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INTRODUCTION Recent developments within organizations and within organizational business environments have brought new challenges for

personnel selection. Specifically, technological changes, globalization, social trends and changes in the organization of work require that the organizations consider the modus operandi of their employee selection procedures. The change in attitude to workforce management has been great and fundamental since the early years of the 20th century and the introduction of mass production. There are still firms and factories that hire and fire on an almost daily basis and which offer no training or staff development at all. However, these are now the exceptions rather than the rule. Modern Human Resources Management (HRM) has been developed not just in response to increasing legal constraints on how workers are treated but also as a recognition that a truly successful and competitive business depends on the support and coordination of a well-trained and suitably motivated team of staff. The central of HRM is to recruit, train, and utilize a businesss personnel in the most productive manner to assist the organization in the achievement of its objective. The Human Resources department consists of several responsibilities namely; Recruitment and Selection, Wages and salaries, Industrial relations, Training programs, Health and safety, Redundancy (retrenchment) and dismissal. Recruitment and selection are considered to be the most important role of the Human Resources department. It involves attracting and selecting the best candidates for vacancies that arise. This project deals with the analysis of the recruitment and selection process at Bank One, one among the top 5 banks in Mauritius.

LITERATURE REVIEW

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (HRM) Michael Armstrong (1988), one of the most influential writers of the modern times defines Human resource management as a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organizations most valued assets- the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives. According to John Storey (1995), HRM is a distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly commited and capable work force, using an integrated array of cultural, structural and personal techniques. Human resource management involves all management decisions and action that affect the relationship between the organization and its employees-its human resources (Beer et al, 1984). Human resource management comprises of a set of policies designed to maximize organizational integration, employee commitment, flexibility and quality of work (Guest, 1987).

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION Broadly speaking, recruitment and selection is concerned with the identification and selection of the right personnel to satisfy the human resource requirements of an organization. The focus of recruitment and selection is on matching the capabilities and inclinations of prospective candidates against the demands and rewards inherent in a given job (Herriot, 1989; Montgomery, 1996; Plumbley, 1985). Recruitment and selection lie at the heart of how businesses procure human resources required to maintain a sustainable competitive advantage over rivals (Aaker, 1989; Jackson et al., 1989; Pettigrew et al., 1988; Raghuram and Arvey, 1996; Walker, 1992) and hence staffing positions, especially managerial posts, in organizations may well represent one of the most important human resource management functions (Judge and Ferris, 1994).

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION According to Gatewood and Field, selection is more closely related to recruitment than it is to any other HRM programs, because both are concerned with processing individuals to place them in jobs. Other HRM areas deal with individuals after they have been placed. Until recently, recruitment and selection were often conducted as separate activities. Recruitment was the process of attracting a group of individuals to an organization. Selection began after recruitment was completed and was the process of reducing this group down to those suitable for employment. Sara Rynes, in an extensive review of

recruitment, points out that this is a nave view point. At the very least, the selection requirements thus applied to applicants affect the recruitment sources used and some of the specific information about the job that is included in the recruitment message. Correspondingly., the applicant pool obviously serves as the limiting factor in selection. If this pool is inappropriate for the position, the effectiveneess of the selection program is limited.

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING Human resource planning determines the human resources required by the organization to achieve its strategic goals. As defined by Bulla and Scott (1994) it is the process for ensuring that the human resource requirements of an organization are identified and plans are made for satisfying those requirements. Human resource planning is based on the belief that people are an organizations most important strategic resource. It addresses human resource needs both in quantitative and qualitative a term which means answering two basic questions: How many people? What sort of people?

According to Armstrong, HRP also looks at broader issues relating to the ways in which people are employed and developed in order to improve organizational effectiveness. It can therefore play an important part in strategic human resource management. As Quinn Mills (1983) indicates, HRP is a decision-making process that combines three important activities: Identifying and acquiring the right number of people with the proper skills Motivating them to achieve high performance, and Creating interactive links between business objectives and people-planning activities

RECRUITMENT What is recruitment? A useful definition is: searching for and obtaining potential job candidates in sufficient numbers and quality so that the organization can select the most appropriate people to fill its job needs (Dowling and Schuler,1990). How does recruitment differ from selection? Whitehill (1991) describes the recruitment process as a positive one: building a roster of potentially qualified applicants , as opposed to the negative process of selection. The recruitment process has two key aims: the attraction and retention of the interest of suitable applicants the projection of a positive image of the organization to those who come in contact with it

Noe et al (2006:194) define recruitment as the practice or activity carried on by the organization with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees On the other hand, Cherrington (cited in Nel et al, 2004:219) defines recruitment where Every organization must be able to attract a sufficient number of job candidate who have the capabilities and aptitudes that will help the organization achieve its objectives. It also needs to be noted that recruitment is an activity that is related to, and influenced by, the human resource planning activity, in that if an organization identifies a labor surplus through HR planning, management would want to reduce the supply of labor and therefore recruitment would not be appropriate for the organization at that stage.

Ward (1998:16-23) emphasizes that such reduce the supply responses are inadequate and identifies the actual reasons for the recruitment of people to be: .to directly or indirectly adds to the companys revenue To directly or indirectly add to the companys expenditure Through accommodation of the two preceding criteria, enhance the companys profitability (Ward, 1998: 18). Recruitment should be in line with the organizational strategy and HR strategy supported by the HR Plan. The figure below explains how jobs are created, competencies developed and fixed in the organizational charts.

Effective recruitment steps Three steps to develop an effective recruitment process are:

Step 1: Ensure an up-to-date job description which contains information related to: Specific tasks and activities required for a job The knowledge, skills and abilities required for effective performance by the job incumbent.

Step 2: Develop an effective recruitment strategy which considers: Appropriate sources of recruitment (i.e., advertisements, personal referrals, employment agencies, direct applications). Appropriate recruiters (e.g. supervisor or co-worker).

Step 3: Evaluate the recruitment strategy to determine its efficacy. For example: Conduct a cost-benefit analysis in terms of the number of applicants referred, interviewed, selected, and hired. Compare the effectiveness of applicants hired from various sources.

Factors Influencing Recruitment

External Factors External factors (Nel et al, 2004:220) influencing recruitment includes: Government and Trade Union Limitations Countries, such as South Africa, have put in place equal rights legislation to address unfair recruitment practices. Trade Unions often participate in the recruitment process so as to ensure that the process is fair. Labor Market Conditions Labor market conditions significantly impact an organizations choice of recruitment program (Nel et al, 2004:220). For example, if there is an undersupply of skills within the labor market, an intensive and multi-pronged recruitment program would need to be implemented.

Internal Factors Internal factors which influence recruitment include: Organizational Policy Organizational recruitment policies with regards to internal v/s external recruitment, employment equity, diversity v/s person-organization fit, etc. (see section 4.2.2) will influence the nature of the organizations recruitment. The Image of the Organization The public image of the organization, as well as the image which the prospective employee has of the organization, will impact on the organizations recruitment program (Nel, et al, 2004:220). Recruitment Requirements It is important that the organization, through effective job analysis, job descriptions and job specifications, sets out realistic requirements for the potential job incumbent. Should unrealistic requirements be set, the success of the recruitment program will be impeded?

Recruitment Sources

Due to the expansive nature of the labor market, the source from which an organization recruits potential employees is a critical aspect of its overall recruitment strategy, there are two types of sources, the internal and external sources.

Internal Sources Promotion and transfer of present employees; Job advertisements circulated to present employees; Personal records to identify present employees with potential; Skills inventories which provide information on the qualification, skills, performance and experience of present employees (Nel et al, 2004:221).

External Sources Employment agencies Head hunting Walk-ins Referrals Professional associations Advertisements (placed in newspapers, trade magazines, the internet, etc

JOB ANALYSIS According to Michael Armstrong, job analysis produces the following information about a job namely; overall purpose, content, accountabilities, performance criteria, responsibilities, organizational factors, motivating factors, developmental factors and environmental factors. The management of a business need to determine what work needs to be done. Job analysis is a key part of this need. It concentrates on what job holders are expected to do. It provides the basis for job description, which in turn influences decision taken on recruitment, training, performance appraisal and reward systems. Purpose of job analysis Choose employees either from the ranks of your existing staff or from the recruitment of new staff. Set out the training requirements of a particular job. Provide information which will help in decision making about the type of equipment and materials to be employed with the job. Identify and profile the experiences of employees in their work tasks (information which can be used as evidence for staff development and promotion). Identify areas of risk and danger at work. Help in setting rates of pay for job tasks.

How is a job analysis carried out? Several techniques should be used to complete an effective job analysis. Research business documents- for example, procedures manuals.

Ask relevant managers about the requirements and purpose of the job; what are the key activities; what relationships does the job have with other posts. Develop a comprehensive profile through these discussions.

Interview the existing job holder (if the job already exists). Observe the job holders to see what they really do.

THE KEY INFORMATION THAT NEEDS TO BE COLLECTED INCLUDES: Job title Main duties and tasks Targets and performance standards that the job holder is required to achieve The amount of supervision that is normally given/freedom of decision-making in the job. Skills and/or qualifications needed for the job (including personal skills)

JOB DESCRIPTION A job description sets out the basic details of a job, defining reporting relationships, the overall objective of the job, the main activities or tasks carried out and any other special requirements or features. For recruitment purposes, information may be provided on the arrangements for training and development and career opportunities. The terms and conditions for the job pay, benefits, etc will also be included, as will special requirements such as mobility, travelling or unsocial hours.

JOB SPECIFICATION A job specification goes beyond a mere description in addition, it highlights the mental and physical attributes required of the job holder. Job analysis, description and specification can provide useful information to a business in addition to serving as recruitment instruments. For example, staff appraisal is a mean of monitoring staff performance and is a feature of promotion in modern companies. In some companies, for example, employees and their immediate line managers discuss personal goals and targets for the coming period (e.g. the next six months). The appraisal will then involve a review of performance during the previous six months, and setting new targets. Job details can serve as a useful basis for establishing dialogue and

targets. Job descriptions can be used as reference points for arbitrating in disputes as to who does what in a business.

PERSONNEL SPECIFICATION The personnel specification is a document specifically introduced to assist the recruitment process drawn up to identify the required characteristics of the new recruit. Two examples or their hybrids are in common use: Rogers seven-point plan and Munro Frasers fivefold grading system.

Feature sought 1. Physical make-up

Essential Able to communicate orally with confidence and sensitivity At least one years previous experience of recruitment/ general personnel administration

Desirable None

2. Attainments

Previous experience of project work. Previous experience of supervising staff knowledge of current employment law. Able to pick up organizations cultural systems quickly

3. Intelligence

4. Aptitudes

Able to: Carry out job analysis Design up advertisements, induction training, organize programs and record systems Computer literacy and with experience of computers in work environment

5. Interests 6. Disposition

None Able to relate well to all categories of employee within the organization Conscientious, thorough in task completion

None Enhances professional image of Personnel Department Can cope with mundane as well as profile activities

7. Circumstances

None

None

Personnel Specification for personnel assistant ( Rogers 7 point)

Aspects of individual to consider 1. Impact on others

Essential Able to communicate arally with confidence and sensitivity, and relate well to all categories of employee within the organization conscientious.

Desirable Enhances professional inmage of Personnel Department.

2. Acquired knowledge or qualifications

At least one years experience of recruitment/ general personnel administration

Previous experience of project work. Previous experience of supervising staff. Knowledge of current employment law. Computer literate. Experience of computers in work environment. Potential to pick up organizations culture/ systems quickly. Writing job descriptions, person specifications, design of advertisements and introduction training programs, maintain accurate records and produce statistical returns.

3. Innate abilities

To learn job requirements and perform effectively in short time scale.

4. Motivation

Can cope with mundane aspects of job as well high profile activities.

Wishes to develop career in personnel management.

5. Adjustment

Achieves and reacts calmly to time pressure deadlines. Conscientious and thorough in task completion.

Personnel specification for personnel assistant (following Munro Frasers five-point grading)

TYPES OF RECRUITMENT Internal recruitment Internal recruitment is the process of finding internal candidates and encouraging them to apply for organizational openings (Schneider & Schmitt, 1986), in other words, workers who already form part of the personnel of the organization and possess the required skills and knowledge are encouraged to apply for the vacant post. The announcements for the vacant posts are normally done through circulars, company news letter, and word to mouth and so on. Advantages of internal recruitment It saves time and money, rather than recruiting someone from outside the business (advertising, interviewing, etc.) The person is already known to the business and their reliability, ability and potential are known. The person also knows the organizations way of working and what is expected from employees. It can be very motivating for other employees to see their fellow workers being motivated it makes them work harder. Disadvantages of internal recruitment No new ideas or experience come into the business. Other companies may have different ways of working and these ways may be better in some respect. This allows these working practices to be spread to other businesses and make them more efficient. There may be jealousy and rivalry amongst existing employees.

External recruitment External recruitment refers to the process of finding potential candidates outside the organization and encouraging them to apply for and be willing to accept organizational vacancies. Advantages of external recruitment Brings in new ideas and skills and techniques with new candidates coming into the organization External candidates may have broader experience External candidates may have some expertise which he/she can share with new colleagues Candidates may be familiar with competitors

Disadvantages of external recruitment It is costly The company may end up with someone who proves to be less effective than they did on paper and in the interview situation.

METHODS OF RECRUITMENT There are a number of methods of external recruitment. However, there are certain critical issues that should be taken into consideration to be able to choose the right method. Some of these are: The cost for choosing a particular method. The coverage under that particular method of communicating the vacancy The deadline for filing in the post, etc.

Below are listed some external forms of recruitment: Advertising Associations and unions Colleges and secondary schools Employee referral programs Employment agencies Walk-ins Internet

SELECTION

Job Analysis

Identification of relevant Job Performance Dimensions

Identification of knowledge, Skills, Abilities (SKAs) necessary for the job

Development of Assessment devices to measure KSAs

Validation of assessment devices: content, construct and criterion

Use of assessment devices in the processing of Applicants

The Selection Process (Source: Getewood and Field, Human Resources Selection, fifth edition)

Identification of relevant job performance measures

One of the major purposes of selection programs is to identify those applicants who will be successful on the job under consideration. We assume actual differences among workers can be measured on aspects of the job that are important to the performance of the job. In other words, there is some way that the organization can tell how successful the workers are on the job.

Identification of worker characteristics

Using both, the job analysis information and the job performance data, the HR specialist must identify the Knowledge, Skills, Abilities (SKAs) and other employee characteristics that a worker should possess in order to perform the job successfully. The KSAs become the basic pool of characteristics to be evaluated in applicants.

Development of Assessment Devices

After the KSAs of primary interest have been identified, it becomes necessary either to find or construct the appropriate selection devices for collecting information from applicants. These instruments can be classified into the following groups: application blanks, biographical data forms, and reference checks; the selection interview; mental and special abilities tests; personality assessment inventories; and simulation and performance measures. There are twa basic principles for choosing the selection device(s) to be used. The first is that the device must measure the KSAs identified previously and secondly the assessment device should be able to differentiate among applicants.

Validation Procedures

There are several ways to validate the selection process. In empirical validation, for example, two types of data are collected: (a) The scores on the selection devices of a representative sample of individuals (b) Measures of how well each of these individuals performing on important parts of the job. The purpose of validation is to provide evidence that the data from the selection instruments are related to job performance.

Selection methods It can be argued that staff selection is becoming the axis on which all other human resources issues turn. In this fast-moving environment the time available for new employees to adapt and develop is diminishing. They are expected to become effective almost instantly, to perform and to move on. It must be said that identifying the best candidate for the job is only one side of a coin, as the candidate needs to be motivated to accept the offer. This point is made by Herriot (1984) who pointed out that the psychological contract can be terminated by either side at any point in the process. Choosing the right person for the job is critical to the organizations success and a poor or inappropriate choice can not only be costly to the organization but demoralizing to the employee (who finds himself in the wrong job), and demotivating to the rest of the workforce. Of course the perfect match is not always possible and the organization will then be faced with 3 major time-consuming and costly choices as depicted by Beardwell and Holden (1990): To encourage or modify the job to fit the person To encourage personal change and development until an acceptable fit is reached A mixture of the above

There is a vast array of selection methods available to an organization, from the gaining popularity of psychometric exercises to the rare world of graphology. The main ones are described below: Interview An interview can be described as a conversation with a purpose. It provides a valuable opportunity for an exchange of information, which will enable both parties that is the interviewer and the interviewee to make a decision; to offer or not to offer ajob; to accept or not to accept the offer.

Types of interviews Individual or one-to-one interview These are by far the most common, and the offer the best opportunity for the communication to flow between the interviewer and the candidate. The interviewee finds himself in a comfortable situation and is at ease to express himself correctly. However such types of interviews have some problems. For instance,

if the interviewer lacks objectivity, then he is the sole judge and this will go unchecked. Additionally, the interviewer may find that he lacks knowledge of some of the areas in which he has to question the candidates.

Panel interview To a certain degree, panel interviews help overcome the problems of face to face interview. Generally speaking, a panel will consist of two or more people who will together interview the candidates. It is a common practice for the practice to be made up of the line managers of the vacant position, an HR specialist, plus others who have a significant interest in the appointment. One of the main advantage of using the panel interview is the fact that any decision made will be a group decision and based upon the feelings of all panel members and not one individuals. The interview has long been acknowledged as the most frequently used selection device. A reasonable case can also be made that it is the most important device in many selection decisions because it is given the most weight. It is also a fairly tine-consuming and expensive selection tool, as a survey of members of the Society of Human Resource Managers indicates. (Gatewood and Field, 2001).

Selection tests Selection tests such as psychological tests of intelligence or personality are used to provide more valid and reliable evidence of levels of intelligence, personality characteristics, abilities, aptitudes and attainments that can be obtained from an interview. As defined by Smithy and Robertson (1986), a psychological test is carefully chosen, systematic and standardized procedure for evolving a sample of responses from candidates which can be used to assess one or more of their psychological characteristics with those of a representative sample of an appropriate population.

Types of selection tests Intelligence tests Tests of intelligence such as Ravens Matrices measure general intelligence. Intelligence is defined by Toplis et al (1991) as the capacity for abstract thinking and reasoning. For general selection purposes, an intelligence test that can be administered to a group of candidates that is best, especially if it has been properly validated, and it is possible to relate test scores to norms in such a way to indicate how the individual taking the test compares with the rest of the population, in general or in a specific area. Personality tests Personality tests attempt to assess the personality of candidates in order to make predictions about their likely behavior in a role. There are many different theories of personality and, consequently, many different types of personality tests. These include self-report personality questionnaires and other questionnaires that measure interests, values or work behaviour.

Aptitude tests Aptitude tests are job-specific tests that are designed to predict the potential of an individual has to perform tasks within a job. They can cover such areas as clerical aptitude, numerical, mechanical aptitude and dexterity.

Attainment tests Attainment tests measure abilities or skills that have already been acquired by training or experience. A typing test is the most typical example. It is easy to find out how many words a minute a typist can type and compare that with the standard for the job.

Other types of tests: Biodata Biodata refers to biographical information about the candidate and much of this sort of information is gathered on application forms. Applications forms, as with other tools used for selection purposes, should be clearly designed so that selectors know how they are going to use the information when it is received. Difficult and lengthy forms have been used in the past to check an individuals motivation in applying for a job and it is certainly the case that a lengthy application form will deter those from applying if they are not absolutely sure that they want the job. Short listing from application forms is a risky business and many candidates who do not hace the right background or have not had the same opportunities as others but who might be excellent in post can be ruled out. Herriot , Glendinning and Wingrove (1984) found that selecting candidates on the basis of application forms was a haphazard affair with candidates who filled in the white spaces on the form standing a greater chance of selection because filling in the spaces was equated with motivation.

Group methods Roles Many organizations are now interested in whether an employee will fit into an existing group. Some organizations are therefore using Belbins work on team roles (Belbin, 1981) not only to identify what role exist at present within the team and therefore what is the gap, but also to select a candidate with the required role preference. Problem solving A small group of 6-8 people is asked to solve a work-related problem in a limited period of time. Each individual may also be asked to feed back to the assessors the behaviour of a chosen candidate, thus each individual would not only be asked to contribute to solving the problem but they would be required to appraise another individual. The candidate will be assessed on:

Problem solving ability in the short and long term creativity Ability to work well and contribute to a team situation Interpersonal skills; ability to listen, to appraise and assess others; Leadership and chairing qualities

In-trays The exercise simulates what a manager might find in his or her in-tray and the candidate is allocated a limited period of time-say 30 minutes- in which to go through the in tray of memos, letters, reports and other documents and to make appropriate written decisions. Those decisions or suggestion actions will be communicated and explained to an assessor following the event. The in-tray exercise will typically be assessing: Ability to make appropriate decisions when under time pressure; To deal with situations appropriately To be aware of the knock-on effect of decisions to other parties; Ability to organize and priorities

Presentation Each candidate is asked to write and present a piece of work to an audience. Typically the presentation will be time limited and on a relevant topic. The candidate will be assessed on: Verbal and non-verbal presentation skills Relevant content Time management

Work stimulation exercise A typical work situation is stimulated so that a candidates ability to do the job effectively can be assessed. The alternative is to rely on what the candidate say they would do in a given situation, but what or how they say they would carry out a piece of work may be different to what they would do in practice.

The candidate is asked to comment on or answer questions, which mirror the type of activity which is involved in the job. For example, a prospective senior manager may be asked to comment individually and in writing on the last years financial figures suggesting questions that he or she would like to ask the accountant, or a secretary may be asked to undertake a typing test, or a prospective television newscaster may be asked to present a piece of news.

Repertory grid technique Kelly (1955) developed the notion of personal construct psychology as a theory of personality which over the last five years has been developed for use in the selection process.. the technique allows the individual to make sense of his or her world by indentifying similarities and differences between sets of events in his or her life and in this way develops personal construct. Kellys repertory grid in extremely useful when trying to uncover a candidates real motivation and preferences and marks anew and exciting step forward in the field of selection.

Assessment centres Assessment centres have been described by Lewis (1985) as a selection procedure using multiple methods. An assessment center is a program of tests work simulation situations, exercises and interviews which are designed to measure and assess a wide potential required for effective performance in the job. Assessment center techniques have gained prominence in the last decade but they are not new and date back to the second World War. The time, cost and expertise involved in setting up an assessment center that is relevant to a particular organization is enormous. On the other hand organizations have the opportunity to view and assess candidates from a number of differing perspectives using a wide range of methods, and hopefully to present the organization in a positive light.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE SELECTION There are a number of selection methods available which all attempts to predict future work behaviour and potential. The key to an effective method of selection is that it should not only provide more

information about the candidates. However there are many barriers that may restrain the achievement of the achievement of effective selection such as: Perception Stereotyping Gender issues The older employee Halo effect Projection

Choosing selection methods Before examining the techniques used in choosing selection methods there are some general principles to be considered. Rodger told generations fo his students that in considering the use of any psychological technique they should check that it is technically sound, administratively convenient and politically acceptable. This roughly means that it should really work, be cost effective and run into so much resistance. According to M. Armstrong a good test is one that provides valid data that enable reliable predictions of behavior to be made and therefore assist in the process of making objective and reasoned decisions when selecting people for jobs. He further states that there are four criteria which need to be present in choosing any selection method. These are sensitiveness, standardization, reliability and validity.

INDUCTION New workers in a firm are usually given an induction program in which they meet other workers and are shown the skills they must learn. Generally, the first few days at work will simply involve observation, with an experienced worker showing the 'new hand' the ropes. Many large firms will have a detailed training scheme, which is done on an 'in-house' basis. This is particularly true of larger public companies such as banks and insurance companies. In conjunction with this, staff may be encouraged to attend college courses to learn new skills and get new qualifications. Training thus takes place in the following ways: 1. On the job - learning skills through experience at work 2. Off the job - learning through attending courses.

Once the chosen candidates have been informed of their selection for the job postings, they are granted offer letters and apprised briefly about their roles and responsibilities. During this process, the chosen candidates are encouraged to ask questions about organization philosophies, work culture and employee practices. They are the informed about start dates, induction programs, compensation packages and other details about their jobs.

INDUCTION TRAINING Induction Training is absolutely vital for new starters. Good induction training ensures new starters are retained, and then settled in quickly and happily to a productive role. Induction training is more than skills training. It's about the basics that seasoned employees all take for granted: what the shifts are, where the notice-board is, what the routine is for holidays, sickness, where the canteen is, what the dress code is, where the toilets are. New employees also need to understand the organizations mission, goals, values and philosophy, personnel practices, health and safety rules, and of course the job they are required to do, with clear methods, timescales and expectations.

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