Lerms of wavelengLh, frequency and veloclLy. (McMullan, 2002)

1he wavelengLh may be deflned as horlzonLal dlsLance beLween Lwo successlve
equlvalenL polnLs on Lhe waveform. 1hese Lwo polnLs usually Laken place aL peaks
(hlghesL polnL) or Lroughs (lowesL). 1he ampllLude equaLes Lo Lhe helghL of Lhe
wave, loud sounds produce hlgher ampllLude. (loley, 1999)
B
-
1lm
ulsplacemen
arLl
1

24


lrequency ls Lhe number of cycles of vlbraLlon per second and ls measured ln
PerLz (Pz). veloclLy ls Lhe dlsLance moved per second ln a flxed dlrecLlon and Lo be
measured ln meLres per second (m/s). lor every vlbraLlon of Lhe sound source Lhe
wave moves forward by one wavelengLh. 1he number of vlbraLlons per second
Lherefore lndlcaLes Lhe LoLal lengLh moved ln 1 second, whlch Lhe same as veloclLy
ls. (McMullan, 2002)


3.1.3 Sound Transmission


ln bulldlngs conLexL, when dlscusslng abouL sound, Lhe deslgner of Lhe bulldlng
shall conslder abouL Lhe mode of Lhe Lransmlsslon passed Lhrough Lhe bulldlng
maLerlals. 1heoreLlcally, sound can be LransmlLLed or Lransferred lnLo bulldlngs
and beLween dlfferenL parLs of bulldlngs by means of several dlfferenL
mechanlsms, whlch are vla alrborne sound and lmpacL sound. (McMullan, 2002)


S.1.S.1 Alrborne SounJ


Alrborne sound ls sound LhaL reaches polnL of lnLeresL by propagaLlon Lhrough alr.
(1he A,8,C's of nolse ConLrol - A Clossary of nolse ConLrol 1erms).

1he sound whlch Lravels Lhrough Lhe alr before reachlng a parLlLlon, as deflned by
McMullan ls noL as slmple as merely saylng Lhe 'sound Lravels Lhrough Lhe alr'.
1he vlbraLlon ln Lhe parLlLlon under conslderaLlon musL be sLarLed by sound LhaL
has Lravelled Lhrough Lhe alr, and Lyplcal alrborne sounds lnclude volces, radlos,
muslcal lnsLrumenLs, Lrafflc and alrcrafL nolse. (McMullan, 2002)


23

S.1.S.2 Impuct SounJ


lmpacL sound ls sound whlch ls generaLed on a parLlLlon. A conLlnuous vlbraLlon
can be consldered as a serles of lmpacLs and lmpacL sound ls also Lermed
sLrucLure-borne sound. 1yplcal sources of lmpacL sound lnclude fooLsLeps,
slammed doors and wlndows, nolsy plpes and vlbraLlng machlnery.


3.1.4 Airborne Sound Transmission Loss


Sound 1ransmlsslon Loss (S1L) ls a measure of sound lnsulaLlon provlded by a
sLrucLural conflguraLlon and expressed ln declbels.
(www.arLusalndusLrles.us/Lerms, 2008). Meanwhlle, alrborne Sound 1ransmlsslon
Loss acL as Lo prevenL Lhe passage of sound requlres a solld barrler LhaL ls
lmpervlous Lo alr. Common barrler maLerlals are gypsum board, concreLe eLc.
1hey are, however, beneflclal when placed lnslde properly deslgned cavlLy walls or
floors. (CovernmenL of Canada, naLlonal 8esearch Councll Canada, lnsLlLuLe for
8esearch ln ConsLrucLlon, 2003)

As deflned by CameLs, 2003, Sound 1ransmlsslon Class (S1C) ls a slngle number
raLlng sysLem whlch represenLs Lhe sound Lransmlsslon loss performance of a wall.

Sound 1ransmlsslon Class (S1C) ls an lnLeger raLlng of how well a bulldlng parLlLlon
aLLenuaLes alrborne sound. ln Lhe uSA, lL ls wldely used Lo raLe lnLerlor parLlLlons,
celllngs/floors, doors, wlndows and exLerlor wall conflguraLlons (AS1M
lnLernaLlonal ClasslflcaLlon L413 and L90). CuLslde Lhe uSA, Lhe Sound 8educLlon
lndex (S8l) of lSC SLandard ls used. (Wlklpedla, 2009)

26


1ob/e l.1 5ound 1ronsmission c/oss xomp/es
S1C
(d8)
What can be heard
23 normal speech can be undersLood qulLe easlly and dlsLlncLly Lhrough wall
30 Loud speech can be undersLood falrly well, normal speech heard buL noL
undersLood
33 Loud speech audlble buL noL lnLelllglble
40 CnseL of "prlvacy"
42 Loud speech audlble as a murmur
43 Loud speech noL audlble, 90 of sLaLlsLlcal populaLlon noL annoyed
30 very loud sounds such as muslcal lnsLrumenLs or a sLereo can be falnLly
heard, 99 of populaLlon noL annoyed
60+ Superlor soundprooflng, mosL sounds lnaudlble
(5ootce . Covetomeot of coooJo, Notloool keseotcb cooocll coooJo, lostltote fot keseotcb lo
coosttoctloo, 2005)

ln LaboraLory, speclmens Lo be measured are placed beLween Lwo rooms LhaL are
lsolaLed from each oLher so Lhere ls no Lransmlsslon of vlbraLlon. nolse ls
generaLed ln one room and Lhe sound pressure levels ln declbels are measured ln
boLh aL several dlfferenL frequencles. 1he bandwldLh for Lhe measuremenL ls one-
Lhlrd of an ocLave. 1he quanLlLy LhaL resulLs ls Lhe Lransmlsslon loss ln declbels
(d8). 1hls represenLs Lhe loss ln sound power due Lo Lransmlsslon Lhrough Lhe
speclmen. (CovernmenL of Canada, naLlonal 8esearch Councll Canada, lnsLlLuLe for
8esearch ln ConsLrucLlon, 2003)

1he S1C number ls derlved from sound aLLenuaLlon values LesLed aL slxLeen
sLandard frequencles from 123 Pz Lo 4000 Pz. 1hese Lransmlsslon-loss values are
Lhen ploLLed on a sound pressure level graph and Lhe resulLlng curve ls compared
Lo a sLandard reference conLour. AcousLlcal englneers flL Lhese values Lo Lhe
approprlaLe 1L Curve (or 1ransmlsslon Loss) Lo deLermlne an S1C raLlng.
SomeLlmes, acousLlcal labs wlll measure 1L aL frequencles below Lhe normal S1C
boundary of 123 Pz, posslbly down Lo 30 Pz or lower, Lhus glvlng addlLlonal
valuable daLa Lo evaluaLe Lransmlsslon loss aL very low frequencles. (Wlklpedla,
2009)

27

S1C ls roughly Lhe declbel reducLlon ln nolse a parLlLlon can provlde, abbrevlaLed
'd8'. lf an 80d8 sound on one slde of a wall/floor/celllng ls reduced Lo 30d8 on Lhe
oLher slde, LhaL parLlLlon ls sald Lo have an S1C of 30. 1hls number does noL apply
across Lhe range of frequencles, slnce Lhe S1C value ls derlved from a curve-flL of
many daLa polnLs. Any parLlLlon wlll have less 1L aL lower frequencles. lor
example, a wall wlLh an S1C of 30 may provlde over 40d8 of aLLenuaLlon aL 3000
Pz buL only 10d8 of aLLenuaLlon aL 123 Pz. (Wlklpedla, 2009)

1able 2.3 glve represenLaLlves S1C values for some common concreLe walls or
floors measured ln laboraLorles. lL wlll be seen LhaL slmple concreLe slabs can
provlde S1C raLlngs beLween abouL 40d8-30d8. (Crocker, 1998)


1ob/e l.2 5ound 1ronsmission c/oss for 5ome common concrete construction
CCNCkL1L CCNS1kUC1ICN
SUkIACL MASS
(kg]m)
S1C
Solld Slab
30mm
70mm
100mm
130mm
200mm

113
161
230
343
460

43
47
32
33
38
Pollow Core Slab
130mm
200mm
230mm

220
278
312

48
30
30
recasL uouble 1
333mm deep wlLh 30mm
Lopplng

366

34
(5ootce . nooJbook of Acoostlcs, ctocket, 1998)

28


liqure l.2 5imu/otion of the experiment to be done towords the concrete s/ob

llgure 2.6 shows an ldeallzed faclllLy for measurlng wall sound Lransmlsslon. 1he
hlgher Lhe Lransmlsslon loss, Lhe hlgher Lhe S1C, Lhe beLLer Lhe sound lnsulaLlon as
less sound passes Lhrough Lhe wall. (CovernmenL of Canada, naLlonal 8esearch
Councll Canada, lnsLlLuLe for 8esearch ln ConsLrucLlon, 2003)

uue Lo Lhelr hlgh denslLy, concreLe and concreLe block walls have good
Lransmlsslon loss values (S1C's ln Lhe 40s and 30s for 4-8" Lhlckness). (Wlklpedla,
2009)


3.1.5 Measurement of Airborne Sound Insulation


MeLhods for measurlng sound lnsulaLlon are speclfled ln naLlonal and lnLernaLlonal
sLandards. 1he mosL common meLhod of deLermlnlng alrborne sound lnsulaLlon ls
Lhe Lwo-room meLhod. 1hese measuremenLs are performed ln laboraLory LesL
faclllLles ln whlch only one paLh for Lhe Lransmlsslon of sound ls Lhrough Lhe
speclmen, Lransmlsslon along oLher paLh ls suppressed. 1he LesL speclmen ls
mounLed beLween a source room and a recelvlng room, boLh of whlch are hard
surfaced and reverberanL. 1he average sound pressure level ls measured ln each
room ln one-Lhlrd-ocLave bands. 1he sound pressure level ln Lhe recelvlng room ls
deLermlned by Lhe sound reducLlon lndex (Lransmlsslon loss) $ of Lhe LesL
29

speclmen, Lhe area of LesL speclmen, and Lhe equlvalenL sound absorpLlon area of
Lhe recelvlng room. 1he relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe measured quanLlLles ls

k = l
1
- l
2
- 10 loq 5 d8
A

where L
1
ls Lhe sound pressure level ln Lhe source room and L
2
Lhe sound pressure
level ln Lhe recelvlng room (boLh ln declbels) and S ls Lhe area of Lhe LesL speclmen,
and A Lhe equlvalenL sound absorpLlon area of Lhe recelvlng room. (Crocker, 1998)


3.1. Previous Experiments on Sound Impact on Concrete


1here are few researches all around Lhe world Lrylng Lo flnd ouL Lhe ouLcome from
Lhe sound wavelengLh Lowards Lhe concreLe. Many of Lhem Lry Lo varles from one
maLerlal subsLances Lo anoLher.

1he one slmllar wlLh Lhe auLhor's lnLenLlon ls Lhe experlmenL LlLled, SLudles on Lhe
Sound AbsorpLlon CharacLerlsLlcs of orous ConcreLe 8ased on Lhe ConLenL of
8ecycled AggregaLe and 1argeL vold 8aLlo done by Seung 8um ark, uae Seuk Seo
and !un Lee. 1hey found ouL LhaL Lhls sLudy performed an evaluaLlon of physlcal
and mechanlcal properLles and sound absorpLlon caharcLerlsLlcs of porous
concreLe. ueslgn was based on Lhe LargeL vold raLlon and Lhe conLenL of recycled
aggregaLe. 1he ob[ecLlves are Lo reduce Lhe nolse generaLed ln roads, rallroads,
resldenLlal and downLown areas as well as Lo uLlllse recylced wasLe concreLe
aggregaLe. (ark eL.al, 2004)

AnoLher qulLe recenLly done ls on Lhe ConLrolllng Lhe lmpacL Sound lnsulaLlon on
ConcreLe Slab lloors. 1hls experlmenL done by Seddeq and Poda S. . 1hls paper
lnvesLlgaLes Lhe lmpacL sound aLLenuaLlon of a concreLe slab floor wlLh dlfferenL
coverlng as Lopplng layers. 1he concreLe slab floor was LesLed wlLh exLrudede
30

polysLyrene foam board wlLh a Lhln rubber layer adhered Lo ceramlc or vlnyl Llles.
1he welghLed normallsed lmpacL sound pressure level and welghLed reducLlon of
lmpacL sound pressure level have been deLermlned and used for comparlson
beLween Lhe LesLed samples. (Seddeq & S., 2006)

As a consequence, Lhere ls Lhe mosL recenL experlmenL LhaL have slmllarlLles. lL ls
abouL Lhe use of Crumb 8ubber Lo lmprove 1hermal and Sound roperLles of re-
casL ConcreLe anel. ln Lhls sLudy, Lhe Lhermal and sound properLles of crumb
rubber concreLe panel were lnvesLlgaLed. 1he crumb rubber from used Llres,
produced ln a local recycllng planL, was used Lo replace flne aggregaLe aL raLlops of
10, 20 and 30. roperLles such as Lhermal conducLlvlLy, Lhermal reslsLlvlLy,
heaL Lransfer, conducLance value, sound absorpLlon aL dlfferenL frequency and
nosle reducLlon were lnvesLlgaLed. 8esulLs lndlcaLed LhaL crumb rubber concreLe
palnel was noL only llghLer buL had hlgher sound absorpLlon and lower heaL
Lransfer properLles Lhan Lhe convenLlonal panel. (SukonLasukkul, 2008)




31

4 CHAPTER FUUR - STEEL SLAC
4.1 Steel Making Industry in Malaysia
4.1.1 Uverview


As reporLed ln Lhe Malaysla: erformance of Lhe ManufacLurlng and Servlces
SecLors 2007, Lhe lndusLrlal roducLlon lndex (ll) publlshed by Lhe ueparLmenL of
SLaLlsLlcs, Lhe ouLpuL of lron and sLeel ln 2007 lncreased by 16.4 per cenL malnly
due Lo Lhe lmprovemenL of demand ln Lhe domesLlc markeL. lmplemenLaLlon of
nlnLh Malaysla lan pro[ecLs and Lhe poslLlve economlc ouLlook have resulLed ln
Lhe lncrease ln Lhe ouLpuL, sales and employmenL of Lhe lron and sLeel lndusLry.
(Malaysla: erformance of Lhe ManufacLurlng and Servlces SecLors 2007, 2008)


6roph 4.1 lron & 5tee/ Production lndex from 200 to 2007 shows increment
(5ootce . Moloyslo. letfotmooce of tbe Mooofoctotloq ooJ 5etvlces 5ectots 2007,2008)

1he recycled sLeel used as raw maLerlal ln LlecLrlc Arc lurnace SLeelmaklng had
produced a number of by-producLs such as slag, ammonla, lron oxldes are
capLured durlng Lhe coke and lron maklng processes. 1hese by-producLs are used
for road pavemenL, cemenLs, and rooflng compounds. lurLhermore, Lhe sLeel ls
32

100 recyclable and can be recycled lnflnlLely wlLhouL ever affecLlng lLs sLrengLh
or durablllLy. (kelley, 2000)

Pence, Lhe more producLlon of sLeel, Lhe more sLeel slag produced. lrom here,
Lhe avallablllLy of Lhe sLeel slag for aggregaLe would be much easler.


4.1.2 Environmental Issue on Steel By-Products


AlLhough ll had reporLed Lhe producLlon of sLeel lncreaslng, Lhe sLeel by-producL
lssue on envlronmenLal aspecLs would noL conLrlbuLe much. Many researches had
proven LhaL Lhe sLeel by-producLs, especlally slags, are envlronmenLal frlendly.

1hls had been also Lalked ln L.A.l Slag rocesslng, 8ecycllng, and uses Conference
ln 1ehran 19
Lh
uecember 2007 LhaL wasLe produced aL mlll slLes as hlgh-value and
envlronmenLally frlendly. (1sL naLlonal lranlan LAl Slag Conference 2007, 2008)

AddlLlonally, ln Clobal Slag Magazlne publlshed lebruary 2007, LhaL Lhe unlLed
SLaLes revealed LhaL sLeel by-producL can beneflL for arable and grassland farmlng
on agrlculLural land. 1hls proves LhaL sLeel slag, a by-producL of sLeel
manufacLurlng lndusLry, envlronmenLally frlendly. lurLhermore, Lhe !apanese
Lhrough !lL SLeel CorporaLlon ls growlng ln produclng sLeels, found ouL LhaL slag
are boLh beneflclal as well as envlronmenLally frlendly afLer reallslng recycled
wasLe producLs supporL !apan growlng recycle programme. (ro ubllcaLlons
lnLernaLlonal LLd, 2007)

33

4.2 Steel slag
4.2.1 Ceneral


Slag ls a by-producL of processlng lron ore Lo lron and sLeel ln a blasL
furnace. (Waalkes, 2003) SLeel slag can be used as aggregaLe ln granular base
appllcaLlons. lL ls consldered by many speclfylng agencles Lo be a convenLlonal
aggregaLe and can normally exceed Lhe aggregaLe requlremenLs for granular
aggregaLe base. 1he hlgh bearlng capaclLy of sLeel slag aggregaLes can be used
advanLageously on weak subgrades. Cood lnLerlock beLween sLeel slag aggregaLe
parLlcles provldes good load Lransfer Lo weaker subgrades. 8ecause of Lhelr
slmllar parLlcle shape and angle of lnLernal frlcLlon, blasL furnace slag aggregaLes
have aL Llmes been blended wlLh sLeel slag aggregaLes Lo lmprove yleld, wlLhouL
subsLanLlal reducLlon ln sLablllLy. (SLeel Slag user Culdellne, 1998)


4.2.2 Material Processing Requirement


SLeel slag, a by-producL of sLeel maklng, ls produced durlng Lhe separaLlon of Lhe
molLen sLeel from lmpurlLles ln sLeel-maklng furnaces. 1he slag occurs as a molLen
llquld melL and ls a complex soluLlon of slllcaLes and oxldes LhaL solldlfles upon
coollng. vlrLually all sLeel ls now made ln lnLegraLed sLeel planLs uslng a verslon of
Lhe baslc oxygen process or ln speclalLy sLeel planLs (mlnl-mllls), uslng an elecLrlc
arc furnace (LAl) process. 1he open hearLh furnace process ls no longer used.
(SLeel Slag, 2007)

ln Lhe baslc oxygen process, hoL llquld blasL furnace meLal, scrap, and fluxes, whlch
conslsL of llme (CaC) and dolomlLlc llme (CaC.MgC or dollme"), are charged Lo a
converLer (furnace). A lance ls lowered lnLo Lhe converLer and hlgh-pressure
oxygen ls ln[ecLed. 1he oxygen comblnes wlLh and removes Lhe lmpurlLles ln Lhe
charge. 1hese lmpurlLles conslsL of carbon as gaseous carbon monoxlde, and
34

slllcon, manganese, phosphorus and some lron as llquld oxldes, whlch comblne
wlLh llme and dollme Lo form Lhe sLeel slag. AL Lhe end of Lhe reflnlng operaLlon,
Lhe llquld sLeel ls Lapped (poured) lnLo a ladle whlle Lhe sLeel slag ls reLalned ln Lhe
vessel and subsequenLly Lapped lnLo a separaLe slag poL. (SLeel Slag, 2007)

1here are many grades of sLeel LhaL can be produced, and Lhe properLles of Lhe
sLeel slag can change slgnlflcanLly wlLh each grade. Crades of sLeel can be classlfled
as hlgh, medlum, and low, dependlng on Lhe carbon conLenL of Lhe sLeel. Plgh-
grade sLeels have hlgh carbon conLenL. 1o reduce Lhe amounL of carbon ln Lhe
sLeel, greaLer oxygen levels are requlred ln Lhe sLeel-maklng process. 1hls also
requlres Lhe addlLlon of lncreased levels of llme and dollme (flux) for Lhe removal
of lmpurlLles from Lhe sLeel and lncreased slag formaLlon. (SLeel Slag, 2007)













(SLeel Slag, 2007)
liqure 4.1 Overview of 5/oq production in modern inteqroted stee/ p/ont


Slag for
ulsposal
nonmeLalllc SLeel Slag
for oLenLlal AggregaLe
rlmary
SLeelmakl
ng
(lurnace)
1ransfer
Ladle
Ladle
WasLe &
uumped
SynLheLlc
llux
lurnace
Slag
8aker
Slag
Ladle
Slag
lL
Slag
MeLals
8ecove
ry
MeLals
8ecove
ry
leedsLo
ck
33

llgure 4.2 presenLs a dlagram of Lhe general flow and producLlon of dlfferenL slags
ln a modern sLeel planL. 1he sLeel slag produced durlng Lhe prlmary sLage of sLeel
producLlon ls referred Lo as furnace slag or Lap slag. 1hls ls Lhe ma[or source of
sLeel slag aggregaLe. AfLer belng Lapped from Lhe furnace, Lhe molLen sLeel ls
Lransferred ln a ladle for furLher reflnlng Lo remove addlLlonal lmpurlLles sLlll
conLalned wlLhln Lhe sLeel. 1hls operaLlon ls called ladle reflnlng because lL ls
compleLed wlLhln Lhe Lransfer ladle. uurlng ladle reflnlng, addlLlonal sLeel slags
are generaLed by agaln addlng fluxes Lo Lhe ladle Lo melL. 1hese slags are
comblned wlLh any carryover of furnace slag and asslsL ln absorblng deoxldaLlon
producLs (lncluslons), heaL lnsulaLlon, and proLecLlon of ladle refracLorles. 1he
sLeel slags produced aL Lhls sLage of sLeel maklng are generally referred Lo as raker
and ladle slags. (SLeel Slag, 2007)

lL slag and clean ouL slag are oLher Lypes of slag commonly found ln sLeel-maklng
operaLlons. 1hey usually conslsL of Lhe sLeel slag LhaL falls on Lhe floor of Lhe planL
aL varlous sLages of operaLlon, or slag LhaL ls removed from Lhe ladle afLer Lapplng.
8ecause Lhe ladle reflnlng sLage usually lnvolves comparaLlvely hlgh flux addlLlons,
Lhe properLles of Lhese synLheLlc slags are qulLe dlfferenL from Lhose of Lhe
furnace slag and are generally unsulLable for processlng as sLeel slag aggregaLes.
(SLeel Slag, 2007)


4.2.2.1 quullty Control


Speclal quallLy-conLrol procedures are needed durlng sLeel slag producLlon (aL Lhe
sLeel-maklng planL) and durlng aggregaLe processlng Lo ensure LhaL sLeelworks
rubblsh" (furnace brlck, wood, lncompleLely fused fragmenLs, llme, rock, eLc.) ls
noL lncluded as parL of Lhe sLeel slag aggregaLe.

36

ln addlLlon Lo conLrol problems assoclaLed wlLh volume lnsLablllLy and Lufa
preclplLaLes formaLlon, only sulLable hlgh-quallLy furnace slags LhaL do noL conLaln
slgnlflcanL quanLlLles of unreacLed llme and dollme should be used.

ueLermlnaLlon done by kneller, CupLa, 8orkowskl, and u. uolllmore ln 1994
lndlcaLes Lufa formaLlon ls llkely Lo occur ln hlghway subdraln appllcaLlons lf Lhe
orlglnal LoLal llme conLenL (CaC) of sLeel slags exceeds 1 percenL. AlLhough
weaLherlng ls useful Lo conLrol Lhe volumeLrlc lnsLablllLy of sLeel slags, lL does noL
appear Lo prevenL Lhe formaLlon of Lufa preclplLaLes. (SLeel Slag user Culdellne,
1998)


4.2.2.2 Wuxhlng


larrand and Lmery had recommendaLlons LhaL suggesL sLeel slag aggregaLes
should be washed and should conLaln less Lhan 3 percenL by mass of non-slag
consLlLuenLs, less Lhan 0.1 percenL wood conLenL, and have no deLecLable sofL llme
parLlcles and llme-oxlde agglomeraLlons presenL. (SLeel Slag user Culdellne, 1998)


4.2.2.S Cruxhlng unJ Screenlng


rlor Lo use as a granular base maLerlal, ferrous componenLs of Lhe sLeel slag are
magneLlcally separaLed. SLeel slag musL be crushed and screened Lo produce a
sulLable granular aggregaLe gradaLlon uslng processlng equlpmenL slmllar Lo LhaL
for convenLlonal aggregaLes. (SLeel Slag user Culdellne, 1998)

37

4.2.3 Engineering Properties


lew lmporLanL properLles of sLeel slag LhaL are of parLlcular lnLeresL when sLeel
slag ls used as an aggregaLe ln granular base lnclude gradaLlon, speclflc gravlLy,
sLablllLy, durablllLy, corroslvlLy, volumeLrlc lnsLablllLy, dralnage and Lufa formaLlon.

CradaLlon : SLeel slag can readlly be processed for granular aggregaLes.
Speclflc CravlLy : uue Lo relaLlvely hlgh speclflc gravlLy (3.2-3.6) of sLeel slag,
sLeel slag aggregaLe can be expecLed Lo yleld a hlgher
denslLy producL compared wlLh convenLlonal mlxes (2.3-2.7)
SLablllLy : SLeel slag aggregaLes have hlgh angle of lnLernal frlcLlon
(40 Lo 43) LhaL conLrlbuLe Lo hlgh sLablllLy and Callfornla
8earlng 8aLlo (C88) values up Lo 300 percenL.
uurablllLy : SLeel slag aggregaLes dlsplay good durablllLy wlLh
reslsLance Lo weaLherlng and eroslon.
CorroslvlLy : 1he pP value of sLeel slag aggregaLe generally ranges from
approxlmaLely 8 Lo 10, however leachaLe from sLeel slag can
be exceed pP value of 11. 1hls can be corroslve Lo
galvanlzed or alumlnlum plpes placed ln dlrecL conLacL wlLh
Lhe slag.
uralnage characLerlsLlcs: SLeel slag aggregaLes are free dralnlng.
volumeLrlc lnsLablllLy : lL has poLenLlally expanslve naLure. volume changes of up
Lo 10 percenL or more can occur durlng hydraLlon of calclum
and magneslum oxldes.
1ufa formaLlon : ln Motqlool Motetlols, 1989, lA8C reporLed LhaL dralnage
from sLeel slag aggregaLes can resulL ln Lhe formaLlon of
Lufa-llke preclplLaLes, whlch are powdery deposlLs LhaL
conslsL prlmarlly of calclum carbonaLe (CaCC
3
). Such
deposlLs have clogged dralnage paLhs ln pavemenL sysLems.
(SLeel Slag user Culdellne, 1998)

38


4.2.S.1 Phyxlcul Propertlex

SLeel slag aggregaLes are hlghly angular ln shape and have rough surface LexLure.
1hey have hlgh bulk speclflc gravlLy and moderaLe waLer absorpLlon (less Lhan 3
percenL). 1able 18-1 llsLs some Lyplcal physlcal properLles of sLeel slag. (SLeel Slag,
2007)

1ob/e 4.1 1ypico/ physico/ properties of stee/ s/oq
roperty Va|ue
Speclflc CravlLy > 3.2 - 3.6
unlL WelghL, kg/m 1600 - 1920
AbsorpLlon up Lo 3
(5ootce. bttp.//www.tfbtc.qov/bot20/tecycle/woste/sso1.btm of 5teel 5loq, 2007)


4.2.S.2 1hermul Propertlex


uue Lo Lhelr hlgh heaL capaclLy, sLeel slag aggregaLes have been observed Lo reLaln
heaL conslderably longer Lhan convenLlonal naLural aggregaLes. (SLeel Slag, 2007)



4.2.S.S Chemlcul Propertlex


1he chemlcal composlLlon of slag ls usually expressed ln Lerms of slmple oxldes
calculaLed from elemenLal analysls deLermlned by x-ray fluorescence. 1able 4.2
llsLs Lhe range of compounds presenL ln sLeel slag from a Lyplcal base oxygen
furnace. vlrLually all sLeel slags fall wlLhln Lhese chemlcal ranges buL noL all sLeel
slags are sulLable as aggregaLes. Cf more lmporLance ls Lhe mlneraloglcal form of
39

Lhe slag, whlch ls hlghly dependenL on Lhe raLe of slag coollng ln Lhe sLeel-maklng
process. (SLeel Slag, 2007)

1ob/e 4.2 1ypico/ stee/ s/oq chemico/ composition
6';)()+4') 65<6;()(6'D!
Calclum Cxlde, CaC 40 - 32
Slllcone uloxlde, SlC
2
10 - 19
lron(ll) Cxlde, leC
10 - 40
(70 - 80 leC, 20 - 30 le
2
C
3
)
Manganese Cxlde, MnC 3 - 8
Magneslum Cxlde, MgC 3 - 10
Alumlnlum Cxlde, Al
2
C
3
1 - 3
hosphorus penLoxlde,
2
C
3
0.3 - 1
Sulfur, S <0.1
MeLalllc lron, le 0.3 - 10
(5ootce. bttp.//www.tfbtc.qov/bot20/tecycle/woste/sso1.btm of 5teel 5loq, 2007)


4.2.4 Steel By-Product Management


8y referrlng Lo llgure 4.2, mosL of Lhe furnace slag ls recycled for use as an
aggregaLe, excess sLeel slag from oLher operaLlons (raker, ladle, clean ouL, or plL
slag) ls usually senL Lo landfllls for dlsposal. SLeel slag can normally be obLalned
from slag processors who collecL Lhe slag from sLeel-maklng faclllLles. Slag
processors may handle a varleLy of maLerlals such as sLeel slag, ladle slag, plL slag,
and used refracLory maLerlal Lo recover sLeel meLalllc. 1hese maLerlals musL be
source separaLed, and well-deflned handllng pracLlces musL be ln place Lo avold
conLamlnaLlon of Lhe sLeel slag aggregaLe. (SLeel Slag, 2007)


4.2.5 Use of Steel Slag Aggregates in Concrete


40

1he successful lncorporaLlon of sLeel slag as aggregaLes ln consLrucLlon producLs
requlres Lhe conslderaLlon of cerLaln lssues. llrsLly, as sLeel slag ls an lndusLrlal by-
producL unLll recenLly dlsposed ln landfllls, Lhe quesLlon ls wheLher lL ls sulLable for
use ln consLrucLlon. 1hen Lhe Lechnlcal characLerlsLlcs of Lhe maLerlal are
examlned because due Lo lLs physlcochemlcal properLles sLeel slag requlres speclal
care, buL can also provlde maxlmum value lf used for speclflc appllcaLlons. 1he
uLlllsaLlon of a by-producL ln sulLable appllcaLlons -malnly where lL ls
advanLageous compared Lo LradlLlonal maLerlals, buL also where lL ls mosL
economlcal- can glve a hlgher added value Lo Lhe producL. llnally, Lhere are a
number of economy-relaLed parameLers LhaL allow for a new producL Lo enLer Lhe
consLrucLlon markeL llke Lhe slLuaLlon of Lhe local aggregaLe markeL or Lhe need Lo
communlcaLe Lhe efflclency of a new producL Lhrough demonsLraLlon pro[ecLs.
(AnasLaslou & apaylannl, 2006)

41

4.3 Issues on Building Material
4.3.1 Material Sbortage and Price Hiking


1he lssue of shorLage aggregaLe ln consLrucLlon lndusLry nowadays had expands lLs
research and developmenL on Lhe sulLable alLernaLlve maLerlal. ln convenLlonal
way before, mosL of Lhe aggregaLe usages are from naLural aggregaLe. Pence,
gradually Lhe scarclLy of lL had ralsed Lhe awareness of Lhe lndusLry.
lL had been reporLed ln news SLralL 1lme, daLed 21
sL
!uly 1992, LlLled 'AggregaLe
ShorLage May Plnder ro[ecLs' sald LhaL Lhe Pouslng uevelopers' AssoclaLlon and
Lhe MasLer 8ullders' AssoclaLlon of Malaysla had warned LhaL Lhe compleLlon of
houses ln klang valley may be delayed and some pro[ecLs may even be abandoned
lf Lhe problem aL Llme lacklng of aggregaLe ls noL resolved.

8eporLed ln 1he Ldge ually, daLed 2
nd
!uly 2008, LlLled 'Local ConLracLors LamenL
Cver ConsLrucLlon MaLerlal ShorLage' LhaL local conLracLor faclng dlfflculLy Lo
obLaln consLrucLlon maLerlals for Lhelr pro[ecLs because Lhe suppllers more keen
Lo sell lL Lo Lhelr Slngaporean counLerparLs due Lo a hlgher prlce Lhere. resldenL
of !ohor Malay ConLracLors AssoclaLlon of Malaysla, Mahmood Amlr had suggesLed
Lo governmenL Lo esLabllsh sLockplle for consLrucLlon maLerlals Lo Lackle Lhe
shorLage and Lhe rlslng prlces.

Powever, Lwo days laLer, 1he SLar daLed 4
Lh
!uly 2008 quoLed Work MlnlsLer, uaLuk
Mohd Zln Mohamed, SLeel and cemenL may be sLockplled ln Lhe fuLure ln a move
Lo curb escalaLlng prlces and Lo prevenL hoardlng". Pe added, 1he prlces of mosL
maLerlals have lncreased by 20 and 30. ro[ecLs may end up belng sLalled and
conLracLors may end up foldlng Lhelr buslness lf noLhlng ls done Lo help Lhem".

42

4.4 Waste Management Utilisation
4.4.1 Lack of Disposal Area


erpendlcularly Lo dynamlc acLlvlLles of human ln Lhese modern days, many
wasLes had been produced LhroughouL our dally llves. As proven ln sLudled on
munlclpal wasLe Lngland and Wales ln 1998/1999, LhaL local Lend Lo manage Lhelr
conLrolled wasLe (munlclpal, commerclal, lndusLrlal, and consLrucLlon and
demollLlon wasLe) by 38 sendlng lL Lo landflll. Cnly 26 llke Lo recycle or
composLlng Lhe wasLes. Added LhaL by dlrecL Loo much wasLe aL landflll could
cause bad lmpacLs such as wasLes valuable resources, produce meLhane LhaL
conLrlbuLe changlng cllmaLe, creaLes waLer polluLlon Lhrough leachlng and
conLamlnaLlon of land. (ellaumall, 2001)

Slmllarly goes Lo anoLher example of blg and developed place, new ?ork ClLy.
1helr ueparLmenL of ueslgn and ConsLrucLlon had reallsed LhaL four reasons why
should Lhey expand and lmprove Lhelr pro[ecL wasLe managemenL. llrsLly ls
because envlronmenLal beneflLs of resource conservaLlon, energy savlngs and
polluLlon prevenLlon. AnoLher reason ls LhaL dlverLlng ConsLrucLlon and
uemollLlon debrls from landfllls can save money as Lhe dlsposal slLes are
lncreaslngly dlsLanL from Lhe ClLy. 1he slLe became furLher because Lhe lresh kllls
Landflll (lasL remalnlng landflll, had already been closed) could noL manage Lo
handle more wasLes. (new ?ork ClLy ueparLmenL of ueslgn and ConsLrucLlon,
2002)

ln Malaysla, Lhe sLaLus of wasLe managemenL ls as follows, lL ls esLlmaLed LhaL
abouL 17,000 of wasLe generaLed ln Malaysla, whlch also abouL 1.3kg per caplLa
per day ln kuala Lumpur. 1here are abouL 93 wasLe goes Lo dlsposal area and
LargeL Lo reduce lL Lo 63 by year 2020. ln order Lo do so, Lhe Local CovernmenL
ueparLmenL, MlnlsLry of Pouslng & Local CovernmenL suggesLed LhaL publlc
43

parLlclpaLlon are requlred as ln now ls very deflclenL. (MlnlsLry of Pouslng & Local
CovernmenL, 2006)

1hese are Lwo examples of blg clLles faclng problems of lack of slLes for dlsposal
area. 1herefore, lL ls research responslblllLy Lo come ouL wlLh soluLlons Lo
encounLer lL and one of lL ls by uLlllse Lhe wasLe, lnsLead of slmply dumplng Lhe
wasLe Lo make lL more useful.


4.4.2 How Waste Can Be Utilised?


1he energy savlng aspecL of Lhe uLlllsaLlon of lndusLrlal wasLe ln Lhe manufacLure
of cemenLs and aggregaLes ls of speclal slgnlflcance Loday. 1he mosL lnfluenLlal
facLor LhaL dlcLaLes Lhe uLlllsaLlon of lndusLrlal by-producLs ls Lhe economlc cosL ln
comparlson wlLh convenLlonal maLerlals LhaL would have been oLherwlse used.
LffecLlve uLlllsaLlon of lndusLrlal wasLe requlres adequaLe knowledge of Lhelr
properLles, Lhe Lechnlcal problems assoclaLed wlLh Lhelr uLlllsaLlon and cosL
beneflLs. (Swamy, 2003)


4.4.3 Usage of Waste Material as Aggregate


ln cemenL-based producLs, such as concreLe and morLars, a balance beLween Lhe
parLlcle slzes of Lhe componenLs musL be kepL ln order Lo obLaln Lhe requlred
maLerlal properLles, such as workablllLy and sLrengLh. SomeLlmes Lhe aggregaLes
lack Lhe necessary amounL of flnes, hence flne parLlcles, l.e., flller maLerlals, have
Lo be added. Large quanLlLles of flller maLerlal are needed ln Lhe producLlon of
modern concreLe Lypes, one prlnclple of self-compacLlng concreLe (SCC) ls, for
lnsLance, Lhe use of large amounLs of flllers Lo reduce Lhe frlcLlon beLween Lhe
44

coarser aggregaLes. use of by-producLs such as slag, dusL or sludge from Lhe
meLallurglcal lndusLrles as flller maLerlals ln concreLe may help Lo conserve naLural
resources and aL Lhe same Llme be an economlcally poslLlve opLlon. Powever, Lo
be able Lo successfully use Lhe avallable maLerlals Lhey musL be sulLable for Lhe
planned purpose, l.e., Lhey musL be compaLlble wlLh cemenL. (Moosberg-8usLnes,
2004)

lndusLrlal by-producLs whlch were once dlsposed of as wasLe maLerlal are flndlng
ever-lncreaslng use ln Lhe consLrucLlon lndusLry whlch requlres large quanLlLles of
low cosL raw maLerlals. 1hese lndusLrlal wasLes have been malnly used for qulLe
some Llme as flll ln roads and embankmenLs, buL more sophlsLlcaLed uses such as
manufacLure of cemenLlLlous maLerlals and llghLwelghL aggregaLes are emerglng.
(Swamy, 2003)

8lasL furnace slag has found Lhe largesL use ln Lhe concreLe lndusLry. CranulaLed
or foamed or dense blasL-furnace slag can be produced dependlng on Lhe raLe and
manner of coollng of Lhe molLen slag. A dense aggregaLe obLalned by coollng Lhe
molLen slag ln alr has been found Lo be saLlsfacLory and can be used
lnLerchangeably wlLh naLural aggregaLes ln concreLe. 1he use of alr-cooled slag ln
concreLe ls covered ln 8rlLlsh SLandard 8S 1047:1974. (Swamy, 2003)

1he slllca dusL whlch ls produced durlng Lhe manufacLure of meLal alloys such as
ferroslllcon has been used ln concreLe ln Sweden. AddlLlons of wasLe slllca dusL
equal Lo abouL 10 by welghL of cemenL have been found Lo lmprove Lhe
workablllLy of concreLe. WlLh sawdusL as aggregaLe, Lhe mlnlmum sulphur conLenL
was abouL 40 ln lL. 1hls mlx was easler Lo handle and resulLs beLLer ln Lhermal
lnsulaLlon. (Swamy, 2003)

1he quarrylng of rocks for road-maklng, concreLe aggregaLe and oLher purposes
produces wasLes ln form of overburden, re[ecL rock and flne maLerlal from washlng
and dusL conLrol. Cnly small amounLs of Lhese wasLes have been used ln road-
43

maklng and ln Lhe manufacLure of bulldlng maLerlals such as brlcks, llghLwelghL
aggregaLe and auLoclaved blocks. (Swamy, 2003)


4.4.4 Selected Waste Materials in Concrete Mixes {Past Experiment]


A modern llfesLyle, alongslde advancemenL of Lechnology has led Lo an lncrease ln
Lhe amounL and Lype of wasLe belng generaLed, leadlng Lo wasLe dlsposal crlsls.
1he sLudy done by 8aLayneh, Marle and Asl ln 2006 Lackled Lhe problem of Lhe
wasLe generaLed from consLrucLlon flelds, such as demollshed concreLe, glass and
plasLlc. 1he wasLes consldered Lo be recycled whlch noL only helps Lo conserve
naLural resources, buL also helps solve a growlng wasLe dlsposal crlsls. 1he
experlmenL LesLed was on uslng plasLlcs as subsLlLuLe for sand, crushed glass
exchange wlLh sand and crushed concreLe subsLlLuLe's coarse aggregaLes. 1hey
concluded LhaL wasLe and recycllng managemenL plans should be developed Lo
susLaln envlronmenL, economlc and soclal prlnclples, concreLe sLrengLh lmproved
wlLh parLlally replacemenL of flne aggregaLes wlLh crushed glass aggregaLes, uslng
glass has no slgnlflcanL effecL on Lhe slump, and addlLlonal recycllng glass ln
concreLe mlxes can be used aesLheLlcally ln masonry, whlch can glve shlny clean
flnlshlng effecL on Lhe surface of concreLe producL. (8aLayneh eL.al,2007)

asL experlmenL on sLeel-slag as flller maLerlal ln concreLe, done by P. Moosberg-
8usLnes, 2004 aL Swedlsh CemenL and ConcreLe 8esearch lnsLlLuLe, SLockholm,
Sweden sLaLed LhaL use of by-producLs such as slag, dusL or sludge from Lhe
meLallurglcal lndusLrles as flller maLerlals ln concreLe may help Lo conserve naLural
resources and aL Lhe same Llme be an economlcally poslLlve opLlon. 1he resulLs of
Lhls lnvesLlgaLlon lmply LhaL slag addlLlon compared Lo quarLz addlLlon glves a
sLronger concreLe. 1hls may be due Lo Lhe flller effecL, l.e., flne parLlcles flll Lhe
volds beLween Lhe larger cemenL gralns and aggregaLes and make Lhe cemenL
pasLe more homogenous and dense, and Lhus lncrease Lhe sLrengLh. AnoLher
46

explanaLlon may be due Lo Lhe facL LhaL slag conLalns calclum slllcaLes LhaL may
Lake parL ln Lhe cemenL reacLlons and Lhus lncrease Lhe sLrengLh by lncreaslng Lhe
amounL of blnder/cemenL gel. (Moosberg-8usLnes, 2004)

4.4.4.1 Steel Slug Aggregutex (Puxt Fxperlmentx)

1he lnfluences appeared ln concreLe by uslng sLeel slag aggregaLes had been
experlmenLed ln number of researches.

Cne of lL was Lhe research on Lhe feaslblllLy and vlablllLy of an LlecLrlc Arc lurnace
Slag (LAlS) as coarse aggregaLes for concreLe. lL was carrled ouL ln laboraLory Lo
produce concreLe wlLh good hardened properLles uslng LAlS as coarse aggregaLe.
ConcreLe mlxes wlLh waLer cemenL raLlos ranglng from 0.47 Lo 0.63 were prepared
ln order Lo analyse concreLe sLrengLh lncorporaLlng 10, 30 and 100 of slag
aggregaLe. hyslcal and mechanlcal properLles for naLural AggregaLe (nA) and
SLeel Slag AggregaLe (SSA) were assessed and compared. lrom Lhe resulLs
obLalned, Lhe compresslve sLrengLh of concreLe speclmen lncorporaLlng 100
sLeel slag achleved hlgher performance compared wlLh LhaL of naLural aggregaLe
concreLe. 1he mlxLure wlLh 100 SSA exhlblLed Lhe hlghesL sLrengLh aL beLLer Lhan
LhaL of naLural aggregaLe (granlLe). WlLh respecL Lo reslsLance Lo carbonaLlon, Lhe
SLeel Slag ConcreLe (SSC) showed comparable performance. (kamran eL. al, 2007)

8ased on Lhe laboraLory done by resulL, Lhe probablllLy of LlecLrlc Arc lurnace Slag
(LAlS) ln concreLe mlxLure proporLlon Lo achleve sLrengLh had successfully
achleved. 1he ob[ecLlve Lo assess Lhe performance slag ln concreLe mlx Lo achleve
hlgh sLrengLh had been aLLalned Loo. (noor Sahldah, 2008)

Meanwhlle, Lhe oLher research experlmenLed on Lhe sLeel slag lnfluence Lowards
Lhe low grade concreLe mlx. 1he resulL shows LhaL Lhe LlecLrlc Arc lurnace slag ls a
sulLable subsLlLuLe for naLural aggregaLe Lo fulfll Lhe sLrengLh requlremenL. lor
47

samples wlLh 100 slag aggregaLe, Lhe sLrengLh was lncreased slgnlflcanLly due Lo
Lhe hlgh denslLy of Lhe sLeel slag. 1he samples wlLh 10 also show lncrease ln
sLrengLh due Lo lncrease of Lhe denslLy of Lhe samples. 1he lnLerlocklng beLween
aggregaLes ls noL dlsLurbed as Lhe naLural aggregaLes are domlnanL enough Lo
form a sLrong lnLerlocklng even wlLh Lhe presence of small percenLage of slag.
(Llna Syuhalda, 2008)


4.5 Conclusion


lrom Lhe llLeraLure revlew, Lhe auLhor concludes LhaL Lhls research ls cerLalnly
essenLlal as LAl slag ls a poLenLlal by-producL Lo be use as an alLernaLlve Lo Lhe
naLural maLerlals. Powever, Lhere are researches on oLher wasLe or by-producL
maLerlals were done elsewhere. 1herefore, new sLudles on Lhe uLlllzaLlon of
LlecLrlc Arc lurnace slag shall be done from Llme Lo Llme as many oLher poLenLlal
purposes yeL Lo be explored.

1here are no experlmenLs done as such Lo Lhe proposed Loplc, hence Lhe auLhor
wlshes Lo conLlnue wlLh Lhls research. 1he auLhor wlll carry ouL Lhe laboraLory
experlmenLs accordlng Lo Lhe research meLhodology Lo be descrlbed ln Lhe
followlng chapLer.
48

5 CHAPTER FIVE-RESEARCH METHUDULUCY
5.1 Uverview


1he maLerlal used, procedures and LesL carrled ouL descrlbed ln Lhls chapLer.
1here are Lwo Lypes of meLhodology, speclflcally prlmary and secondary daLa. 1he
prlmary daLa ls galned from Lhe laboraLory experlmenL wlLh deLall procedures
descrlbed. ln Lhe meanLlme, Lhe secondary daLa galned from Lhe pasL experlmenLs
done by oLher researchers and sLudles on pasL daLa whlch wlll be used for ald of
Lhe resulL from Lhe prlmary daLa.

1he maln concepL of Lhls experlmenL ls Lo replace Lhe aggregaLe composlLlon of
normal concreLe wlLh sLeel slag aggregaLe and Lhe flnd ouL lLs sound Lransmlsslon
effecL. ln Lhe experlmenL, 4 concreLe samples creaLed and casLed ln a form of 1
meLer by 1 meLer. 1he samples dlvlded lnLo 2 groups. 1he flrsL group wlll be
comprlsed of 0.7 waLer-cemenL raLlo concreLe slab as conLrol sample namely
SAM1-0 and anoLher slab comprlses 100 replacemenL of sLeel slag aggregaLe
as SAM1-100. Slmllarly goes Lo anoLher group of sample 0.64 waLer-cemenL
raLlo whlch named as SAM2-0 for Lhe conLrol sample and SAM2-100 conLalnlng
100 sLeel slag as naLural aggregaLe replacemenL.

1he casLed concreLe slab lnsLalled onLo Lhe openlng provlded ln chambers ln Lhe
AcousLlcs 1esLlng LaboraLory 2, laculLy ArchlLecLure, lannlng and Surveylng, ul1M
Shah Alam, Selangor. 1he volumes of Lhe chambers are 9.3m (Chamber 1) and
11.8(Chamber 2). 1hls ls use Lo measure Lhe sound absorpLlon and Lransmlsslon
aL varlous frequencles. 1he Lhlckness of Lhe samples wlll be aL 73mm Lhlck. 1he
gaps beLween Lhe openlng and Lhe slab wlll be covered by Lhe samples lLself due Lo
lLs deslgnaLed shape.


49

5.2 Material


1here are essenLlally flve consLlLuenL maLerlals used Lo fabrlcaLe Lhe slabs. 1he
maLerlals are handled and prepared by accordance Lo 8rlLlsh SLandard. no
addlLlves are used ln Lhls experlmenL.


5.2.1 Cement
1he cemenL used musL be complled wlLh 8rlLlsh SLandard (8Sl), 8S Ln 206-1:
SpeclflcaLlon of ConsLlLuenL MaLerlals and ConcreLe. CemenL can be consldered as
Lhe concreLe key lngredlenL, where lLs raLlo wlLh waLer clarlfles Lhe sLrengLh of Lhe
concreLe.


5.2.2 Sand

8y complylng Lhe 8S Ln 206-1: SpeclflcaLlon of ConsLlLuenL MaLerlals and
ConcreLe, sand Lo be added ln Lhe mlx Lo acL as flll maLerlal. ln Lhls experlmenL,
naLural sand was used. lL was drled for Lwo days Lo eradlcaLe molsLure before
belng used ln Lhe concreLe mlx.


5.2.3 Water


8y complylng Lhe 8S Ln 206-1: SpeclflcaLlon of ConsLlLuenL MaLerlals and
ConcreLe, ordlnary Lap waLer was used ln Lhls experlmenL. lL ls lmporLanL Lo have
accuraLe waLer baLched as waLer conLenL ln Lhe mlx wlll affecL Lhe sLrengLh of Lhe
concreLe. WaLer ls Lhe fundamenLal maLerlal for cemenL Lo reacL, blndlng Lhe sand
and aggregaLe LogeLher Lo form a solld maLrlx.
30

5.2.4 Natural Aggregate
8S LN 12620: 2003: Aggregates for concrete


naLural AggregaLes are commonly parLlcles of naLural rock. lL ls vlLal Lo use sLrong,
sLable and durable aggregaLed. lor Lhls experlmenL, Lhe aggregaLes are malnly
reLalned on a 10/20 and 4/10 8S 882 Lwo sleves slzed 10mm and 20mm were
used. lL was sleved accordlng 8S 882 sleve slze. lL ls lmporLanL Lo blend LogeLher
dlfferenL slzes as Lo make opLlmum flller and reduce volds beLween parLlcles Lo
mlnlmum. 1he aggregaLes were lefL ln open alr for few days Lo eradlcaLe excesslve
waLer.


5.2.5 EAF Slag


LlecLrlc Arc lurnace slag was Laken from Lhe sLeel facLory ln ral, ulau lnang and
used as Lhe wasLe maLerlal ln Lhls experlmenL. 1he slag ls ln 10mm and 16mm
slzes whlch was sleve accordlngly and drled before used. lor each waLer cemenL
raLlo, 100 slag was used as replacemenL of naLural aggregaLe.

31

5.3 Mix Proportion

1ob/e 5.1 1he desiqnoted mix proportion for this experiment by weiqht



Water-
Cement
kat|o
Grade M|x
Cement
(kg)
Water
(kg)
Aggregate (kg]m3)
Sand
1C1AL
(kg)
16 mm 10 mm
S|ag Natura| S|ag Natura|
0.7 G2S
nA M1 22.1 13.4 - 38.7 - 19.3 83.6 179.3
SA M1 -
100
22.1 13.4 46.4
-
23.4
- 83.6
190.0

0.64 G3S
nA M2 24.0 13.4 - 40.3 - 20.1 79.9 179.6
SA M2 -
100
24.0 13.4 48.3
-
24.1
- 79.9
191.6

32

5.4 Testing Procedure
5.4.1 Formwork Preparation


1he ob[ecLlve of Lhe formwork preparaLlon ls Lo make Lhe mould of Lhe slabs
accordlng Lo Lhe openlng ln Lhe Chamber ln Lhe AcousLlcs 1esLlng LaboraLory 2.
1he apparaLus are, four plece of plywood slzed 1m, wood slzed 1000mm x 73mm
as Lhe formwork frame, Lable saw, alr-pressured hammer, nalls and measurlng
Lape.

Photo 5.1 wood wos cut into sites by usinq tob/e sow


Photo 5.2 wood joined toqether to form squore shope before opp/yinq the
p/ywood bose

33

5.4.2 Mixing and Curing Procedure

.11.-.0E."12
1esLlng concreLe: MeLhods for Mlxlng and Sampllng lresh ConcreLe ln Lhe
LaboraLory.

1. 1he cemenL, sand, aggregaLes, LAl slag aggregaLes and waLer were baLched
ln accordance Lo Lhe mlx.

2. 1he maLerlals were dry-mlxed flrsL before Lhe waLer was added. 1hls ls Lo
ensure Lhe evenly blended and Lhe whole process Look abouL flve mlnuLes.

3. 1he well-mlxed concreLe was Lhen casL lnLo formwork slzed 103cm x 100cm
x 7.8cm.

4. 1he concreLe were poured lnLo Lhe formwork ln Lwo layers. llrsL layer was
1/2 of Lhe formwork and second layer ln full.

3. 1he vlbraLlon process need Lo be done ln beLween each layer Lo release alr
Lrapped. Slnce lL ls done manually, abouL each 20cm surface area of Lhe
concreLe were poked 33 Llmes conLlnuously.

6. ConcreLe slabs were leL dry ln Lhe open alr and Laken off formwork afLer 24
hours. Lach of Lhe cubes was labelled wlLh Lhelr respecLlve codes and daLes
uslng hlgh performance marker.

7. 1he concreLe slabs were Lhen been applled wlLh gunny for curlng process.
WaLer been applled onLo lL by spraylng all over Lhe surface. 1he curlng
process was Laken abouL 28 days.
34



Photo 5.l 5/oq oqqreqotes sieved to obtoined 10mm ond 1mm sites



Photo 5.4 5/oq oqqreqotes sieved occordinq/y to required sites




LAl Slag -
LAl Slag -
Sand
33

Photo 5.5 5ond ond oqqreqotes were oir dried before beinq used

Photo 5. 1he we// mixed concrete ore reody to be costed in the formwork

3-

Photo 5.7 we// mixed concrete poured into the formwork

Photo 5.8 Pourinq the second /oyer in fu//

3,

Photo 5.9 concrete s/ob were /et dry for 24 hours

Photo 5.10 curinq process by sproyinq woter onto the qunny

38

5.4.3 Test Specimen Installation


1he LesL samples slzes was deslgnaLed Lo be flL lnLo Lhe openlng provlded ln Lhe
chamber as shown ln llgure 12. 1he speclflcaLlon of Lhe LesL samples are glven ln
1able 3.2. 1he gap around Lhe perlmeLer of Lhe samples was sealed uslng waLer-
based slllcone, morLar and modelllng clay (plasLlclne).


Photo 5.11 Left: Openinq to be fit by the somp/e.
kiqht: 5omp/e p/oced before fitted occordinq/y


1ob/e 5.2 1ypes of test somp/e ond its specificotion
No. 1ype of 1est Samp|es S|ze 1h|ckness 1ota|
dens|ty(kg]m)
1. 0.7 w/c raLlo (nA M 1 -0) 1.0m x 1.0m 73mm 2391
2. 0.7 w/c raLlo (SA M 1 - 100) 1.0m x 1.0m 73mm 2343
3. 0.64 w/c raLlo (nA M 2 - 0) 1.0m x 1.0m 73mm 2393
4. 0.64 w/c raLlo (SA M 2 -100) 1.0m x 1.0m 73mm 2333


35

Photo 5.12 5omp/e p/oced ot the openinq

Photo 5.1l 1he qop oround perimeter wos seo/ed usinq woter-bosed si/icone
{/eft) ond cement mortor {riqht)

60

5.4.4 List of Instrumentations


1he labaroLory lnsLrumenLaLlons for sound Lransmlsslon loss measuremenL LhaL
need Lo be used ln Lhe experlmenL are as follows:
a) 01d8 uual Channel Analyser 1ype Symphonle
b) MClA Card 974133-6
c) 01d8 x" Mlcrophones, Serlal no. MCL212 43873 & MCL212 43869
d) 2 numbers 01d8 x" reampllflers, Serlal no. 8L 21 A n 20332, 8L 21 A
n 20339
e) 8ruel & k[aer LlecLronlc CallbraLor 1ype 4231
f) 01d8 8ulldlng AcousLlcs SofLware 1ype d88aLl32, 32-8lL verslon
g) Acer noLebook CompuLer
h) 1 number of porLable sound sources Lype Cu8-S no. 10118
l) 2 numbers of Lrlpods Lo hold Lhe mlcrophones.


5.4.5 Sound Transmission Loss Measurement Procedures


1he sound Lransmlsslon loss measuremenL procedures can be dlvlded lnLo Lhree
segmenLs:
a. SeL-up procedures
b. CallbraLlon procedures
c. MeasuremenL procedures



61

S.4.S.1 Set-up ProceJurex


8efore commenclng Lhe sound Lransmlsslon loss measuremenL, few necessary
lnsLallaLlons musL be made, namely:
l. 1he lnsLallaLlon of LesL samples lnLo Lhe openlng, where 4 manpower
needed Lo llfL up Lhe heavy samples Lo be flLLed aL Lhe openlng.
ll. 1he lnsLallaLlon of lnsLrumenL and Lools and need Lo be connecLed Lo Lhe
compuLer.
lll. 1he lnsLallaLlon of sound source, whlch Lo be locaLed aL mlnlmum 600mm
faclng Lhe wall aL one of Lhe corner of LesL source chamber. lL ls used Lo
measure Lhe emlLLed and recelved nolse. lor Lhe reverberaLlon Llme
measuremenL, Lhe sound source placed aL recelvlng room. 1hls sound
source was used Lo supply up Lo 100d8 durlng Lhe measuremenL.
lv. 1he lnsLallaLlon of Lwo unlLs of 01d8 x" mlcrophones. Lach unlL was
supporLed by Lrlpods and placed ln each 8oom 1 and 8oom 2. 1he
mlcrophones were poslLloned ln Lhe cenLre of Lhe room. 1he roLaLlon of
mlcrophones for emlLLed and recelved nolse, background nolse and
reverberaLlon Llme were done manually.


Photo 5.14 5ound source with omp/ifier

62


Photo 5.15 Locotion of 01d8 " Microphone in source room


S.4.S.2 Cullbrutlon ProceJurex


1he mlcrophones were needed Lo aLLune by uslng 8ruel & k[aer LlecLronlc
CallbraLor model 8k4231 before commenclng Lhe LesL. 1he ldeal callbraLlon
readlng ls 94d8 aL 1 kPz frequency.

Photo 5.1 8rue/ & kjoer /ectronic co/ibrotor


S.4.S.S Meuxurement ProceJurex

1here ls a speclal sofLware programme used ln Lhls experlmenL LhaL conflgures Lhe
measuremenL and analysls Lhe daLa obLalned, named d88A1132 8ulldlng AcousLlcs
SofLware rogramme.

63

CHAPTER FUUR -RESULT AND ANALYSIS UF THE RESULT
.1 Results of tbe Measurement


lrom Lhe speclmen speclflcaLlons sLaLed ln 1able 3.2, all of Lhe resulLs are
generaLed auLomaLlcally from Lhe d88A1132 8ulldlng AcousLlcs SofLware
rogramme.

SLandard value of WelghLed Sound 8educLlon (8
w
) on declbels aL 1hlrd CcLaves
frequency can be obLalned manually by applylng formula sLaLed ln ara 3.1.3.


.1.1 0.7 Water-Cement Ratio Concrete Slab witb Natural Aggregate


1he measuremenL of sound Lransmlsslon loss (S1L) of sample named nA M1 - 0
was carrled ouL on 3
rd
March 2009 aL 4.18pm. 1he mlcrophones used were
callbraLed Lo 1000Pz. 1he resulLs generaLed from Lhe d88A1132 bulldlng acousLlcs
programme are as follow:

liqure .1 6roph for 0.7 woter-cement rotio concrete s/ob with noturo/ oqqreqote

0
10
20
30
40
30
k

w
,

d
8
IkLULNCILS (nz)
Sound keduct|on of Concrete Samp|e NA M1 - 0
ConcreLe Slab wlLh naLural AggregaLe
-.

1ob/e .1 kesu/ts doto for 0.7 woter-cement rotio concrete s/ob with noturo/
oqqreqote
IkLULNCILS (nz) k (1h|rd Cctaves), d8
1++ 1--
1%3 ;1-
1-+ ;43
%++ ;31
%3+ ;5%
;13 ;.%
.++ ;.5
3++ ;41
-;+ ;4+
4++ .+1
1+++ .%3
1%3+ ..4
1-++ .3,
%+++ .,%
%3++ .,+
;13+ ..%
.+++ .3+
3+++ .3-
Standard Va|ue, k
w
41

63

.1.2 0.7 Water-Cement Ratio Concrete Slab witb EAF Slag Aggregate


1he measuremenL of sound Lransmlsslon loss (S1L) of sample named SA M1 -
100 was carrled ouL on 17
Lh
lebruary 2009 aL 1.42pm. 1he mlcrophones used
were callbraLed Lo 1000Pz. 1he resulLs generaLed from Lhe d88A1132 bulldlng
acousLlcs programme are as follow:


liqure .2 6roph for 0.7 woter-cement rotio concrete s/ob with 4l s/oq
oqqreqote



0
10
20
30
40
30
60
k
w
,


d
8
IkLULNCILS (nz)
Sound keduct|on of Concrete Samp|e SA M1 - 100
ConcreLe Slab wlLh LAl Slag AggregaLe
--

1ob/e .2 kesu/ts doto for 0.7 woter-cement rotio concrete s/ob with 4l s/oq
oqqreqote
IkLULNCILS (nz) k (1h|rd Cctaves), d8
1++ %.,
1%3 ;;5
1-+ .+4
%++ ;,1
%3+ ;-.
;13 ;35
.++ ;;+
3++ ;,5
-;+ .;3
4++ .-%
1+++ .,5
1%3+ .,,
1-++ .43
%+++ .4-
%3++ .,-
;13+ .4%
.+++ .54
3+++ .55
Standard Va|ue, k
w
44

67

.1.3 0.4 Water-Cement Ratio Concrete Slab witb Natural Aggregate


1he measuremenL of sound Lransmlsslon loss (S1L) of sample named nA M2 - 0
was carrled ouL on 13
Lh
!anuary 2009 aL 4.21pm. 1he mlcrophones used were
callbraLed Lo 1000Pz. 1he resulLs generaLed from Lhe d88A1132 bulldlng acousLlcs
programme are as follow:


liqure .l 6roph for 0.4 woter-cement rotio concrete s/ob with noturo/
oqqreqote


0
10
20
30
40
30
60
k
w
,

d
8
IkLULNCILS (nz)
Sound keduct|on of Concrete Samp|e NA M2 - 0
ConcreLe Slab wlLh naLural AggregaLe
-4

1ob/e .l kesu/ts doto for 0.4 woter-cement rotio concrete s/ob with noturo/
oqqreqote
IkLULNCILS (nz) k (1h|rd Cctaves), d8
1++ %14
1%3 ;%,
1-+ ;-.
%++ ;3%
%3+ ;44
;13 ;-,
.++ ;,%
3++ ;,,
-;+ ;45
4++ .1-
1+++ .;%
1%3+ .3+
1-++ .,5
%+++ .4%
%3++ .-,
;13+ .-5
.+++ .4.
3+++ .5+
Standard Va|ue, k
w
43

69

.1.4 0.4 Water-Cement Ratio Concrete Slab witb EAF Slag Aggregate


1he measuremenL of sound Lransmlsslon loss (S1L) of sample named SA M2 -
100 was carrled ouL on 06
Lh
March 2009 aL 2.34pm. 1he mlcrophones used were
callbraLed Lo 1000Pz. 1he resulLs generaLed from Lhe d88A1132 bulldlng acousLlcs
programme are as follow:


liqure .4 6roph for 0.4 woter-cement rotio concrete s/ob with 4l s/oq
oqqreqote


0
10
20
30
40
30
60
k
w
,

d
8
IkLULNCILS (nz)
Sound keduct|on of Concrete Samp|e SA M2 - 100
ConcreLe Slab wlLh LAl Slag AggregaLe
,+

1ob/e .4 kesu/ts doto for 0.4 woter-cement rotio concrete s/ob with 4l s/oq
oqqreqote
IkLULNCILS (nz) k (1h|rd Cctaves), d8
1++ %..
1%3 ;1-
1-+ .+4
%++ ;5.
%3+ .%5
;13 .1+
.++ ;4,
3++ .1%
-;+ .1+
4++ ..4
1+++ .,,
1%3+ .-.
1-++ .4+
%+++ .,4
%3++ .-,
;13+ .-;
.+++ .-3
3+++ .54
Standard Va|ue, k
w
4S

71

.2 Analysis and Summary of tbe Results


Summary of Lhe LesL resulLs for all LesL speclmen are shown ln Craph 4.9 and
Craph 4.10.


liqure .5 1he vo/ue of k
w
for 0.7 w/c kotio concrete 5/ob with 75mm thickness


0
10
20
30
40
30
60
k
w
,

d
8
IkLULNCILS (nz)
Sound 1ransm|ss|on C|ass (S1C) for 0.7 w]c kat|o Concrete S|ab
ConcreLe Slab wlLh naLural AggregaLe
ConcreLe Slab wlLh LAl Slag AggregaLe
72


liqure . 1he vo/ue of k
w
for 0.4 w/c kotio concrete 5/ob with 75mm thickness

1ob/e .5 5ummory of the resu/ts
No. Samp|es Descr|pt|on
Surface Dens|ty
(kg]m)
k
w
(d8)
1.
0.7 w/c raLlo concreLe slab (nA M 1 -0) 2.39
41
2.
0.7 w/c raLlo concreLe slab (SA M 1 - 100) 2.33
44
3.
0.64 w/c raLlo concreLe slab (nA M 2 - 0) 2.40
43
4.
0.64 w/c raLlo concreLe slab (SA M 2 -100) 2.36
43

1able 4.3 shown LhaL Lhe LesL speclmens wlLh LAl Slag aggregaLe(sample number 2
and number 4) gave hlgh 8
w
values. lL can be summarlsed LhaL concreLe slab wlLh
LAl Slag aggregaLe ls good replacemenL maLerlal because of Lhelr hlgher denslLy
whlch lndlcaLe beLLer 8
w
, or sound lnsulaLlon.

0
10
20
30
40
30
60
k
w
,

d
8
IkLULNCILS (nz)
Sound 1ransm|ss|on C|ass (S1C) for 0.64 w]c kat|oConcrete S|ab
ConcreLe Slab wlLh naLural AggregaLe
ConcreLe Slab wlLh LAl Slag AggregaLe
73

7 CHAPTER FIVE - CUNCLUSIUN, PRUBLEMS AND
RECUMMENDATIUN
7.0 Brief Conclusion


lrom Lhe analysls of laboraLory experlmenLs and resulLs achleved, lL can be
concluded LhaL vlablllLy of LAl slag concreLe aggregaLe ln acousLlcal aspecL was
found Lo be sulLable subsLlLuLe for naLural aggregaLe ln normal concreLe.
Moreover, hlgher surface denslLy lndlcaLes beLLer performance of sound lnsulaLlon
and heavler Lhe slab resulLed beLLer WelghLed Sound 8educLlon (8
w
), Lhan uslng
naLural aggregaLe. Accordlng Lo Lhe resulLs, all of Lhe samples aLLalned are wlLhln
Lhe accepLable LheoraLlcal range, beLween 40-30d8. Pence, Lhe prlmary ob[ecLlve
of Lhls research proven.


7.1 Detail Conclusion


lrom Lhe laboraLory experlmenL, lL can be analysed LhaL LAl slag concreLe have
beLLer performance Lhan ordlnary concreLe. 1hls lndlcaLes LhaL LAl slag ls a
sulLable alLernaLlve maLerlal Lo be subsLlLuLed wlLh naLural aggregaLe ln concreLe.
lurLhermore, Lhls wlll help Lo solve Lhe global lssue by uLlllse more wasLe maLerlal
slnce Lhe scarclLy of naLural maLerlals are worsen. AnoLher reason ls LhaL, by
uLlllslng Lhe wasLe maLerlal llke LAl slag, lL can be beneflclal Lo developlng naLlons
LhaL faclng problems due Lo lack of spaces for dlsposal area. CLher Lhan LhaL, by
decllnlng Lhe use of naLural maLerlals, lL can lead Lo lmprovemenL Lo
envlronmenLal beneflLs of resource conservaLlon, energy savlngs and polluLlon
prevenLlon. Pence, Lhls fully experlmenLal research had verlfled anoLher llablllLy of
LAl slag aggregaLe ln concreLe relaLlng Lo acousLlcal aspecLs and Lhls also
suggesLed LhaL lL ls a poLenLlal alLernaLlve maLerlal Lo replace Lhe naLural granlLe
aggregaLe.
74


Lach speclmens are LesLed by uslng d88A1132 8ulldlng AcousLlcs SofLware
rogramme and pro[ecLed Lhe resulLs ln SLandard value of Sound 8educLlon lndex,
8
w.
All of Lhe resulLs obLalned are wlLhln Lhe accepLable range for concreLe, whlch
ls abouL 40d8 - 30d8. lor samples wlLh 100 slag aggregaLe, Lhe Sound 8educLlon
lndex, 8
w
lncreased slgnlflcanLly due Lo hlgh denslLy of sLeel slag. 1he hlgher value
of Sound 8educLlon lndex slgnlfles beLLer performance of Lhe maLerlal because of
lLs capablllLy Lo lnsulaLe Lhe sound LhaL LransmlLLed aL 1hlrd CcLaves frequency.
1hus, the pr|mary ob[ect|ve of th|s research are ach|eved.

lor concreLe samples of 0.7 waLer-cemenL raLlo (SA M1 - 100), had resulLed
SLandard value of 44d8, whlch ls 3d8 hlgher value Lhan conLrol sample nA M1-0.
Slmllarly goes Lo concreLe samples of 0.64 waLer-cemenL raLlo (SA M2 -100),
SLandard value, 8
w
obLalned was 43d8, lncreases 2d8 from conLrol samples nA
M2-0. 1hese suggesL LhaL LAl sLeel slag aggregaLe performed beLLer ln lower
waLer cemenL raLlo. W|th th|s, ob[ect|ve of the research has been accomp||shed.


7.2 Problems Faced During Tbis Researcb


Slnce Lhls research Lo be experlmenLed ln laboraLory, Lhere are few llmlLaLlons
occurred LhroughouL Lhe process of research.
1. 8y havlng a laboraLory on ground floor as Lhe dlfflculLy faced due Lo Lhe
locaLlon of AcousLlcs 1esLlng LaboraLory 2, laculLy ArchlLecLure, lannlng
and Surveylng, ul1M lLself on Lhe flrsL floor, slnce Lhe LesL speclmens are
way Loo heavy and requlred blgger spaces Lo move abouL.
2. 8eLLer means of rouLe connecLlng ground floor and flrsL floor. 1he casLlng
of concreLe are done on Lhe ground floor and convey lL onLo flrsL floor
uslng splral sLalrcase had caused loLs of Llme consumed.
73

3. AdequaLe equlpmenL such as holsL or mounLlng crance ln laboraLory should
be beneflclal, lf slmllar researches are Lo be done. 1hls ls for save Lhe
energy consume Lo LransporL Lhe heavy and blg samples vla splral sLalrcase.
4. upgradlng Lhe noLebook and sofLware for measuremenL of sound
Lransmlsslon loss as Lhe Lechnology ls qulLe ouLdaLed and mlghL noL be
compaLlble ln few years Llme.


7.3 Recommendation for Future Researcb


AfLer handllng Lhls research, Lhe auLhor would llke Lo propose a few suggesLlons
LhaL mlghL be beneflclal for poLenLlal researchers who wlshes Lo conLlnue wlLh Lhls
research.
1. 8y havlng research on dlfferenL proporLlon percenLage for oLher waLer-
cemenL raLlo, as lL mlghL have beLLer performance as compared Lo Lhls
research.
2. repare samples wlLh dlfferenL dlmenslons and slzes, and evaluaLe Lhe
resulLs obLaln wlLh auLhor's research.
3. Slmllar experlmenL also can be done by subsLlLue wlLh oLher maLerlal
wasLage or by-producL as Lhe poLenLlal maLerlals are unllmlLed.
4. SLudy on oLher feaslblllLy feaLures of sLeel slag as aggregaLe replacemenL,
such as economlc, oLher envlronmenLal aspecLs and many more Lo show
Lhe pracLlcallLy sLeel slag appllcaLlon.

76

@
66@;

1. AnasLaslou, L., & apaylannl, l., 2006. CrlLerla lor 1he use of SLeel Slag
AggregaLes ln ConcreLe. ln M. S. konsLa-CdouLos, Meosotloq, Mooltotloq ooJ
MoJelloq cooctete ltopettles (pp. 419-426). 1hessalonlkl, Creece: Sprlnger
neLherlands
2. Chudley, 8., & Creeno, 8.., 2004. coosttoctloo 1ecbooloqy. unlLed klngdom:
earson Longman.
3. Lyons, A.., 2007 Motetlols lot Atcbltects ooJ 8ollJets (3rd ed.). LelcesLer:
Llsevler 8uLLerworLh-Pelnemann.
4. MaroLLa, 1. W., 2003. 8oslc coosttoctloo Motetlols. new !ersey: earson
renLlce Pall.
3. McMullan, 8., 2002. ovltoomeotol 5cleoce lo 8ollJloq. London: ALC8AvL.
6. MehLa, . k., & MonLelro, . !. 2006. cooctete, Mlctosttoctote, ltopettles ooJ
Motetlols. new ?ork: McCraw Plll.
7. newman, !., & Choo, 8. S., 2003. AJvooceJ cooctete 1ecbooloqy coostltoeot
Motetlols. Cxford: Llsevler 8uLLerworLh-Pelnemann.
8. ark, 8., & Camble, W. L., 2000. kelofotceJ cooctete 5lobs (2nd LdlLlon ed.).
new ?ork, uSA: !ohn Wlley & Sons, lnc..
9. eck, M., 2006. cooctete, ueslqo, coosttoctloo , xomples. Munlch:
8lrkhauser LdlLlon ueLall.
10. Swamy, 8., 2003. cooctete 1ecbooloqy ooJ ueslqo (vol. 1). (8. n. Swamy, Ld.)
Sheffleld: Surrey unlverslLy ress.

77

Conference roceed|ng


1. kamran, S., Ahmad 8uslan, M., & Abu 8akar, M., 2007. SLeel Slag as non
ConvenLlonal MaLerlal for ConcreLe. ltoslJloq kebooqsooo Awom '07 (pp.
271-276). Langkawl: usaL enga[lan ke[uruLeraan Awam, unlverslLl Salns
Malaysla.
2. Murad, M. W., & Slwar, C., 2007. woste Moooqemeot ooJ kecyclloq ltoctlces
of utboo loot . A cose 5toJy lo koolo lompot clty, Moloyslo. Melaka: WasLe
ManagemenL & 8esearch.


kesearch apers


1. LlnaSyuhalda, L. , 2008. lnfluence of Lhe WasLe WaLer ConLenL on Lhe Low
Crade ConcreLe Mlx.
2. noorSahldah, S. , 2008. 1he osslblllLles of Plgh SLrengLh AchlevemenL of
ConcreLe uslng Slag As AggregaLe 8eplacemenL.
3. norAzura, M. , 2007. 5oooJ losolotloo ltopettles of votloos 1ype of utywoll
wltb ulffeteot woys of lostollotloo. Selangor.
4. ark, S. 8., Seo, u. S., & Lee, !. , 2004. 5toJles oo tbe 5oooJ Absotptloo
cbotoctetlstlcs of lotoos cooctete 8oseJ oo tbe cooteot of kecycleJ
Aqqteqote ooJ 1otqet volJ kotlo. uae[eon: SclenceulrecL.
3. Seddeq, & S., P. , 2006. coottollloq tbe lmpoct 5oooJ losolotloo oo cooctete
5lob lloots. SclenceulrecL.
6. SukonLasukkul, ., 2008. use of ctomb kobbet to lmptove 1betmol ooJ 5OooJ
ltopettles of lte-cost cooctete looel. 8angkok: SclenceulrecL.
7. Moosberg-8usLnes, P., 2004. SLeel-slag as flller maLerlal ln concreLe.
lotetootloool coofeteoce oo Molteo 5loqs lloxes ooJ 5olts, 1be 5ootb Aftlcoo
lostltote of Mloloq ooJ Metollotqy , 8.

78

Newspaper Art|c|es and ress ke|eases


1. Aqqteqote 5bottoqe Moy nloJet ltojects, by noralnl Sharlff, daLed 21
sL
!uly
1992, 8eLrleved from news SLralL 1lmes archlve on 22
nd
AugusL 2008.
2. locol coottoctots lomeot Ovet coosttoctloo Motetlol 5bottoqe, by Mohd
Palkal Mohd lsa, daLed 2
nd
!uly 2008, 8eLrleved from 8ernama archlve 22
nd

AugusL 2008.
3. 5teel, cemeot Moy 8e 5tockplleJ lo 1be lotote, by llorence A. Samy, daLed 4
Lh

!uly 2008, 8eLrleved from 1he SLarL Cnllne archlve on 4
Lh
!uly 2008.


Documents on Wor|d W|de Web


1. 1st Notloool ltooloo Al 5loq coofeteoce 2007. 11
Lh
March 2008. 8eLrleved 27
Lh

AugusL 2008, from SLeel lnsLlLuLe (Clobal Slag Magazlne): hLLp://www.sLeel-
lnsLlLuLe.lr
2. Alexander, M., & Mlndess, S., 2003. Aqqteqotes lo cooctete. new ?ork: 1aylor
& lrancls Croup.
3. CCAA, C. C., 4
Lh
AugusL 2004. cONck1 8A5lc5 A ColJe to cooctete ltoctlce.
8eLrleved !uly 23, 2008, from ConcreLe AusLralla WebslLe:
hLLp://www.concreLe.neL.au/pdf/concreLebaslcs.pdf.
4. uhlr 8 k and alne k A., lebruary 2007 letfotmooce keloteJ Apptoocb to use of
kecycleJ Aqqteqotes. WasLe & 8esources AcLlon rogramme and unlverslLy of
uundee.
3. loley, u., 1999. 1be lbyslcs of 5oooJ. 8eLrleved !uly 23, 2008, from
hLLp://www.w3.org/1999/xhLml.
6. kelley. , 6
Lh
Aprll 2000. 5teel 8ollJs A 8ettet wotlJ. 8eLrleved AugusL 22, 2008,
from 1he SLeelmaklng rocess.
79

7. Moloyslo. letfotmooce of tbe Mooofoctotloq ooJ 5etvlces 5ectots 2007. 3
Lh

lebruary 2008. 8eLrleved 22
nd
AugusL 2008.
8. new ?ork ClLy ueparLmenL of ueslgn and ConsLrucLlon. coosttoctloo &
uemolltloo woste Mooool, 10
Lh
!uly 2002. 8eLrleved 3
rd
March 2007, from
www.nyc.gov/bulldnyc/ddcgreen: greenlnfo[ddc.nyc.gov.
9. arLs Pangar lnc., 2003. cooctete Mlx ueslqo. 8eLrleved from lnLegraLed
ubllshlng:
hLLp://www.Lpub.com/conLenL/consLrucLlon/14043/css/14043_136.hLm
10. ellaumall, k., 24
Lh
Aprll 2001. woste moooqemeot metboJs. 8eLrleved 19
Lh

AugusL 2008, from lrlends of Lhe LarLh: www.foe.co.uk
11. 5teel 5loq uset ColJelloe. 1998. 8eLrleved 18
Lh
!une 2008, from
www.Lfhrc.govhnr_recyclewasLes.
12. MlnlsLry of Pouslng & Local CovernmenL, L. C., 2006. Ovetvlew of woste
Moooqemeot ln Malaysla. Malaysla.
13. Waalkes, S. . 5loq cemeot ooJ cooctete lovemeots. 11
Lh
March 2003. 8eLrleved
23
Lh
!uly 2008, from Amerlcan ConcreLe avemenL AssoclaLlon:
www.pavemenL.com
14. Wlklpedla, A. l. . 5oooJ 1toosmlssloo closs. 09
Lh
lebruary 2009. 8eLrleved 27
Lh

lebruary 2009, from Wlklpedla:
hLLp://en.wlklpedla.org/wlkl/Sound_Lransmlsslon_class


4*;()4;


1. AcousLlcs.com, 2003. 8eLrleved AugusL 14, 2008, from AcousLlcs.com:
hLLp://www.acousLlcs.com/sLc.asp
2. Acoostlc 1toosmlssloo., 24
Lh
AugusL 2007, 8eLrleved AugusL 14, 2008, from
Wlklpedla: hLLp://en.wlklpedla.org/wlkl/Sound_Lransmlsslon
3. Aqqteqote > cooctete 8oslc nome., 2009. 8eLrleved !anuary 19, 2009, from
orLland CemenL AssoclaLlon :
hLLp://www.cemenL.org/baslcs/concreLebaslcs_aggregaLe.asp
80

4. Aqqteqotes lofotmotloo ooJ uoto., 2009. 8eLrleved 20009, from 8ock Cuaryy
and Marlne Loadlng laclllLy :
hLLp://www.bcrock.com/aggregaLes/whaLaggregaLesare.hLml
3. CameLs, C. 1. Clossoty uefloltloo., 2003. 8eLrleved 27
Lh
lebruary 2009, from
CameLs AcousLlcs Ly. LLd.: hLLp://www.cameLs.com.au/lnfo/glossary/sLc.hLm
6. cooctete Aqqteqote 5obstltotes., 2008. 8eLrleved SepLember 2, 2008, from
1oolbase Servlces:
hLLp://www.Loolbase.org/1echnology-lnvenLory/loundaLlons/concreLe-
aggregaLe-subsLlLuLes
7. ctockloq uoms AJvooceJ level., 2009. 8eLrleved 2009, from WhaL ls
ConcreLe?: hLLp://www.slmsclence.org/cracks/advanced/concreLe2.hLml
8. CovernmenL of Canada, naLlonal 8esearch Councll Canada, lnsLlLuLe for
8esearch ln ConsLrucLlon. . Altbotoe 5oooJ 1toosmlssloo loss - Nkc-lkc. 10
Lh

March 2003. 8eLrleved 27
Lh
lebruary 2009, from lnsLlLuLe for 8esearch ln
ConsLrucLlon :
hLLp://lrc.nrc-nrc.gc.ca/le/acousLlcs/floors/alrborne_Lransmlsslon_loss_e.hLml
9. avemenL Culde lnLeracLlve AuLhors., 2003. Aqqteqote. 8eLrleved from
avemenL 1ools ConsorLlum:
hLLp://Lralnlng.ce.washlngLon.edu/wsdoL/modules/03_maLerlals/03-
2_body.hLm
10. Loglcsphere LLd., 1999 uO MetboJ. 8eLrleved from LoglcSphere:
hLLp://www.loglcsphere.com/producLs/flrsLmlx/hlp/hLml/mlxd799g.hLm
11. kevetbetotloo cbombet., 2007. 8eLrleved AugusL 14, 2008, from L1S Llndgren:
hLLp://www.eLs-llndgren.com/
12. 5teel 5loq., 13
Lh
Aprll 2007, 8eLrleved SepLember 20, 2008, from 1urner-
lalrbank Plghway 8esearch CenLer:
hLLp://www.Lfhrc.gov/hnr20/recycle/wasLe/ssa1.hLm
13. 1be A,8,c's of Nolse coottol - A Clossoty of Nolse coottol 1etms. (n.d.).
8eLrleved 2
nd
Aprll 2008, from ArL uSA unlverslLy:
www.arLusalndusLrles.us/Lerms
81

14. 1he ConcreLe CenLre on behalf of Lhe uk ConcreLe laLform SusLalnablllLy 1ask
lorce., 2007. ovltoomeotol cteJeotlols. 8eLrleved AugusL 13, 2008, from
SusLalnable ConcreLe:
hLLp://www.susLalnableconcreLe.org.uk/maln.asp?page=66
13. 1he ConcreLe CenLre on behalf of Lhe uk ConcreLe laLform SusLalnablllLy 1ask
lorce., 2007. 5oclol cteJeotlols. 8eLrleved AugusL 13, 2008, from SusLalnable
ConcreLe: hLLp://www.susLalnableconcreLe.org.uk/maln.asp?page=94
16. 1be lbyslcs of 5oooJ., 2006. 8eLrleved from odcomplex:
hLLp://www.podcomplex.com/gulde/physlcs.hLml
17. WhlLe, C., AugusL 2007, lottlcle 5bope ooJ 5otfoce 1extote. 8eLrleved
SepLember 9, 2008, from avemenL lnLeracLlve:
hLLp://pavemenLlnLeracLlve.org/lndex.php?LlLle=arLlcle_Shape_and_Surface_
1exLure
18. Wlklmedla loundaLlon., 2009. cooctete. 8eLrleved 2009, from Wlklpedla.


Iourna|s


1. 8aLayneh, M., Marle, l., & Asl, l., 2007. use of SelecLed WasLe MaLerlals ln
ConcreLe Mlxes. woste Moooqemeot , 27 (12), 1870-1876.


Art|c|e |n er|od|ca|


1. ro ubllcaLlons lnLernaLlonal LLd. . Clobal Slag Magazlne, 13
Lh
lebruary 2007.
Clobol 5loq coofeteoce & xblbltloo 2007 , pp. 7, 11-14.



82

Standards


1. 8S Ln 1008:2002, 8S Ln 206-1. SpeclflcaLlon for ConsLlLuenL MaLerlals and
ConcreLe
2. 8S 12/1996, 8S Ln 206-1. SpeclflcaLlon for ConsLlLuenL MaLerlals and ConcreLe
3. 8S Ln 12620: 2003: AggregaLes for ConcreLe
4. 8S 1881-123:1986 1esLlng concreLe: MeLhods for Mlxlng and Sampllng lresh
ConcreLe ln Lhe LaboraLory
8|b||ography


1. ?aacob Z., 1999. ColJelloes fot wtltteo lteseototloo of ulssettotloos.
ueparLmenL of 8ulldlng, laculLy of ArchlLecLure, lannlng and Surveylng,
MA8A unlverslLy of 1echnology.
2. Murad, M., lsmall, l. Z., & Lsa, M. 8., 2008. ulssettotloo (8lu 550) ColJelloes.
ueparLmenL of 8ulldlng, laculLy of ArchlLecLure, lannlng and Surveylng,
MA8A unlverslLy of 1echnology .

83

9 APPENDICES
DETAIL RESULTS CENERATED BY dBBAT132 SUFTWARE
7Smm th|ck Concrete S|ab Samp|e NA M1 - 0


LmlLLed nolse for Sample nA M1 - 0


8ecelved nolse for Sample nA M1 - 0


8ackground nolse durlng measuremenL of Sample nA M1 - 0

84



SLandard value generaLed for Sample nA M1 - 0


SLandard value generaLed ln graph for Sample nA M1 - 0


[ID=49] R : (Avg.) / (Avg.) - Background Noise removal Hz;dB 100 16.6
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
125 250 500 1 k 2 k 4 k
Rw(C ; Ctr) (dB)
41 ( -1 ; -6)
83

7Smm th|ck Concrete S|ab Samp|e SA M1 -100


LmlLLed nolse for Sample SA M1 - 100


8ecelved nolse for Sample SA M1 - 100


8ackground nolse durlng measuremenL of Sample SA M1 - 100


86

SLandard value generaLed for Sample SA M1 - 100

SLandard value generaLed ln graph for Sample SA M1 - 100

[ID=70] R : (Avg.) / (Avg.) - Background Noise removal Hz;dB 100 24.7
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
125 250 500 1 k 2 k 4 k
Rw(C ; Ctr) (dB)
44 ( -1 ; -4)
87

7Smm th|ck Concrete S|ab Samp|e NA M2 -0



LmlLLed nolse for Sample nA M2 - 0


8ecelved nolse for Sample nA M2 - 0


8ackground nolse durlng measuremenL of Sample nA M2 - 0


88

SLandard value generaLed for Sample nA M2 - 0




SLandard value generaLed ln graph for Sample nA M2 - 0

[ID=32] R : (Avg.) / (Avg.) - Background Noise removal Hz;dB 100 21.8
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
125 250 500 1 k 2 k 4 k
Rw(C ; Ctr) (dB)
43 ( -1 ; -5)
89


7Smm th|ck Concrete S|ab Samp|e SA M2 -100


LmlLLed nolse for Sample SA M2 -100


8ecelved nolse for Sample SA M2 - 100


8ackground nolse durlng measuremenL of Sample SA M2 - 100


90

SLandard value generaLed for Sample SA M2 - 100




SLandard value generaLed ln graph for Sample SA M2 - 100

[ID=32] R : (Avg.) / (Avg.) - Background Noise removal Hz;dB 100 24.4
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
125 250 500 1 k 2 k 4 k
Rw(C ; Ctr) (dB)
45 ( -1 ; -4)