The Development of an Integrated Water Management Plan for the Tomine Catchment, Colombia.

Master Thesis by Chris Holtslag MASTER'S PROGRAMME IN INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY Delft University of Technology & Leiden University August 2011

Supervisors: Maarten Siebel, UNESCO-IHE Gijsbert Korevaar, Delft University of Technology

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag ii

Preface
My interest in developing countries and thinking about elemental problems, has led me to seek a graduation topic that could take me abroad and let me put Industrial Ecology to practice. I found this in Delft where UNESCO-IHE deals with all the sustainability aspects regarding water. One the projects of UNESCO-IHE is called SWITCH Managing Water for the City of the Future, an action research program with partners in more than 15 countries. One of the cities involved is Bogot, the capital of Colombia. I was able to take part in the research team based at the National University of Colombia (UNAL), in the Institute of Environmental Studies (IDEA) making this water project the subject of my master thesis. The master program Industrial Ecology looks at the current problems the world is facing and tries to tackle unsustainability with a systems perspective and a multi-disciplinary approach. Many of the worlds current problems be it energy, poverty, development or climate change, are related to water. During my study I became more and more convinced that sustainable water management is a basic condition for sustainable development. The UNESCO-IHE is an institute that attracts people from all countries that want to learn more about solving water-related problems. I wanted to do my Msc thesis on the subject but first wanted a more hands-on experience in an institute with this special focus. I was able to do an internship at UNESCOIHE with professor Maarten Siebel, and learned about a project in Colombia. This SWITCH project focused on the Bogot River and looked at ways to reduce its pollution from effluents of tanneries that were dumped in the river upstream. A second project was initiated focusing on a region upstream of Bogot, the Tomin catchment. The idea was to make an analysis of the problems in the current water management system which could be used to further develop an integrated water management plan. In Colombia I was part of the research team that made this analysis, and at the same time could use this experience as the subject of this MSc thesis. I want to thank: Maarten Siebel, Gijsbert Korevaar, Mnica Sanz, Tania Santos, Claudia Casallas, Leonardo Guayara, Hernn Yanguatn, Ricardo Castro, Carolina Tobn, Eduardo Molina, Claudia Romero, Edwin Moreno, Laura Osorio and Luis Carlos Bohorquez for making my trip to Colombia possible and unforgettable. My parents Henk and Gerda and my sister Sita for their unconditional support and last but not least my loving girlfriend Astrid for letting me go to Colombia for 4 months and being so patient.

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Abstract
The Bogot River Basin faces multiple water-related difficulties such as floods, droughts, contamination of drinking water. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a framework that allows decision makers to handle such problems. In Colombia however, local and practical implementation is limited despite political will on a national and regional level. The SWITCH (Sustainable Water Improves Tomorrows Cities Health) project was done in two subcatchments of the Bogot River Basin, one of them being Tomin Catchment with its thee municipalities located around a reservoir originally constructed for hydropower generation. The catchment faces many problems related to water security and quality, for which IWRM has been put forward as a fitting management approach. To find out how water management in the Tomin catchment can be improved, a rapid water resources assessment and an initial stakeholder analysis were performed. This was done by gathering secondary data on water resources, infrastructure demand and access and organizing them in a format that can become the future information base. Key stakeholders that are needed for the success of a future IWRM plan for the region were identified and their interrelations analyzed. This analysis was followed by an evaluation of the direction the Tomin IWRM project took. Lastly, a number of recommendations were put forward concerning priorities for future IWRM planning. The study shows that there are urgent water-related problems in the catchment. Raw sewage, agrochemicals and sediments enter the Tomin Reservoir. Poor rural communities have no or insufficient water supply, water storage or sanitation infrastructure. The security of supply is, in a number of places, severely reduced in dry periods. Despite efforts by regional and local stakeholders to address these problems, much work remains to be done. Progress is limited, partly due to poor communication, both vertical; between the local and regional level, and horizontal; between stakeholders within the local level. These barriers prevent a sustainable supply of clean water to the population of the Tomin catchment. Bringing stakeholders together in a learning alliance could help them to manage their water resources and use the IWRM framework to take matters into their own hands and plan actions to target root causes of the mentioned problems.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag iv

Table of Contents
Preface..................................................................................................................................................ii Abstract ...............................................................................................................................................iii List of figures ....................................................................................................................................... vi List of tables ....................................................................................................................................... vii Glossary ............................................................................................................................................. viii List of acronyms................................................................................................................................... ix 1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 2 Integrated Water Resources Management ............................................................................. 1 Improving water governance in Colombia .............................................................................. 2 Aim and Research Question .................................................................................................... 3

Background........................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 2.2 2.3 Overview of the Tomin Catchment ....................................................................................... 4 Overview of the water and sanitation sector.......................................................................... 7 Planning IWRM ...................................................................................................................... 12

Methods ............................................................................................................................. 16 3.1 3.2 3.3 RIDA ....................................................................................................................................... 16 RAAKS stakeholder identification .......................................................................................... 16 Evaluation of the role of the facilitation team ...................................................................... 17

Results................................................................................................................................ 18 4.1 4.2 4.3 Water Resources Assessment ............................................................................................... 18 Stakeholder Identification ..................................................................................................... 34 Evaluation of the project ....................................................................................................... 40

Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 42 5.1 5.2 5.3 Technical ................................................................................................................................ 42 Stakeholders .......................................................................................................................... 44 Process................................................................................................................................... 45

Conclusions......................................................................................................................... 47 6.1 6.2 6.3 Technical ................................................................................................................................ 47 Stakeholder ........................................................................................................................... 47 Process................................................................................................................................... 47

7 8

Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 48 References .......................................................................................................................... 50 8.1 Bibliography........................................................................................................................... 50

v 8.2 9 Websites ................................................................................................................................ 53

Appendices ......................................................................................................................... 54 9.1 9.2 9.3 Rural Water board Data. ....................................................................................................... 54 Initial economic assessment of urban water supply systems. .............................................. 58 Impressions of field work. ..................................................................................................... 59

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag vi

List of figures
Figure 2.1. Map of Colombia, Bogot and area of study......................................................................... 4 Figure 2.2 The Bogot River Basin and the Tomin subcatchment. ....................................................... 5 Figure 2.3 Topography of the Tomin catchment. .................................................................................. 6 Figure 2.4 Land Cover of the Tomin Catchment (Source CAR 2011) ..................................................... 6 Figure 2.5 Jurisdiction of CAR Cundinamarca and CORPOGUAVIO in the study area. ............................ 8 Figure 2.6 Typical stakeholders in water governance. The process facilitation team enhances communication and dialogue within and between stakeholders platforms at different institutional levels (adapted from EMPOWERS 2007). .............................................................................................. 15 Figure 4.1 Average annual rainfall at the Guatavita station 1968-2008 (IDEAM 2010) ........................ 18 Figure 4.2 Average monthly precipitation and evapotranspiration in the Tomin catchment (IDEAM 2010)...................................................................................................................................................... 18 Figure 4.3 Water volume in the Tomin Reservoir 1991 - 2010 in millions of m3 (CAR 2010)............. 19 Figure 4.4 Water system scheme of the Tomin Catchment ................................................................ 19 Figure 4.5 Aquatic plant growth in the southern part of the Tomin reservoir. (Source: Daphnia 2010) ............................................................................................................................................................... 21 Figure 4.6 Town square of Sesquil (photo by author) ......................................................................... 21 Figure 4.7 Water infrastructure in Sesquil .......................................................................................... 22 Figure 4.8 Water system scheme of the urban area of Sesquil .......................................................... 22 Figure 4.9 Water intake from the Achury Canal for the WTP of Sesquil. ............................................ 24 Figure 4.10 Street of Guatavita (photo by author)................................................................................ 25 Figure 4.11 Water infrastructure in Guatavita ...................................................................................... 26 Figure 4.12 Water system scheme of the urban area of Guatavita ...................................................... 26 Figure 4.13 Water tanks on houses in Guasca. (photo by author)........................................................ 30 Figure 4.14 Unfinished WWTP of Guasca December 2010. (photo by author) .................................... 30 Figure 4.15 Water Infrastructure of Guasca.......................................................................................... 31 Figure 4.16 Water system scheme of the urban area of Guasca ......................................................... 31 Figure 4.17 Relevant stakeholders on the National (outer), Regional (middle) and Local (center) level. ............................................................................................................................................................... 35 Figure 4.18 Institutional stakeholders ................................................................................................... 35 Figure 4.19 Information flows between stakeholders on the local, regional and national level.......... 39

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List of tables
Table 2.1 Current and expected population of Sesquil, Guatavita and Guasca. (Adapted from DANE 2010)........................................................................................................................................................ 6 Table 2.2 IWRM Planning approaches. ................................................................................................. 13 Table 2.3 Different types of Water Resources Assessments (adapted from EMPOWERS 2006). ......... 14 Table 3.1 The RIDA Framework and assessment methods. .................................................................. 16 Table 4.1 Average monthly temperature, precipitation and evaporation data of the Tomin catchment from 1982 to 2009 (IDEAM 2010) ....................................................................................... 18 Table 4.2 Water information summary sheet of the Tomin Catchment ............................................. 20 Table 4.3 Water information summary sheet of Sesquil .................................................................... 23 Table 4.4 Water information summary sheet of Guatavita .................................................................. 27 Table 4.5 Water information summary sheet of Guasca ...................................................................... 32 Table 4.6 Summary of water use in the three municipalities ............................................................... 34 Table 4.7 Key actors among stakeholders ............................................................................................. 35

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Glossary
Action research Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems.1 Catchment / Drainage Basin A catchment or drainage basin is an area of land and water defined by a boundary such that all surface drainage within the boundary converges to a single point. This point of convergence is usually the exit point, where the collected waters leave the watershed. There are, however, watersheds out of which no water flows (DCR 2011). Complex system A system composed of interconnected parts that as a whole exhibit one or more properties (behavior among the possible properties) not obvious from the properties of the individual parts (Joslyn et al.2000). Learning Alliance A learning alliance is a series of connected multi-stakeholder platforms at different institutional levels (national, district, community, etc.), involved in innovation in an area of common interest. (IRC 2007) Multidisciplinarity Multidisciplinarity is a non-integrative mixture of disciplines in that each discipline retains its methodologies and assumptions without change or development from other disciplines within the multidisciplinary relationship.2 Pramo Pramo is an ecosystem found in the higher regions of the Andes Mountain range in South America, between the highest tree line at about 3500 meters above sea level, until the snowline at about 5000 meters above sea level. The ecosystem consists of high plains with lakes, bog and grassland and a growth of bushes and small shrubs. The Pramo is also called the sponge of the Andes.3 SWITCH Program SWITCH (Sustainable Water Improves Tomorrows Cities Health) was a research program that ran from 2006 - 2011 funded by the EU FP6 program. It was aimed at achieving more sustainable integrated urban water management in the 'City of the Future', 30-50 years (SWITCH 2011). Water board A water board is a rural, community-based organization established to manage the water resources and charging and financing of water.4

1 2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_research, 22/08/2011 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidisciplinarity, 11/08/2011 3 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1ramo, 11/08/2011 4 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_board, 11/08/2011

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List of acronyms
CAR CORPOGUAVIO IDEA IE EMPOWERS EU GWP IWRM MDG SDCA SWITCH UNAL UNESCO WRA WTP WWTP Corporacin Autnoma Regional Regional Autonomous Corporation Corporacin Autnoma Regional del Guavio CAR of the Guavio Instituto de Estudios Ambientales Institute of Environmental Studies Industrial Ecology Euro-Med Participatory Water Resources Scenarios European Union Global Water Partnership Integrated Water Resources Management Millennium Development Goal Stakeholder Dialogue and Concerted Action Sustainable Water Improves Tomorrows Cities Health Universidad Nacional de Colombia National University of Colombia United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization Water Resources Assessment Water Treatment Plant, a facility that performs water purification Wastewater Treatment Plant, a facility that treats and disposes of sewage

1 Introduction

1 Introduction
Access to safe drinking water is a basic requirement for human survival and health. Water for food production, energy and other productive uses is essential for economic development. However, nearly 80% of the worlds population is exposed to high levels of threat to water security (Vorosmarty et al., 2010). About 2.6 billion people do not use improved sanitation and nearly 900 million people do not use improved sources of drinking-water. Additionally, population growth in combination with the effects of climate change, more variable rainfall, more frequent and intense floods and droughts, will increase pressures on the hydrological cycle and increase the problems (GWP, 2011). In the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002, it was already emphasized that water should be managed in a basin-wide context and should be under the principles of good governance and public participation (Rahaman & Varis, 2005).

1.1 Integrated Water Resources Management

The issues mentioned above show there are many problems and solutions are urgently needed. Many stakeholders work at different levels and scales for these solutions and need to consider social, economic and political forces. There is a need to integrate these aspects into a common way of thinking, across sectors and different groups in society. The field of study that does this is called Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). The most used definition of IWRM is given by the Global Water Partnership (GWP 2000): IWRM is defined as a process that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. The most important aspect of IWRM is to let the water managers consider the wider implications of their actions and work together more effectively. IWRM must also be seen as a long term process in which key concepts are; sustainability, conflicting demands of stakeholders, and planning. IWRM strategies are based on the Dublin Principles presented at the World Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (ICWE 1992). 1. Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment. 2. Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy-makers at all levels. 3. Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water. 4. Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good. Moriarty et al. (2010) mention two different approaches that IWRM can adopt: 1. Full IWRM: a top down reform of policy, institutions and legal frameworks. 2. Light IWRM: bottom up improvements in how water users and water professionals work together and communicate with each other

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 2 Both these approaches are required to provide sustainable solutions which are not only supported by institutional actors but also by the end users and other local actors.

1.2 Improving water governance in Colombia

Compared to the rest of Latin America, Colombia is doing reasonably well in providing access to improved drinking water in urban areas, but shows insufficient progress in rural areas in meeting de MDG target of halving the proportion of people without access to improved drinking-water and basic sanitation (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). The Tomin (sub-)catchment is interesting because the reservoir joins the three different municipalities. It receives most (waste)water from two municipalities, and the third depending on it for potable water production. The three urban areas have a different water supply and treatment structure than the rural areas surrounding them. The main problem the region faces is water scarcity in the dry period which can last up to three months. It is most urgent in the two northernmost municipalities; Sesquil and Guatavita, and will become worse with the projected population growth. Although drinking water for the urban areas is treated, a lot of urban areas drink water that comes straight from streams. This can create water quality problems as agro economic activities which use pesticides and animal husbandry next to streams contaminate these same streams. On top of this sewage isnt always treated and also flows in the water streams, ending up in the Tomin reservoir, where there are signs of eutrophication (PDM Sesquil 2008, PUEAA Guatavita 2008, PUEAA Guasca 2010). Thus the main challenges the stakeholders in the area face are: Securing water supply Improving drinking water quality Improving urban and rural sewage management and sanitation infrastructure Improving water quality in the reservoir

The municipalities dont have flexible and adaptive water management that is able to or respond to variability and change in social, environmental, political and economic pressures and they need the support regional and national stakeholders. The government of Colombia has accepted IWRM as a way to organize the water policy and the approach is finding its way in development plans (MAVDT 2003). It has developed policies for the management of river basins at the national level (MAVDT 2003). Also a Bogot River Basin management plan exists, the Plan de Ordenacin y Manejo de la Cuenca Bogot POMCA, which states the problems per sub-catchment (CAR 2006), but the translation to the local level is missing. Therefore, adopting a Light IWRM approach at the sub-catchment level can help coordinate efforts addressing the water related problems of the region. Due to success of a project funded by the SWITCH (Sustainable Water Improves Tomorrows Cities Health) program, at the birth of the Bogota River, in Villapinzn, the governorate of Cundinamarca requested another project: to make a catchment-wide implementation plan for the Tomin catchment that included integrated water management strategies and pilot projects demonstrating their feasibility. This project was formulated by researchers of the Institute of Environmental Studies or Instituto de Estudios Ambientales IDEA of the National University of Colombia (UNAL), in accordance with the three majors of the municipalities Sesquil, Guatavita and Guasca that make up

3 Introduction the territory of the Tomin catchment. The project financing allowed for a deadline of the report in January 2011. A team was assembled in September 2010 led by researchers from the IDEA and consisting of a social scientist, an ecological economist a civil engineer and the author. Within the research team, the author was responsible for the water resource assessment and the stakeholder identification parts, the results of which make up this thesis. Finally the course of the Tomin project is evaluated to extract lessons for future work on a Tomin IWRM plan. This research could be considered an expansion of the POMCA, zooming in on the Tomin catchment, and the results could serve as a basis for a more comprehensive Basin management plan.

1.3 Aim and Research Question

The issues mentioned above lead to the following research question: How can water governance be improved in the Tomin Catchment? This research has been structured as follows: Every chapter starts with a subchapter highlighting mainly the technical or technological aspects, for instance water quantities, quality and infrastructure. Each second subchapter is about stakeholders, how they interact and are affected by and affect decisions concerning water use and disposal. Each third subchapter is about the process by which the research team of the IDEA performed its action research in the period of September December 2010. The sub questions that have been formulated to answer the main research question are: Technical Why isnt present infrastructure sufficiently able to deal with the water problems in the catchment and what is needed to deal with the challenges the stakeholders are facing? What are stakeholders currently doing to address water problems in the catchment? Why was it not possible to develop an IWRM plan for the Tomin catchment in the given conditions of time, advance knowledge & capacity of the IDEA research team?

Stakeholder Process

Hypotheses Technical Stakeholder: Process

Some key basin-wide hydrological aspects are not fully understood. Local actors are not heard by the regional institutions and decision makers Institutions outsource diagnostic studies but dont share this information with other institutions. There is no acceptance & compliance by stakeholders of water rights. The stakeholders did not communicate with each other and the IDEA on a regular basis.

Objectives Technical Stakeholder Process

To map water availability and usage so as to determine points of water abundance and stress To show aspects of current water governance that can be improved. To reflect on the course of the project and to show where progress can be made for a future IWRM approach in the Tomin catchment.

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2 Background
2.1 Overview of the Tomin Catchment
Physiography The Tomin Catchment lies in Colombia, around 60 km north of the capital; Bogota, a metropolis with over 7 million inhabitants (SDP 2011). The catchment is part of three municipalities: Sesquil, Guatavita and Guasca which in turn are part of the department of Cundinamarca (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1. Map of Colombia, Bogot and area of study.

The Tomin Catchment is a sub-catchment of the Bogot River Basin, and covers a large part of the territory of Cundinamarca including Bogot (Figure 2.2). The Bogot River is an important tributary to the Magdalena River which is the principal river of Colombia, flowing northward through the western half of the country.

5 Background

Figure 2.2. The Bogot River Basin and the Tomin subcatchment.

The main feature of the Tomin catchment is the Tomin Reservoir, a large artificial lake which was created by damming the Tomin River. It is connected to the Bogot River through the Achury Canal (Figure 2.3). The reservoir has an area of around 30 km2 and a capacity of 690.000.000 m3 of water (FAO 2011). Land Cover Most of the area of the catchment is covered with pastures (Figure 2.4) which are used for cattle grazing and other agricultural activities like cultivation of potatoes, yuca, strawberries and flowers. There are some areas of erosion, mostly around the south end of the reservoir. Natural and planted forest is scarce in the catchment an is limited to the higher regions. Above around 3000 meters of altitude, a natural and protected vegetation native to the Andes mountainrange, the Pramo, is found. It is known for its large and sustained base flow of water (Buytaert et al., 2006) and is the reason most of the water for the catchment can be captured with small and installations without the need for big storage tanks. The Pramo vegetation is found mainly in Guasca and the higher regions of Guatavita.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 6

Figure 2.3. Topography of the Tomin catchment.

Figure 2.4. Land Cover of the Tomin Catchment (Source CAR 2011)

Demography The total population of the three municipalities is about 32 000 and is increasing at a rate of about 700 inhabitants/year. Official statistics show that the population is expected to continue growing for the next 10-year period to a total of about 40 000 inhabitants (Table 2.1). About 70 % of the population lives in rural areas, but almost all live within the catchment boundaries. Of the three municipalities, Sesquil has the highest growth rate and is expected to double its urban population in 10 years (DANE, 2010).
Table 2.1 Current and expected population of Sesquil, Guatavita and Guasca. (Adapted from DANE 2010) 2010 Urban Sesquil Guatavita Guasca Total 2884 1866 4623 9373 Rural 8846 4923 8943 22712 Total 11730 6789 13566 32085 Urban 4.118 2.025 5.747 11.890 2020 Rural 12.366 4.957 10.220 27.543 Total 16.484 6.982 15.967 39 433

Historical Developments The Tomin Reservoir was created in the beginning of the 1960s by the Bogot Energy Company (EEB) by damming the Tomin River, of which now only a short part remains at the southern tip of

7 Background the reservoir. The reservoir was built to generate electricity for Bogot (EEB 2000), in a time when an integrated national grid wasnt conceived. However, since the 1960s Colombia has delevoped a lot of much bigger hydroelectric power plants and when the grid got connected, the Tomin reservoir stopped generating electricity in 1985 (Uribe 2005). The reservoir still has several other functions; In times of heavy rainfall it is possible to pump water from the Bogot River into the Tomine reservoir, thus helping to avoid floods in the capital. This is unique for any reservoir connected to the Bogot River. In times of drought it is also possible to bring additional water into the Bogot River as the Tibitc WTP, which supplies 30% of the potable water to Bogot, requires a minimal amount of water to be able to function optimally. Water contribution to the Bogot River in times of low water levels. Despite the fact that electricity is no longer generated, the reservoir still has the potential to generate electricity. Next to its technical functions, the reservoir is used for water-related recreational activities like sailing (MAVDT 2008).

2.2 Overview of the water and sanitation sector

In Colombia, municipalities are responsible for ensuring that service of potable water and sanitation is provided for their citizens by public service companies. Town councils can, by exception, provide the service directly through an office of public services (Law 142 of 1994). In the study area, all three town councils provide this service to the urban area and sometimes rural areas close by. Each municipality is further divided in regions called veredas most of which have one or more water board or acueducto veredal. These acueductos veredales are responsible for the maintenance, operation and administration of their potable water supply system. However, community members dont always have the ability, skills or experience to manage the system. A great variability exists between the ability of different acueductos veredales to meet the water demand. This chapter will describe the different institutions that are part of the water and sanitation sector and will be a part of or influence IWRM developments in the Tomin catchment. Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial (MAVDT) The ministry of environment, housing and spatial planning contributes to and promotes actions to achieve sustainable development through the formulation, adoption and technical implementation of policies and regulations, under the principles of participation and integrity of governance.5 It contains two bodies that are concerned with water issues, the Viceministerio de Agua y Saneamiento and the Unidad Administrativa Especial del Sistema de Parques Nacionales Naturales or (UAESPNN). Viceministerio de Agua y Saneamiento The vice ministry of water and sanitation was created in 2006 as part of the MAVDT and is in charge of creating policies for the water sector. These policies are defined within the framework of the national policies of the Deparatamento Nacional de Planeacin (DNP) the National Department of Planning.

http://www.minambiente.gov.co

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 8 Unidad Administrativa Especial del Sistema Nacional de Parques Nacionales Naturales (UAESPNN) The Special Administrative Unit of National Natural Parks is responsible for the management of the National parks and also the implementation of national environmental policies. This is executed on a regional level by the Corporaciones Autnomas Regionales.6 Corporaciones Autnomas Regionales (CAR) The regional autonomous corporations execute governmental policies on environmental matters, and plan and execute projects on preservation, decontamination. They regulate the exploitation of natural resources with a focus on sustainable development. The Tomin catchment falls under the jurisdiction of two CARs: the municipalities of Sesquil and Guatavita fall under CAR Cundinamarca7 and Guasca falls under CORPOGUAVIO8. As Figure 2.5 shows, CAR Cundinamarca has much more municipalities within its jurisdiction than CORPOGUAVIO and a much larger territory to manage.

Figure 2.5 Jurisdiction of CAR Cundinamarca and CORPOGUAVIO in the study area.

Departamento Nacional de Planeacin (DNP) The National Department of Planning is a technical advisor to the government. The DNP leads and guides the formulation of the National Development Plan and plans and monitors investments for the achievement of the medium and long term objectives.9 Comisin de Regulacin de Agua Potable y Saneamiento Bsico (CRA) The commission on regulating potable water and basic sanitation regulates the rates and services of potable water and sanitation by fixing tariffs & giving management indicators, promoting competition and guaranteeing quality and accessibility to water services. It defines the criteria for the efficient delivery of services and establishes rules for tariff revision.10 Superintendencia de Servicios Pblicos (SSPD) The Public Administrative Office of Domestic Public Services controls, inspects and guards the public service providers by monitoring the application of the rules defined by the CRA.11
6 7

http://www.parquesnacionales.gov.co http://www.car.gov.co/ 8 http://www.corpoguavio.gov.co 9 http://www.dnp.gov.co/ 10 http://cra.gov.co 11 http://www.superservicios.gov.co

9 Background Instituto de Hidrologa, Meteorologa y Estudios Ambientales (IDEAM) The Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies provides information and awareness to facilitate decision making regarding sustainable resource use, by forecasting and alerting about environmental and hydro meteorological conditions that could lead to disasters.12 Governorate of Cundinamarca The municipalities in the study area are part the department of Cundinamarca. The governorate is the regional government and is chaired by an elected governor. It provides planning, financial, technical and administrative assistance to municipalities and public service companies. The governorate has more authority than a single municipality. Local Stakeholders Town Councils of Sesquil, Guatavita & Guasca The Town council of each municipality is the democratically elected local government of the municipality. In Colombia each municipality has one urban center, which is the name bearer of the municipality and also the capital. Each town council has a mayor that is in office for four years, who can choose his civil servants. Each town council has a mayor and a number of offices to govern the municipality. The ones relevant to water management are the offices of: Public Services, Planning & Social Development. Office of Public Services The office of public services manages the water treatment, supply and sewage infrastructure of the urban area. They administer the costs and billing of the system and are the direct contact for the local population regarding the utility services. Office of Planning The office of planning is responsible for the spatial development in the municipality. If a new treatment plant is to be made, this office is responsible for the project from the planning to the design and execution stage. Office of Social Development Each administration sets up a development plan with goals it wants to achieve in the four years. The office of Social Development has the task to communicate with the citizens and can organize education or awareness campaigns for instance. Rural Water Boards The Spanish name for rural water boards in Colombia is acueductos veredales. They are responsible for the water supply of the citizens within a defined area within the municipality called a vereda. Rural water boards function in a similar way to the office of public services but do not manage waste water. Generally the people are responsible for their own wastewater treatment. There are regulations that state a septic tank is required, but often people have no money to buy one and as a result they construct it themselves.

12

http://institucional.ideam.gov.co

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 10 Community Based Organizations Community based organizations represent a certain vereda, and function similar to the office of social development. Often these organizations work together with the office of social development if it concerns a municipal wide project. Farmers The main agricultural activities in the Tomin catchment are cultivation of potatoes, corn, peas, raspberries, strawberries. Also animal husbandry is practiced, for milk and meat production. Farmers are large water consumers, needing water for irrigation and feeding animals. Private Sector EEB EEB stands for Empresa de Energa de Bogot or Bogot Energy Company.13 It is a largely government owned company and created the Tomin Reservoir in the 1960s. It grew into one of the largest energy suppliers in South America. To date it still owns the Tomin Reservoir. In 1997 the hydroelectricity part of EEB was privatized and Emgesa was created. Emgesa Emgesa is an electricity generation company which operates various large hydroelectric plants in Colombia and is also responsible for the management of the Tomin reservoir, even though the latter does not generate electricity anymore.14 EAAB EAAB stands for Empresa de Acueducto y Alcantarrillado de Bogot and is the capitals state-owned and publicly traded water and sewerage utility company. It provides services to nearly 700,000 users across the capital Bogot and 11 neighboring municipalities.15 It manages the Tibitc WTP which treats water from the Bogot River and provides 30% of the total urban water supply. EAAB has a lot of expertise in water treatment and also does national and international consultancy. Academic stakeholders IDEA / UNAL As part of the National University of Colombia or Universidad Nacional de Colombia (UNAL), the Institute of Environmental Studies or Instituto de Estudios Ambientales (IDEA), focuses on issues like climate change, ecological agriculture, etc. For the IDEA, IWRM is relatively new: the involvement of IDEA and UNAL in started in 2006 with a project in a region where the source of the Bogot River lies, working on cleaner production with micro-tanneries. This project was part of the EU-funded SWITCH program16 hosted by the UNESCO-IHE and ended in 2011. As a follow-up there a second project was initiated, the Tomin Catchment IWRM project, the subject of this thesis. The IDEA took up the role of research and facilitation team, in which the author took part, performing an initial assessment of the catchment and exploring the possibilities for an IWRM approach in the area.

13 14

http://www.eeb.com.co/ http://www.emgesa.com.co 15 http://www.acueducto.com.co 16 http://www.switchurbanwater.eu

11 Background UNESCO-IHE UNESCO-IHE is a research and water education institute based in Delft, the Netherlands hosting academics from all around the world.17 As a center with for water education it has a lot of experience with IWRM and working in developing countries. Regional Economic, Social And Environmental Objectives With the creation of the vice ministry of water and sanitation in 2006, new programs have been initiated. Two of them have implications for the development of IWRM in the study area: 1. Planes Departamentales de Agua y Saneamiento (PDA) Departmental Water and Sanitation Plans. 2. Programa de Saneamiento y Manejo de Vertimientos (PSMV) Sanitation and Waste Management Program. 3. Programa de Uso Eficiente y Ahorro de Agua (PUEAA) - Water Savings and Efficiency Plan PDA The PDAs intend to plan and coordinate resources to improve water services in each department, aligning local water objectives with the national and regional development policy (MAVDT 2011). The PDA of Cundinamarca has set objectives to be achieved in 2011: Reduce by 50% the deficit in sewerage coverage in urban areas. Reduce by 75% the deficit in potable water supply coverage in urban areas. Reduce by 50% the deficit of basic sanitation solutions in rural areas. Reduce by 50% the deficit of potable water supply coverage in rural areas Have a working wastewater treatment plant in each urban area. Guarantee that 50% of the legally constituted rural water boards have potable water treatment plants. Let municipalities, coordinated by the CARs, meet legal requirements for water concessions, environmental licenses & discharge permits. Coordination between Town Councils, the Department and the CARs for the investment of 1% of the territorial revenue for the purchase of land guaranteeing the sustainability of the water resource.

PSMV The PSMV (Plan de Saneamiento y Manejo de Vertimientos) or sanitation and wastewater management plan is a plan each municipality had to make and which aims to reduce the proportion of untreated wastewater and improve its management so as to reduce environmental impacts. PUEAA Each municipality is required by law to write a PUEAA (Plan de Uso Eficiente y Ahorro de Agua) or efficient water use plan in order to show they are doing everything within their power to provide potable water and to use the resource efficiently. Specific goals the plan contains are:
17

Promoting the education of the end users concerning the rational use of water and maintaining the ecological balance of the region. Propose strategies of water savings and efficient use.

http://www.unesco-ihe.org

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 12 Create opportunities for the local community to participate in nature conservation projects.

POMCA Beside governmental and municipal plans, CAR Cundinamarca has also produced a River Basin Management Plan called the Plan de Ordenamiento y Manejo de la Cuenca Hidrografica del Rio Bogot (POMCA) or Land and Watershed Management Plan of the Bogot River Basin (POMCA 2006). It is the only existing report that speaks of the Tomin catchment as a management unit. According to this report the main problems in the Tomin catchment are: A lack of water treatment facilities in some areas. Rural areas and have no or low quality waste water treatment. The urban area of Guasca has no WWTP. Deforestation in combination with steep landscapes is leading to erosion and sedimentation of streams. Contamination of water streams with pesticides and animal excrement caused by expanding agricultural activities (also above the legal 3000m mark) and husbandry next to rivers. Signs of eutrophication and contamination of the reservoir by wastewater and agrochemicals.

Within this River Basin Management Plan CAR Cundinamarca has outsourced a more detailed study of all individual municipalities in the basin. This multiannual study started in 2009 and is called Plan Maestro de Acueducto y Alcantarrillado (PMAA) or Master Plan for Potable Water and Sewage Systems. PMAA The PMAAs are made for each municipality within the Bogota River Basin. It makes a detailed analysis of the state of the water related infrastructure. It also contains a plan for improvements or expansion proposal with detailed design, based on population projections. The plans mentioned above (PDA, PSMV, PUEAA, POMCA & PMAA) overlap in many areas but are not linked, with the exception of the POMCA and the PMAA. The PDA and POMCA are regional, and the others are local, applying to each municipality.

2.3 Planning IWRM

IWRM is a way of thinking and a process to improve water governance and therefore not a method or goal per se. Planning IWRM can manifest itself in numerous approaches (Table 2.2). For example in its IWRM Guidelines at River Basin Level part 2-1, the International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO speaks of the IWRM Spiral (UNESCO IHP 2009). The SWITCH program has developed its own method which is called SWITCH approach to strategic planning (SWITCH 2006). Another approach is based on practical experiences of the Euro-Med Participatory Water Resources Scenarios (EMPOWERS) project in Egypt, Jordan and the West Bank/Gaza from 2003-2007, and known as the EMPOWERS approach to water governance (EMPOWERS 2007).

13 Background
Table 2.2 IWRM Planning approaches.

The IWRM Spiral

SWITCH Approach to Strategic Planning for (IUWM)

EMPOWERS Management Cycle

1. 2. 3. 4.

Recognizing & Identifying Conceptualizing Coordinating & planning Implementing & Evaluating

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Building joint Vision Development of strategy Detailed Action Planning Implementation Evaluation

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Visioning Assessing Strategizing Planning Implementing Reflecting

What all these methods mention in one way or another is the cyclical movement through the phases, one or multiple times. The SWITCH and EMPOWERS approach both start with creating a vision of the future whereas the UNESCO IHP stars with identifying problems. Further similarities are the strategizing, planning, implementing and evaluating of actions towards improved water management. Both the SWITCH and the EMPOWERS approach mention assessment, the EMPOWERS approach puts it as the second phase in the planning cycle, whereas the SWITCH approach puts it in constant relation with each phase. The UNESCO IHP approach just mentions Recognizing & Identifying as a way to map problems, but gives no hands-on tools to do this. There was limited time for the Tomine project, and there was no single document available with an overview of the resources and stakeholders involved in the catchment. There was also no joint vision of all stakeholders or overview of problems. Therefore a hybrid mix of the SWITCH approach and the EMPOWERS approach was done, using the EMPOWERS assessment phase tools, but providing the research & assessment as an input for the first stage of the SWITCH approach. The result is a sort of pre-assessment that could help the stakeholders start with creating a vision and start planning IWRM. Water Resources Assessment In the EMPOWERS approach, the assessing phase takes the form of a Water Resources Assessment (WRA). This type of assessment is also part of the Global Water Partnership (GWP) Toolbox18. A WRA aims to identify causes of water related problems and options for solving them. It is a study to systematically gather information on the current status of water (and sanitation) services, resources, the accessibility of and demand for both, of future trends in water resources and their demand (EMPOWERS 2006). It is applicable at any scale; (sub)catchment, city or village.

18

Global Water Partnership Toolbox: C1.02 Water resources assessment. http://www.gwptoolbox.org/index.php?option=com_tool&id=24

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 14 There are three different types of WRA (Table 2.3). Creating an IWRM plan for the catchment has never been done before and work on this is still in an early stage. Not all problems have been identified by all stakeholders and there was no complete assessment of data on catchment level before the Tomin project. The Rapid WRA was chosen because it most suited the needs for the stakeholders and can serve as the basis for further problem-focused or comprehensive assessments in the future.
Table 2.3. Different types of Water Resources Assessments (adapted from EMPOWERS 2006). Rapid Initial identification of priority problems Initial assessment of relatively easily accessible quality-controlled secondary data. Primary data collection restricted to gap filling. Secondary data, and rapid appraisal techniques for collecting societal information. Initial assessment of causes of problems. Problem-focused Focused on an individual problem or a group of problems. Usually follows on from a light water resource assessment. Detailed assessment of quality controlled secondary data with additional primary data collected if necessary. Targeted rapid or participatory appraisal techniques for collecting information that is specific to problems. Detailed assessment of root causes of individual problems Comprehensive Aimed at developing a comprehensive waterrelated information base that covers all water related issues with a given area of interest. Comprehensive consolidation, quality control and assessment of secondary data. Primary data to fill gaps and, in some cases, as part of a long-term M&E program. Participatory appraisal techniques for collecting societal information, and detailed measurement of physical. Detailed assessment of root causes of problems, linkages between problems and externalities that influence water availability and use.

The objectives of the Rapid WRA are (Table 2.3); identifying priority problems, collecting and assessing data about water resources and societal issues, and get an initial assessment of the causes of problems. The most useful tools to organize this data are (EMPOWERS 2007): 1. For the water resources; the Resources, Infrastructure, Demand & Access (RIDA) framework. 2. For the societal information; the Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems or RAAKS Methodology (Engel et al. 1997). The outputs of the RIDA framework and the RAAKS Methodology are (GIS) maps with important infrastructure related to water, water information sheets with numbers on water like demand and access, and insights in the needs and views of the local population, their views of the problems they face and a list of key stakeholders whose involvement is indispensible for the success of any IWRM project. This way of organizing and presenting data can lead to new insights as to identifying priority problems and their causes. Stakeholder Dialogue and Concerted Action Well informed stakeholders who communicate effectively with each other on a regular basis will find locally appropriate solutions to pressing water related problems., (EMPOWERS 2007). Stakeholder Dialogue and Concerted Action or SDCA assumes that if the stakeholders are known, they can be brought together and discuss their problems and views. Usually a facilitation team is needed to help improve the dialogue between levels, especially from the local level to the intermediate level. The poor are often in need of assistance in voicing their needs. The dialogue between levels helps to coordinate actions of the stakeholders and allows them to solve problems more effectively than if they were to address them alone. The stakeholder platform is sometimes also referred to as a Learning Alliance (SWITCH 2006).

15 Background The role of the facilitation team is envisioned as follows (EMPOWERS 2007): In the initial phase, when the stakeholders are new to the approach, they require intensive facilitation, which can last up to 12 months or until the planning phase has been completed. In the second phase, the team gives lower level support in cases problems arise, and makes sure the stakeholders are on track with the process of IWRM.

Figure 2.6. Typical stakeholders in water governance. The process facilitation team enhances communication and dialogue within and between stakeholders platforms at different institutional levels (adapted from EMPOWERS 2007).

In the process of SDCA, as shown in Figure 2.6, stakeholders from different levels are guided by a facilitation team. One of the most important first steps in increasing the dialogue between the stakeholders and coordination their actions is the creation of a stakeholder platform or the learning alliance which can consist of multiple platforms for the different levels of stakeholders. Establishing this calls for effort from both the stakeholders and the facilitation team. The objective of creating this platform is improved communication between stakeholders and is continuous. Ideally, a team consists of experts with topic expertise of different scientific fields and at least one person with skills like project management, facilitation and participatory approaches. The team should be impartial and try to gain the trust of the stakeholders and know about the problems and issues that play.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 16

3 Methods
3.1 RIDA
The RIDA framework was used to structure the Rapid Water Resources Assessment of the Tomin Catchment. Table 3.1 shows the questions that were asked for each part of t the data gathering methods are presented in (EMPOWERS 2006).
Table 3.1. The RIDA Framework and assessment methods. Resources What is the quantity/quality of water available? Are there issues with variability? What is the licensed/permitted limit to abstraction? Who are the main actors/institutions involved in water resource management? Gathering Information from: Hydrological data Expert opinion Reports, etc. Key informant interviews Infrastructure What is the design supply capacity of the network? How much water is supplied /put into the system? What is the quantity/proportion of unaccounted for water? What are the key institutions involved in managing water supply? Interviews with plumbers Plans Reports, etc. Meter readings (from treatment works) Records & Estimates Demand & Access How much water do people get every day? How much water would people LIKE to get/ be willing to pay for? How reliable is the supply? Is the quality acceptable? Are there major differences in the access of different user groups? What are the key institutions involved in managing access to the supply?

Water meter reading; Water use diary Social mapping; Household water use surveys Focus group discussions Household discussions Water quality testing Social mapping

Water Balance Estimation The first thing that was done was a Water Balance Estimation. It gives insight in the available resources, especially rainwater. Water resources are given in the hydrological unit of this study, the Tomin catchment. The estimation is based on the fact that water does not disappear, but either flows out of the catchment or evaporates (changing state). It uses a simple equation like: P = Q + E S Where P is the precipitation, Q is the runoff, E is the evaporation and S is the difference in groundwater recharge. The estimation was performed on the entire catchment. Data Collection Process The data was gathered from the available literature and verified in interviews with public service officers and local plumbers. The data availability was influenced by the incompleteness or absence of some documents, the willingness to cooperate or difficulties in getting in touch with local water board presidents.

3.2 RAAKS stakeholder identification

Guiding questions from the RAAKS (Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems) Methodology (Engel et al. 1997) were used: What actors (organizations, groups, and individuals) are relevant in the water sector of the specific geographical area of the case study? What are the interests/objectives of these actors? Is there a shared objective?

17 Methods What are the main problems you think each of these actors perceives? Who can be seen as the key actors and who should not? What are actual information flows among actors? What relevant information/knowledge networks do the actors already utilize? In what areas?

The result of answering these questions is a list of key actors and a better view of which stakeholders could work together effectively. This initial analysis will give a first impression of who the relevant stakeholders are and how they stand in relation to the other stakeholders. An initial assessment of the information flows between stakeholders was done, using information from interviews with civil servants, urban and rural citizens of the three municipalities and an employee of CORPOGUAVIO. The information presented in the results chapter needs to be verified in workshops with the stakeholders and all should agree that the relationships are properly illustrated. A more elaborate analysis should be done if the project goes into the planning phase, where it is important for all stakeholders to know their tasks, roles and responsibility in the project.

3.3 Evaluation of the role of the facilitation team

The evaluation of the performance of the facilitation/research team for this thesis was done by comparing the actual performance of the team and execution of the research of the author in Colombia to the ideal performance, role and outputs according to the above stated EMPOWERS guidelines. The outputs of this comparison are lessons learned which a future facilitation/research team can use to be more effective in their tasks.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 18

4 Results
The results have been organized as follows: First the rapid water resources assessment is presented starting with the entire catchment and then zooming in on each municipality, both the urban and rural data are presented, highlighting priority problems. Next the stakeholder analysis is shown, identifying key stakeholders and possible cooperation connections. Finally, a view on the way the initial assessment project was run in Colombia and the role the research team played, is presented.

4.1 Water Resources Assessment

Water resources of the Tomin catchment The precipitation shows a bi-modal pattern with peaks around May and October. The average yearly precipitation is around 907 mm (IDEAM 2010). The inter-annual variability of the precipitation is shown by Figure 4.1, the Guatavita weather station, a central point in the catchment. Figure 4.2 shows the average monthly precipitation and evapotranspiration. The evapotranspiration data however was only available from the Guatavita weather station.

Figure 4.1 Average annual rainfall at the Guatavita station 1968-2008 (IDEAM 2010)

Figure 4.2 Average monthly precipitation and evapotranspiration in the Tomin catchment (IDEAM 2010)

Table 4.1 Average monthly temperature, precipitation and evaporation data of the Tomin catchment from 1982 to 2009 (IDEAM 2010) jan feb mar apr Month Av. Temperature 14.4 13.6 13.3 13.4 (C) Av. Precipitation 35 47 70 86 (mm) Evaporation* 88 80 82 78 (mm) *Based on data from the weather station Guatavita may 13.3 111 83 jun 12.5 86 73 jul 12.2 102 86 aug 12.4 83 89 sep 12.7 66 83 oct 12.9 95 87 nov 12.7 82 79 dec 12.9 43 83 Total 907 992

Daily measurements by CAR Cundinamarca indicate the water volume varied between 50 and 550 million cubic meters in June 1992 and August 2006 (Figure 4.3). The total catchment area is 368 square kilometers, which is about half of the total area of the three municipalities (POMCA, 2006).

19 Results

Figure 4.3 Water volume in the Tomin Reservoir 1991 - 2010 in millions of m3 (CAR 2010)

Water Balance Estimation The water system of the catchment is shown in Figure 4.4, and shows the water inflows, throughputs and outflows of the Tomin catchment. The total urban population in the catchment is around 10.000 whereas the rural population is around 25.000. The main input in the system is the precipitation, and a small input is water taken from the San Francisco Stream (Quebrada San Francisco) from outside the catchment, for the urban area of Guatavita. Some water is treated in water treatment plants (WTPs) and is consumed untreated, and some sewage is treated in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and some sewage enters the reservoir untreated. Table 4.2 shows the data that was gathered for the water balance estimation. The blank boxes show the data that is missing.

Figure 4.4 Water system scheme of the Tomin Catchment

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 20

Table 4.2 Water information summary sheet of the Tomin Catchment WISS Tomin Catchment Unit Rainfall Inflows External Average annual rainfall Total rainfall in catchment Q. San Francisco Total inputs catchment Potable water Total water to WTPs Total water to urban Throughputs Total water to rural Total losses Blackwater Total water to WWTPs Total water to Septic tanks Total untreated blackwater Total storm water to WWTPs Evapotranspir ation Outflows Groundwater Surface water Average annual ETP Total ETP in catchment Infiltration Average annual runoff Achury Canal Total outflows catchment mm m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr mm m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr mm m3/yr m3/yr 467 333.780.000 52.910.000 9.319.000 297 109.300.000 495.990.000 JICA 2009 Ingeominas 1990 JICA - 2003 JICA 2003 Value 907 333.780.000 290.000 334.070.000 Based on a discharge of 12 L/s and a production from 6 AM to 6 PM. Source / Notes

Priority Problems San Francisco Stream The urban area of Guatavita, the rural water boards Carbonera Alta & Baja and some rural areas in Sesquil depend on the San Francisco Stream for their drinking water. However, according to the digital elevation maps and other available cartography, the stream is not part of the catchment. This makes it an external inflow source coming from another catchment (Figure 4.4). The exact amount of water entering the catchment from this inflow is unknown. The data shown in Table 4.2 is an estimation based on the production of water for the urban area of Guatavita only, which were only available in L/s, and does not include the other levels of extraction. It has been reported that in dry periods the discharge of the stream is severely reduced. Untreated black water An unknown amount of untreated black water is entering the reservoir, coming from around 2000 households. The main source is the urban area of Guasca, which has no WWTP and discharges its black water in the Siecha River, which enters the southern part of the reservoir. This could be a threat to the water supply of the urban area of Sesquil because a large part of its water resources comes from the Achury Canal, through which water leaves Tomin Reservoir into the Bogot River. Groundwater The two available studies that mention groundwater levels of the catchment listed in Table 4.2 (JICA 2009 & Ingeominas 1990), present very different values. The groundwater value affects the water

21 Results balance estimation significantly, but it does not affect the water resources available to the inhabitants of the municipalities as groundwater extraction barely takes place. Water quality issues The water quality of the reservoir is being monitored by Emgesa by order of the MAVDT (MAVDT 2008). Several studies have shown that the levels of phosphorous and BOD values are very high in the southern end of the reservoir entering through the Siecha River (CIIA 2007 & Daphnia 2010). The factors that could be contributing to these water quality issues are: raw sewage, agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides and erosion causing excessive sediments to enter the reservoir. Figure 4.5 shows the aquatic plant growth in the south end of the reservoir, believed to be the West Indian spongeplant or Limnobium laevigatum. It is being removed by Emgesa, by order of the ministry of environment (MAVDT 2008).

Figure 4.5 Aquatic plant growth in the southern part of the Tomin reservoir. (Source: Daphnia 2010)

Sesquil

Figure 4.6 Town square of Sesquil (photo by author)

Sesquil is the northernmost municipality of the catchment and lies downstream of the others. Figure 4.7 is a map of Sesquil showing the water intakes, treatment plants and roads in the municipality, as well as the urban area and surrounding rural veredas. Figure 4.8 shows a schematic of the urban water system. Two of the sources are streams which feed the WTPs by gravity; Q. Olvido and Q. Santaferea, and the remainder of the water demand is met by pumping water out of the Achury Canal, which connects the Tomin Reservoir with the Bogota River. The urban water supply grid also supplies water to neighboring rural area of Boit, but this area does not have a sewer system or wastewater treatment infrastructure.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 22

Figure 4.7 Water infrastructure in Sesquil

Figure 4.8 Water system scheme of the urban area of Sesquil

Table 4.3 shows the data that was gathered from the urban area of Sesquil in the RIDA format, starting with demand & access, the infrastructure and finally resources. The data was obtained from records of the office of public services and plans concerning the municipality.

23 Results
Table 4.3 Water information summary sheet of Sesquil

WISS Sesquil Unit Domestic Population Domestic water demand Domestic water demand Average Actual use Actual use total Range of actual water use households on network # l/c/d m3/yr l/c/d m3/yr l/c/d % 100 100 The municipality has recently taken over a rural water board. This might influence this number. 2010 2884 120 126.678 120 126.678 2020 4.118 120 180.368 120 180.368 Actual use total /365/population*1000 meter records 2010 Source/Notes DANE 2010

households unserved Satisfaction Commercial Demand & Access Agroindustrial Special Official Actual use total Actual use total Actual use total Actual use total Total water use Total Water demand Domestic Planned per capita supply supply capacity before losses Average losses actual supply after losses Total capacity after losses Infrastructure Total capacity before losses wastewater treatment Type access or coverage Rainfall Springs Groundwater Surface water Average annual rainfall rainfall over Sesquil area Average annual yield acceptable water quality average sustainable yield acceptable water quality Average annual availability acceptable water quality

% % m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr l/c/d m3/yr % m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr WWTP % mm m3/yr m3/yr % m3/yr % m3/yr %

0 ? 8004 3012 1392 13374 152.460 152.460 ? 186.624 26 137.820

0 ? meter records 2010 meter records 2010 meter records 2010 meter records 2010

? PMAA 2009 Sesquil

PMAA 2009 Sesquil

77 713 ? 50 713

Capacity of 6 LPS (PMAA 2009) 818 households WWTP; 400 hh no sewer connection

Resource

Rainwater harvesting Total

Average annual availability

m3/yr

71442

102030

Availability more than halves if the canal sluices close. Water from the Achury Canal is not treatable by the WTP if the sluices are closed. based on households with an average roof size of 100 m2 (1002 in 2010; 1431 in 2020)

m3/yr

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 24 Water resources Sesquil has the least amount of water intakes and streams of the catchment, as it lies downstream of the other two municipalities. Sesquil pumps water from the Achury Canal (Figure 4.9) to a WTP that produces potable water for the urban area and a few surrounding rural areas. During times of drought the extraction of the canal is increased. Rural areas have more trouble in times of drought as they do not have pumping equipment and are dependent on small streams or sometimes even springs. These have been reported to dry out sometimes.

Figure 4.9 Water intake from the Achury Canal for the WTP of Sesquil.

The main actors and institutions involved in the water resource management are the Energy Company of Bogot (EEB) which controls the Achury Canal and operates the sluices and the CAR Cundinamarca which provides technical and financial support for the infrastructure and gives out water extraction licenses & limits for both the urban water sources as well as the rural water intakes. However there is a lack of transparency regarding the distribution of water extraction licenses. Some rural water board presidents feel deforestation is affecting the water resources negatively in Sesquil. Urban water supply The current supply capacity will not be able to supply the future demand of the urban area, as demographic projections show a 40% increase in population in ten years time. The supply capacity of Sesquil is currently just enough to provide water for the urban area and a few connected rural areas under normal circumstances. It is estimated the losses of the supply system are around 26%. During normal conditions the daily use is around 120 l/c/d (Table 4.3) , but when water is rationed, people have to make do with less, which has proven not always to be easy. In the urban area, 400 households have no sewer connection, and this wastewater is entering the Achury Canal directly. The access to a water and sewer connection in the urban area is managed by the office of public services, and in the rural area the rural water boards have this responsibility. The current infrastructure cannot cope well with periods of drought and the closing of the Achury Canal sluices. The WTP of Sesquil is not designed to treat still standing water, which happens if the sluices are closed. The water quality of the canal is influenced negatively by both wastewater from the other municipalities and Sesquils own wastewater from 400 households as their wastewater is not connected to the WWTP. In December 2010 and January 2011 the sluices had to be closed and the water quality in the canal was not acceptable, as the WTP could not guarantee that the water would be potable. In addition, the combined sewer is not able to deal with periods of increased

25 Results precipitation, as the amount of water often exceeds the treatment capacity. The main actor responsible for the supply management of water in the urban area is the office of public services of the town council as they maintain the infrastructure and do the administration around the network, including metering, billing, etc.. For the rural areas these are the acueductos veredales, the rural water boards. They usually have one president to do the administration and a local plumber to do the maintenance of the water system. Rural water supply Poor rural communities like El Hato or Espigas (see Table 4.3) have no or bad water supply and storage infrastructure. If the springs dry up, they have no alternative, and since no or little water is stored, they depend on the help of the town council to supply them water. The Other rural water boards are better organized and do have WTPs and storage tanks. Information like meter records about water supply, demand, use or storage capacity is scarce. 76.5% of the 13 water boards in Sesquil have no WTP and drink untreated water (PDM Sesquil 2008). Demand & Access Rural areas have even more trouble as some dont have a reliable water source and no money to buy infrastructure like storage tanks. If the dry period lasts very long the town council sends water trucks to the affected areas, however this is costly. It is obvious that the poorer communities have more trouble in times of drought than other rural areas. Guatavita Guatavita lies between Sesquil and Guasca and has the poorest population of the three municipalities. The urban areas main water source is the San Francisco Stream (Figure 4.12), the water intake of which lies outside the catchment boundary (Figure 4.11). This intake was constructed in the 1960s when the new Guatavita was built. At that time the San Francisco Stream had a very large discharge. Now, due to water scarcity in dry months, a new water intake in the Corales stream has been constructed and is used to meet the water demand for the urban area.

Figure 4.10 Street of Guatavita (photo by author)

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 26

Figure 4.11 Water infrastructure in Guatavita

Figure 4.12 Water system scheme of the urban area of Guatavita

27 Results
Table 4.4 Water information summary sheet of Guatavita

WISS Guatavita: Urban Area Domestic Population Domestic water demand Domestic water demand Average actual use Actual use total Unit # l/c/d m3/yr l/c/d m3/yr 2010 1866 150 102.164 563 383.250 2020 2.025 150 110.869 ? ? Source/Notes DANE 2010 Target set by Town council

Demand & Access

Domestic

Range of actual water use households on network households unserved satisfaction Total water use Total water demand Planned per capita supply supply capacity before losses

l/c/d % % % m3/yr m3/yr l/c/d m3/yr

100 0 ? 383.250 102.164 547500

100 0 ? 110.869

There is as of yet no water metering at the household level. The goal is to implement this in 2011.

Actual supply after losses

Average losses Infrastructure actual supply after losses Total capacity after losses Total capacity before losses type access or coverage

% m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr

30 383.250 ? ?

avg. production of 1500 m3 potable water/day ( "PTAP Guatavita, Diagnostico y propuesta de optimizacin") "PTAP - Guatavita, Diagnostico y propuesta de optimizacin"

wastewater treatment

WWTP & septic tanks % 97 536 households WWTP; 15 hh septic tanks; 20 hh no treatment 893

Rainfall Springs Groundwater Resource Surface water

Average annual rainfall rainfall over Sesquil area Average annual yield acceptable water quality average sustainable yield acceptable water quality Average annual availability acceptable water quality Average annual availability

mm m3/yr m3/yr % m3/yr % m3/yr % m3/yr

893 ? 75 111714

100 121269

Rainwater harvesting Total

Availability is drastically reduced during dry periods Some water quality issues have occurred with sediments. based on households with an average roof size of 100 m2 (1251 in 2010; 1358 in 2020)

m3/yr

Resource Although Guatavita is less affected than Sesquil, it too faces water shortages in the dry months. The municipality draws on the San Francisco stream which, while in the wet periods has ample water, nearly dries up in the dry months. When the new Guatavita was designed, also the potable water system had to be redesigned. The San Francisco stream was chosen as the main water capture,

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 28 because in that time it was an abundant stream. The office of public services has resorted to an alternative stream, the Corales Stream, but the initially built piping infrastructure is not sufficient to meet the demand. It is however not seen as a priority by the mayor who can decide to invest in a new pipeline. The drying up of the San Francisco stream is not only a problem for the urban area of Guatavita, but also for the users downstream of the intake in Sesquil. The rural areas are also affected by the dry months. Water quality is also an issue in this municipality; A lot of sedimentation and agrochemicals have been reported to be present in the water. To counter this, WTP managers see the need to add excess amount of flocculants and chemicals to the water, not always yielding good results. There are two main actors involved in water resource management. The first is CAR Cundinamarca, which gives out licenses for water extraction to the urban area and the rural water boards. The second is the town council and the mayor, for he can ultimately decide in what areas investments should be made regarding water infrastructure. In Guatavita it the service utilities have become a political issue. The urban area of Guatavita is extracting more water from their source than they have a license for and a lot of illegal connections have been made by farmers. Some of these happened when the connection was being made and if the water pipes crossed the land of some farmer, he demanded a free connection. Unfortunately, CAR Cundinamarca is not very active in the region concerning reinforcement of the rules resulting in a lack of coordinated management of the water resources in the whole municipality. Infrastructure The rural water boards of Guatavita have less infrastructure, meters and records of all sorts than in the neighboring municipalities. Table 4.4 shows that none of the rural water boards have (working) potable water treatment (interviews & PUEAA Guatavita 2008). In the downstream areas agricultural pesticides in the water are regarded as the biggest problem and in the other areas the main problems are sediments. It is suspected that the water losses of the urban water supply system are very high. It has been reported there are a number of (semi)illegal connections, mostly farmers. They do not pay for their water and their use is not monitored so it is unknown how much they really use. Secondly, although micro-meters in the urban households have been installed, they are not being used. This means the office of public services doesnt know how much people are using, as they only pay a fixed tariff. It has been estimated by different sources that the water supply losses are between 30 60% (Guatavita 2009). The sewer system is a combined system and also receives rainwater. In times of heavy rainfall, the WTP cannot handle all the water and discharges it untreated to the Tomin reservoir. The office of public services is responsible for the management of urban water supply. They administer the money and a plumber maintains the treatment plants. For the rural areas the acueductos veredales are responsible for the maintenance and operation of the water infrastructure.

29 Results Demand & Access The initial assessment indicates that the actual use of the citizens is quite low. It is unknown how much citizens are able or willing to pay. It is a poorer community than the other two municipalities. It is certain that the costs are not evenly distributed and that not everyone is paying what they should. Within the rural areas there are big differences in access to clean water; generally the more downstream veredas have the lowest quality water, often untreated. In the urban area 20 households have no connection to the WWTP due to the geography of the area. They do have a sewer system but this leads directly to the Tomin reservoir. Most rural citizens have septic tanks, these are either self-built or pre-fabricated. The CAR Cundinamarca is the institution that gives out the water extraction licenses and so also determines who has access in the rural areas. The execution in the urban area is again the office of public services and in the rural areas the rural water boards. They can connect new people to water supply network. However there are an unknown number of illegal connections. They manage their own access, often affecting the demand of other citizens downstream. Priority Problems Water quality issues, sedimentation and (agro)chemicals in the potable water. Lack of coordination in relation to water resources, a lot of illegal water intakes. Large water losses in the entire system of water supply. No metering at the household level and appropriate payment for use. Over extraction and unregulated intakes in the San Francisco stream is fueling a conflict between Guatavita and Sesquil. Opportunities Rainwater harvesting has the potential to meet 100% of the current and future urban water demand. Capacitation of the population about water use, costs and general awareness raising can speed up the process of change.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 30 Guasca Guasca is the southernmost municipality of the Tomin catchment, and has the largest area. It contains the largest tributaries to the reservoir, the Siecha and Aves River. It has an abundant amount of streams from which water can be extracted. The main water intake for the urban area is in the Chipat River (Figure 4.16). Rural water boards have several WTPs (Figure 4.15), but there is still no working WWTP (Figure 4.14).

Figure 4.13 Water tanks on houses in Guasca. (photo by author)

Figure 4.14 Unfinished WWTP of Guasca December 2010. (photo by author)

31 Results

Figure 4.15 Water Infrastructure of Guasca.

Figure 4.16 Water system scheme of the urban area of Guasca

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 32

Table 4.5 Water information summary sheet of Guasca WISS Guasca Domestic Population Domestic water demand Domestic water demand Average Actual use Actual use total Range of actual water use households on network households unserved satisfaction Actual use Total water use Unit # l/c/d m3/yr l/c/d m3/yr l/c/d % % % m3/yr m3/yr 2010 4623 125 210924 161 271858 100 ? ? 100 ? Currently counted as losses in the water system Domestic Actual use + industrial/public service actual use 2020 5.747 125 262207 Actual supply /365/population*1000 Actual supply Source/Notes DANE 2010 CAR uses 125 l/c/d for calculating water concessions

Demand & Access

Industrial /Public Services

Domestic

Infrastructure

wastewater treatment

Total Water demand Planned per capita supply supply capacity before losses Average losses actual supply after losses Total capacity after losses Total capacity before losses type access or coverage

m3/yr l/c/d m3/yr % m3/yr m3/yr m3/yr

438.480 38 298166

Macro meter records Supply Cap. - losses

None % 0 100 The construction of a WWTP has begun, but has stagnated due to legal & financial issues.

Rainfall Springs Groundwater Resource Surface water

Average annual rainfall rainfall over Sesquil area Average annual yield acceptable water quality average sustainable yield acceptable water quality Average annual availability

mm m3/yr m3/yr % m3/yr % m3/yr

786 ?

786

Rainwater harvesting Total

acceptable water quality Average annual availability

% m3/yr

100 56356

70033

Guasca uses only surface water for its potable water supply Generally acceptable based on households with an average roof size of 100 m2 (717 in 2010; 891 in 2020)

m3/yr

Resources Guasca is least affected by the variability of the precipitation, as it has the most rainfall of the catchment. It also has the highest territory of the catchment and thus also the most pramo vegetation. They do have an alternate water source for the urban water supply which they use in the dry periods, but are not as seriously affected in these times as the other two municipalities. The rural areas, especially the lower areas, are experiencing water quality problems with sediments. Also contamination with pesticides has been reported. The institution responsible for licensing of the water extraction and water quality monitoring is the regional environmental authority,

33 Results CORPOGUAVIO. The office of public services has applied for a larger extraction limit, as their water demand has increased. Infrastructure The urban water supply infrastructure in operated well and losses are estimated at around 26%. However water for public buildings like 2 schools, a clinic and the town council is not metered and counted as water losses. This means the actual system losses are lower but there is no way of knowing if they can be further improved. There is great variability in rural water supply; some water boards have a well-functioning WTP, while others dont treat their water at all and have water that contains a lot of sediments. Infrastructure like storage tanks is needed in some rural areas, to deal with seasonal variation. On wastewater treatment, the situation is less organized: the construction of a WWTP for the urban area was started, but has come to a standstill. All of the wastewater of the town is led through the sewage network and enters the Siecha River, which enters the southern end of the Tomin catchment. The key institution in managing the urban water supply is the town council, the office of public services. They are the most reliable of the three municipalities and deliver the best service to the citizens. The rural water boards are responsible for managing their own supply, but do get technical assistance from CORPOGUAVIO and the town council. Demand & Access The demand and access in the urban area are generally satisfied and good, but in rural areas the availability is not always up to standards. Guasca has some quite large rural water boards which are quite well organized. The smaller ones do have trouble finding resources to improve their water systems. This can be financial: to pay for a WTP, or human: where expertise is required to assist in the design of a WTP and storage tanks. There exists a poor population in downstream areas who still do not have treated drinking water. The responsible actors and institutions for the access of water are the office of public services of the town council for the urban area and the rural water boards for the other areas. Priority Problems Water for public building like 2 schools, a clinic and the town council is not metered and counted as water losses. The WWTP is not ready although construction has started. In the meantime raw sewage is entering the ecosystem and Tomin catchment. Rural water boards are in need of assistance in order to improve the water quality or treatment infrastructure. Opportunities A separate storm water drainage system exists in the urban area and because the WWTP is not yet finalized, the sewer and storm water streams could be separated at little extra cost. Rainwater harvesting has the potential to meet 25% of the current and future water demand.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 34 Data Gaps The data previously presented in the water information sheets give a view of the main issues in the catchment and how each municipality has its own problems. The sheets also show the gaps in the available information. Therefore these sheets must be seen as the beginning of an ever-growing information base that can be used by local and regional policymakers to aid in strategic decisions about the water system. Summarizing Table 2.1 shows that Guatavita, although having the smallest population, consumes the most water, both per person and in absolute numbers.
Table 4.6 Summary of water use in the three municipalities

Sesquil

Guatavita

Guasca

Population Domestic water demand Total water supply Average Actual use supply before losses Average losses Population Average actual use Total water supply supply before losses Average system losses Population Average use Total water supply supply before losses Average system losses

Unit # l/c/d m3/yr l/c/d m3/yr % # l/c/d m3/yr m3/yr % # l/c/d m3/yr m3/yr %

2010 2.884 134 126.678 120 186.624 26 1.866 563 383.250 547.500 30 4.623 178 298.166 438.480 38

2020 4.118 134 201.411 120 ? 2.025 563 415.906 ? 5.747 178 370.660 ?

2020 4.118 120 180.368

2.025 150 110.869

5.747 125 262.207

4.2 Stakeholder Identification

Relevant Actors In the background chapter the official roles of the relevant actors in the Tomin catchment were presented, Figure 4.17 shows a map of the relevant stakeholders and the level on which each one operates, the outer layer being the national level, the middle layer the regional and the inner layer the local level.

35 Results

Figure 4.17 Relevant stakeholders on the National (outer), Regional (middle) and Local (center) level.

Institutional stakeholders The municipalities in the catchment get support from the regional autonomous corporations (CARs) and the departmental governments, in this case the Governorate of Cundinamarca. The public service companies have a regional union called Empresa Cundinamarquesa de Servicios Pblicos Domiciliarios (ESP) which provides technical and organizational assistance to all public service companies in Cundinamarca. Figure 4.18 shows the different organizations and agencies that are part of the water sector for the study area.

Figure 4.18 Institutional stakeholders

Table 4.7 shows in what way the stakeholders are involved in the water management of the region and if they are key actors in improving the water management of their area and the catchment. (Note: Town Councils include the offices of public services, planning and social development)
Table 4.7. Key actors among stakeholders Stakeholder MAVDT CAR Cundinamarca CORPOGUAVIO DNP In what way Policies & laws Manage water resources in Sesquil & Guatavita Manage water resources in Guasca. Plans national objectives Key Actor

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 36

CRA SSPD IDEAM Governorate of Cundinamarca Town Council of Sesquil Town Council of Guatavita Town Council of Guasca Rural Water Boards Community Based Organizations Citizens of the municipalities Farmers EAAB EMGESA / EEB IDEA / UNAL UNESCO-IHE Creates water regulations, norms & tariffs Checks CRA Hydrological data Authority body, funding and institutional support Management of the water infrastructure, supply and access of Sesquil. Management of urban water infrastructure, supply and access of Guatavita. Management of rural the infrastructure, supply and access of Guasca. Management of the water resources, infrastructure, supply and access in their area. Access to communities End users, local representation Large water consumers Expertise on water treatment Management of reservoir & funding Facilitation team & Researchers Expertise in IWRM

The key actors manage the water resources, infrastructure, supply and access to water within the catchment. They are responsible for the functioning of the system and they fall out, this means the water system will stop functioning. They need to be involved in the creation of an IWRM plan for it to be successful. The other stakeholders are important but have contributing role and in in different specific situations different actors may become key actors, but this only becomes relevant when an implementation plan has been made, and tasks have to be divided. Interests, Objectives & Problems MAVDT The ministry is interested in the sustainable use of natural resources and the maintaining the ecosystems of Colombia healthy. To this end they have a number of environmental policies in place to protect the environment and the people living in it. Their objective is that the environmental policies are met and enforces them. The problem they face is that the only power they have is setting emission limits and fining polluters, meaning they often are mostly doing damage control. CAR Cundinamarca & CORPOGUAVIO Because they are the same type of institution, and only have a different jurisdiction, the interests and objectives of the two CARs are similar. They need to ensure the laws and legislation are being met and implemented and that norms regarding environmental aspects are met. Their goal is to ensure that the communities and the ecosystems have enough water. As an extension of the ministry of environment, they also stimulate reducing environmental impacts with sustainable practices in mind by for example organizing water conservation campaigns or stimulating the reduction of pesticide use agricultural workshops. The municipalities of Sesquil and Guatavita fall under the jurisdiction of CAR Cundinamarca and Guasca falls under CORPOGUAVIO. In the POMCA, CAR Cundinamarca makes a diagnosis of problems for the Tomin catchment but does not list them for Guasca. This shows a lack of communication between the two CARs, where it is in both their interest to share the available information about the catchment with each other and work on solutions.

37 Results Governorate of Cundinamarca The governorate has more authority than a single municipality, and is interested in meeting national goals for its department. The main objectives regarding water, are to meet the targets set in the PDA (Departmental Water Plan, see background). It has financial resources to spend on large projects to improve the situation of its citizens. The problem of the governorate is that it is often not aware of the specific needs and other issues on the local level. The governorate is a useful stakeholder that can give implementation of new plans a boost, but they should not be seen as leading. Town Councils It is in the interest of both the town councils and the CARs that the citizens have a potable and reliable water supply and a working wastewater treatment system. The main objective of the town councils is providing and managing these services. The main problem town councils face is the lack of human resources. The workload a single person has to do is often just enough to keep up with the administration of the system, but leaves little time for planning improvements. Additionally, thinking on the catchment level is not something they are used to. Another thing is that they are not a company and are not interested in making profit. The water supply administrations are operating at losses19, but they receive subsidies so there is little incentive to raise the tariffs. Consequently, water losses or inefficiencies in the system do not directly affect the town councils. Although they have to make a water efficiency plan (the PUEAA), this does play a large role in day to day work. They are aware of water problems or conflicts within the municipality but if it does not concern the urban area, they are powerless to solve them. They lack support from institutions like the CARs or sometimes even the mayor who does not see the need to invest in new infrastructure. The town council has trouble communicating with regional actors; it is often absent or slowed by strict procedures. Rural Water boards As with the town councils, rural water boards want to supply potable water to the citizens, but they do not provide wastewater treatment. A centralized wastewater treatment system doesnt make much sense in an environment where people do not live in close vicinity to each other. Not all water boards have treatment infrastructure and it depends if they have the skills and financial resources to invest in improving the service. In some cases the water board is so high up that the untreated water they drink does not cause problems, but in more downstream areas the results of pesticides and erosion are clear. The problem with rural water boards is that they have very little power or authority generally within their community and often for example cannot convince farmers not to cut down the trees on their land. The only way the rural water boards can exert power is through the water bill, which in some places has good results and in other places is more complicated: if the water board does not manage any treatment infrastructure, the citizens do not feel the need to pay as they think the water board does not do anything. EAAB The EAAB treats water from the Bogot River and is therefore interested in the water quality of the river. A polluted river makes water treatment more difficult and thus costly. They are interested in
19

See Appendix 9.2: Initial economic assessment of Urban Water Supply systems.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 38 preventing pollution entering the Bogot River, especially upstream of the capital. By being involved in the development of an IWRM plan for Tomin catchment they hope their expertise can be of good use, and if it works the plan could serve as a model for the other upstream catchments. The only problem the EAAB has is that they are a private company who has no authority or business in the actual catchment, and the only role they can fulfill is a contributing one, but not a leading one. EEB / Emgesa As owner of the reservoir, EEB is responsible for its maintenance. There are many reservoirs in Colombia and problems with eutrophication are not uncommon. Under pressure of the MAVDT, EEB runs a number of projects to control environmental impacts in and around the reservoir (EEB 2007 capitulo 6), these include: Removing of trees in the floodable areas of the reservoir. Removing the aquatic plant growth present in the southern part of the reservoir. Perform studies on water quality of the reservoir. Corporate Social Responsibility programs including job generation for local citizens and education programs.

The EEB is a largely public enterprise and it is in its best interest to comply with regulations, and it likes to be seen as a responsible company that cares for the people and the environment. As the operator of the reservoir, Emgesa is closely related to EEB. Starting in 2006 in concordance with CAR Cundinamarca, EEB, Emgesa and EAAB financed study monitoring the water quality of the Tomin Reservoir (Daphnia 2010). IDEA / UNAL The IDEA is interested in applying concepts like IWRM in Colombia. Through action research it intends to disseminate the knowledge it acquires in this project within Colombia and contribute to the academic field as well as helping to develop the area. As part of the public education system it has institution limited financial resources, just about enough to pay its staff. UNESCO-IHE The UNESCO-IHE is interested in transferring knowledge about water management to places in the world where it is needed. It can provide expertise, and facilitate funding applications for EU or UN funds but has no own financial resources. Information Flows Among Actors This short information flows assessment is only an initial attempt to illustrate the relations between stakeholders. It should be constantly updated if new situations arise. The links presented here are made with the limited information available to the author.

39 Results

Figure 4.19. Information flows between stakeholders on the local, regional and national level.

The arrow direction in Figure 4.19 represents the direction information flows. The dotted arrows represent a weak relationship and the red arrows represent a relationship of control. Taking the local level as a starting point; town councils are in good and regular contact with the citizens, this is not strange as the public servants are citizens themselves. The urban plumbers have a good knowledge of the state of the systems they manage every day. They also know about some problems rural water boards face, but not all. Interviews with public service offices in the three municipalities showed that they know little of the water problems of their neighbors except maybe some general issues. The rural water board presidents have less knowledge about what goes on in the urban area and often only know the neighboring water boards, and even then they sometimes do not know what problems they face. All actors on the local level see the CARs as a necessary evil that comes and denies them things like cutting trees or putting limits on the amounts of water they can take from the streams. Some rural water board presidents also feel that permits are given without proper knowledge of the real hydrologic situation, effectively giving more permits than there is water. A key issue here is that the permits are given out in liters per second and seem to ignore the inter-annual variability of the resource. A final concern of the presidents was that they suspected wealthy farmer getting concessions for large quantities of water even though the surrounding area was facing drought. Of the two CARs, CAR Cundinamarca was generally seen as more difficult to deal with, as a bigger organization and less connected with this particular region. (An interesting fact was that during the whole project and the numerous invitations that were sent to CAR Cundinamarca by the research team, it was impossible to arrange a meeting or speak to a representative.) Figure 4.19 shows that on the regional level there is very limited communication between actors. It seems each actor has their mandate and is not concerned with other institutions that could have shared objectives. The information flows between the regional and national levels are not very fast, but they do have established official communication systems. The information flows between the regional and local level tend to be very one-sided: The authorities and institutions do not know the problems of the stakeholders at the local level, but do impose regulations or conduct specific

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 40 projects in the area without involving the local stakeholders in the decision-making process. Decisions on the regional level seem to be hardly affected by the needs of the local stakeholders.
Lack of emergency planning In the period of october december 2010, Bogot and a lot of other parts in Colombia suffered from floodings due to severe rainfall. The dikes of the Bogot River overflowed in many places and many suburbs were flooded. The potable water supply of one of the project towns, Sesquil, was also impacted. The sluices of the canal of Achury were closed by Emgesa because they did not want the levels of the Bogot River to rise even more, but the consequence was that, the water that is pumped from this canal and treated for the urban areas water supply no longer met the required quality levels for the treatment plant. For safety reasons they couldnt treat the water anymore and where left without drinking water or had to ration the little they could get from another stream. An emergency plan was thought up to take water from a new source, a stream that was close by. This is illegal however, until the Environmental agency CAR approves of it, but since they are a large organization it takes a lot of time to give that sort of permission. This story illustrates the lack of emergency planning and the institutional inability to react quickly when this is urgently needed.

4.3 Evaluation of the project

Although the research was led by a researcher and a professor from the IDEA, there was no leader of the research team for the entire duration of the project. The research team had experience with some elements which come into play in IWRM; none of the members had done a specific IWRM project or experience with the methodology. At the start of the research the facilitation team was not familiar with the concept of IWRM and there was no formal meeting, workshop or training to learn about it. No clear methodology & goals Within the research team there was no agreed upon methodology as to how to approach the specific parts of the project. There was a general idea of the things that needed to be done so the process of collecting information started sure enough, but in an uncoordinated fashion and with few moments of reflection and internal communication. The action plan that had been developed was insufficiently explicit about the specific objectives and it wasnt used by all members of the team to measure progress. The SWITCH methodology was only available in separate briefing notes which were not available in Spanish. It was only until late in the project that a comprehensive document concerning the whole process of IWRM was discovered, the EMPOWERS Guidelines. By the time this was brought forward as a useful guide, it was not seen as an option to start over. No learning alliance The research team had never set the objective to create the learning alliance. At the start of the project, only the team leader had met the different stakeholders personally. It was late in the project that workshops were being organized and that the research team made contact with the different stakeholders. The public service officers were the only stakeholders that the research team had more intensive contact with. The number of meetings was too few to be able to forge a learning alliance or speak of stakeholder platforms. Only one meeting with the institutional stakeholders was organized and the mayors that were ate the first meeting did not attend, so it was not a follow-up. There was no agenda of regular progress meetings that could give the stakeholders to anticipate and plan the workshops and each meeting was organized separately. All experts where put to research things of their expertise related to the Tomin catchment. The result was that the research team was in a

41 Results position where it needed to look for all the information itself, going to the field and interview plumbers, citizens and public officers about water related issues. Scaling the objectives down was not considered an option. Not enough time Although the foregoing suggests time was not used as efficiently as could have been done. The goal of writing an IWRM plan in four months in any case is very short, as the methodology suggests that working with stakeholders and winning their trust takes times, up to a year for the first phase. The fact that there was no team member with experience in facilitation, using the methodology of IWRM meant that learning about IWRM and the methods and tools involved took more time. The gathered data had to be organized but there was no preconceived format for this and dealing with this happened through trial and error. Other barriers Besides being inexperienced, short time and lacking a clear and agreed upon methodology other factors influenced the end result of the project and the amount of work that was able to be done. The research team held office in the IDEA on the UNAL Campus in Bogot and was not residing in the study area, some 3 hours by car away. This distance meant that any visit to the study area had to be planned in advance and well prepared. On the day-trips that were organized only a limited number of useful hours were available in the study area to find and interview stakeholders. Contact with the local stakeholders was also hampered by the distance as they were not always reachable by telephone, and personal visits were not always possible. The expert where contracted for a set period, as is customary in Colombia, in this case 6 months, and had very specific task descriptions in their contract. The completion of these tasks was top priority for the experts, and only secondary to that was the success of the project. On top of this, personal circumstances of the project leaders and team members meant that they were not able to focus their attention exclusively to the project and participate full-time. In general the information gathering was slow. Many institutions did not cooperate with the research team, with the exception of the town councils, and the procedures in getting documentation were bureaucratic. Not only was the available literature difficult to come by, in many cases it contained outdated or conflicting data. An additional problem was the lack of information in digital format.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 42

5 Discussion
5.1 Technical
The study shows that there are urgent water-related problems in the catchment. Raw sewage, agrochemicals and sediments enter the reservoir, poor rural communities have no or bad water supply, storage and sanitation infrastructure and the security of supply is in some places severely reduced in dry periods. Most of these problems do not have single or clear causes, and their exact effects are often unknown. By looking at the problems in more detail we can find out what implications they have. Eutrophication of the Tomin Reservoir Raw sewage and agrochemicals are known to cause eutrophication (Schindler et al. 2004) and is probably the reason there is an increasing amount of aquatic plant growth in the southern end of the reservoir. Agrochemicals and sediments in water sources are also causing problems for rural populations that drink this water. The likely causes are a combination of the absence of a WWTP in Guasca, deforestation and agricultural practices involving (excessive) pesticide use and animal husbandry close to open water streams, all known to be happening in the catchment. The EEB is removing the plants from the reservoir but this is an end-of-pipe type solution, and the cause(s) of the excessive plant growth are investigated or dealt with. The first direction the EEB could look to find the source of their problems, is unfinished WWTP of Guasca. Poor rural water supply, storage and sanitation infrastructure The lack of storage infrastructure means that rural communities are very vulnerable to dry periods and the associated diminishing of water resources (streams and springs), and depend more heavily on the support from the town councils. In the higher regions, closer to the source of the water, untreated drinking water does not cause many problems, but further downstream improving drinking water quality gets more urgent. Although it is obligatory for rural citizens to have septic tanks for their sewage treatment, they have often been built by the end user with no formal training or guidelines. The result is a very diverse but not always well-functioning number of septic tanks. Citizens with more money are able to afford well-designed septic tanks and have them installed professionally. Bad water quality leads to increased health costs and slows economic development. The lack of financial and human resources in rural areas prevents the creation and proper maintenance of water treatment infrastructure and leads to a lock in situation which is not easy to overcome without help. Unsecure water supply Security of supply has two components: Supply and demand. The supply is insecure when the demand for water is higher than the supply. If we look at factors that could be reducing supply, there are a few possibilities. 1. In the dry period the discharge of many streams is reduced, also affecting the water resources for the urban and rural areas. 2. Deforestation and the removing of the protected pramo vegetation above 3000m, which acts like a natural sponge (Buytaert et al 2006), can increase runoff rates and so reduce the

43 Discussion water levels in the streams in dry periods. It has been reported that the expansion of agricultural activities is happening, but where exactly is as of yet unknown. 3. Climate change may be increasing the duration of the dry periods, but it is very uncertain and impossible for the actors to base any action upon. On the other hand, the climate of the region has always had months with little or no precipitation, so this should not be surprising for them. Considering the possibility of an increase in water demand, the following factors are relevant: 1. First and foremost is the increased and increasing population. More people increase the demand for clean drinking water. The area has also seen an influx of residents which do not live there permanently but only come by on occasion for instance in weekends for recreational purposes. The currently installed potable water treatment supply capacity for the urban areas is operating at maximum capacity to meet current demand, but it will not be able to meet the future demand for potable water. 2. The increase of population has also meant an increase in agro industrial activities, which increases the water demand for livestock and irrigation of crops. Not all farmers in the region have an equal access to water, some have springs on their land, and others do not. Some farmers are rich and influential and can get water rights from the environmental agency, while others resort to tapping water from nearby streams illegally. The result of this is not only an increase in demand for water but also a lack of knowledge about the exact differences between supply and demand for water. This makes it more difficult for policy makers to deal with security of supply issues, as the problems are in many ways connected. Opportunities Population growth will increase the pressure on Sesquils urban and rural water supply. Because Sesquil is the driest of the three municipalities, conventional solutions of creating more water extraction points will not be enough to meet future demand. Rainwater harvesting can possibly play a large role in the freshwater supply of Sesquil, with the potential to meet 50% of current and future water demand. Creating water storage infrastructure for the rural areas can help in bridging times of drought. Options are among others: water-saving appliances, rainwater harvesting, increased water storage capacity and increased treatment capacity. High water demand, losses in the urban water supply system of Guatavita are contributing to the conflict over the San Francisco stream. If reducing water demand is not enough to secure the water supply, Guatavita can expand its Corales pipeline. The benefits of this would be twofold, enough water for the urban area Guatavita, and a first step in resolving the San Francisco Stream conflict as there are signs that this stream is currently being overexploited. This would leave enough water for the people of Sesquil who do not have another option. The fact that some rural water boards have a relatively well organized system could be a nice opportunity for other water boards to get in contact and learn from their neighbors what and how to deal with the issues they face. On the other hand in some cases specific technical assistance is required, this is where the governorate and CORPOGUAVIO could play a role.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 44

5.2 Stakeholders
Regional Starting with Full IWRM, on the one hand we see a large body of institutions related to water which can contribute to the improvement of water management in the region. They develop plans and a lot of legislation that is intended to improve the lives of the citizens. However, every institution stays within their mandate or comfort zone and when complex problems present themselves that need integrated solutions, the institutions are unable or unwilling to think and act beyond their direct work sphere. Examples are; the removing of plants from the reservoir by the EEB on order of the MAVDT, the Bogot River Basin plan from the CAR Cundinamarca which, although it is part of the basin, doesnt mention the problems for Guasca because it is not their jurisdiction and the closing of the sluices of the Achury Canal by Emgesa without having considered the fact this leaves Sesquil without a potable water source. The stakeholder analysis is not yet complete as a key stakeholder, CAR Cundinamarca, was not interviewed and thus their view on problems was not documented. The general impression, however, gathered from interviews etc., was not always a positive one. The general attitude of CAR Cundinamarca seems to be a controlling one, of an institution that know best what the people want and need and that will provide the solutions, but does not accept resistance. This may be a somewhat exaggerated image, but the fact that they did not respond to the invitations and were generally uncooperative does not speak for them either. The distribution method of extraction limits is also not transparent or clear for the local stakeholders, who have the feeling their neighbours have disproportional large concession. Communication and coordination between institutions can be improved. CAR Cundinamarca needs to be willing to listen to what local stakeholders have to say and involve them more in decisions that affect them. Sharing knowledge and experiences can improve awareness of decision makers i.e. Local plumbers have a lot of knowledge that should be used by environmental agencies and municipal planning projects to improve the water grids. Local The concept of Light IWRM is about local users coming up with improvements for their own situation. To some extent this is already happening in the study area, for example the rural water boards that have a well-functioning treatment system and manage to save money from their revenues and to do new investments. Most rural water boards however have no idea of what their neighbors are doing. Town councils are not always aware of the situation rural water boards face but have the potential to provide assistance and expertise. The town councils within the catchment rarely communicate and know very little about each others (often similar) problems, but the fact they are part of the same hydrological system, could enable them to tackle the bigger problems more effectively. A stakeholder platform at the local level can provide a common information base and also be a more effective way of communicating with institutions. Conflicts over water At the same time Illegal water intakes and a lack of transparency about extraction licenses for the distribution of water resources has led to conflicts and over extraction.

45 Discussion Rural water boards are in need of assistance in order to improve the water quality or treatment infrastructure. Rural communities depend on springs or the help of the town councils. Stakeholders should take an integral part in the creation and development of solutions to their water problems. They should feel they have a platform where they can voice their opinions, and have discussion supported by high quality data with decision makers who take their opinions seriously. Need for an Overview Plan As mentioned in the background, there is no overview plan that unites the different local and regional plans that concern water. The organization of the plans make sense from a political point of view, each municipality must take care of their own water problems. However the three municipalities of the study area are linked through their geographical setting, the catchment. Although the POMCA would seem like the document that could include catchment-wide policies and objectives, it makes no mention of the local plans contained in the PSMVs, PUEAAs and PMAAs of each municipality. The PDA just focuses on the entire department of Cundinamarca and does not differentiate between catchments. An IWRM plan for Tomin catchment should unite all existing plans and create a more concerted set of objectives, combining spatial planning with water efficiency plans and wastewater management. The benefits of this would be that civil servants spend less time preparing each separate plan every three years, that regional authorities have a better view on the local situation and objectives and it also can serve as a focused source of information. This would require reorganization by the MAVDT of the current regulations concerning water management and planning. The above illustrates that institutes like IDEA but also CAR Cundinamarca and others, still have a tendency towards thinking in old patterns: where a group of experts can solve any problem, writing plans without knowledge, participation or consent of the municipalities in question. The term integrated implies participatory, but this way of approaching problems is to date not an obvious approach. The thinking process of IWRM requires the participation of all relevant actors, and sustainable solutions can never be successfully achieved by just a single party or stakeholder.

5.3 Process
The lack of a learning alliance meant that stakeholders were not an integral part of learning and doing the IWRM process, and consequently the presented analysis is only a first step in the process of creating IWRM in the region. The project did not give the stakeholders feeling that they were going to solve their own problems. The EMPOWERS cycle emphasizes the importance of stakeholder involvement at each phase but, although there was a genuine will from the researchers side to improve their situation, the affected actors of the future IWRM plan did not know about the project until half-way through it, at which time it was too late. This made the involved stakholders more passive and they waited for the team to present the results of the research, and did not take a pro-active participatory role. It was difficult to change the mentality from working for stakeholders to working with stakeholders. There was no opportunity to work with the stakeholders on problem identification, vision creating and strategizing: important first steps in the process of IWRM. At the end of the project, the

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 46 stakeholders should have the feeling they are empowered, and can work together and solve their problems. During the startup phase of the research it became clear that there was a need for tools or guidelines to be able to work with the methodology. The lack of leadership and experience had as a consequence that there was a lack of a systematic approach and meant team-members worked on things of their own expertise, rather than analyzing the perceived problems of the stakeholders. This resulted in a situation that there was no clear order in which to do things and what had activities should receive priority over others. It took time to find a routine and working method. The presence of an experienced leader could have sped up this process, and perhaps more could have been achieved in the short amount of time that was available. One of the consequences of the lack of time was that it did not allow for a buildup of trust between the team and the stakeholders. The effort it takes to create stakeholder platforms and a learning alliance was underestimated.

47 Conclusions

6 Conclusions
6.1 Technical
Eutrophication of the Tomin reservoir cannot be stopped by uncoordinated end-of-pipe solutions but require an integrated effort. This should be a major focus of a future IWRM plan for the catchment. The security of supply in both rural and urban Sesquil needs to be improved. Guatavita needs to reduce its water demand. Sending the raw sewage of Guasca into the Siecha River must stop as soon as possible. Building the WWTP should be top priority, and it can be combined with work on a separated storm water system, making the new treatment plant more effective.

6.2 Stakeholder
There is generally very poor integration and coordination of plans, both between local and regional stakeholders, and between institutions and local municipalities. Institutes still try to solve problems for people instead of with people. The lack of control by environmental agencies or municipal government does not give citizens any incentive to change habits or improve their systems.

6.3 Process
The lack of leadership made the work of the team as a whole unorganized. The lack of experience in IWRM made progress slow. The research team had not set the objective to create the learning alliance or stakeholder platforms

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 48

7 Recommendations
The next step towards an IWRM plan for the Tomin catchment is forging a Learning Alliance. This group of people should contain representatives of the key stakeholders, and take a central position in all issues related to water in the region. It should communicate with all levels; national, regional and local on a regular basis. An information base should be established that is accessible to all. The water information sheets presented in this thesis could be used as an example for this information base. Once this has been done, the alliance can focus their efforts on individual problems. Doing more detailed assessments, quality controlling data and if necessary collect primary data through measurements, and involving local actors in the process, will yield detailed assessments of the root causes of specic problems. Some of these specific problems are mentioned below. Technical Resolution of the San Francisco Stream conflict Measuring and monitoring the available resources and redistributing them fairly, assessing who needs how much, who has no other water source and who has a choice. A skilled and impartial facilitation team should seek the dialogue with the different stakeholders and find common acceptable solutions, both short and long term. Reducing the over extraction of the San Francisco Stream can be done by increasing the capacity of the Corales pipeline. Reducing Guatavitas water system losses, eliminating illegal connections and charging for water use will help achieve this. Implementation Possible Pilot Projects Showing examples of rainwater harvesting will convince an important part of the citizens that are facing seasonal droughts to take action. A mix of conventional and unconventional water supply technologies like storage infrastructure and rainwater harvesting can increase Sesquils resilience and secure supply. Additional Research There is not much data about the intra-annual variability of water and for instance what effects climate change might bring to the region. Data on evapotranspiration and groundwater is very limited. New research into this can contribute to a better water balance. Research on the effects septic tanks The home built septic tanks could be impacting the water quality of the reservoir, but it is unknown what the effects are exactly. Stakeholder Create stakeholder platforms An institutional stakeholder platform provides opportunities for increased cooperation, sharing of information and improves the institutional memory. Creating a local stakeholder platform would improve the communication between municipalities, both town councils and rural water boards, possibly be helpful in resolutions of conflicts, increase the dissemination of information and knowledge concerning water issues in the area, inspiring neighbours and be a voice for the population towards the institutional actors.

49 Recommendations Guasca needs to work on improving the water supply of some of its rural water boards. They can do this by bringing rural water board presidents together and have them exchange experiences and knowledge. Task Analysis A detailed task analysis and roles/responsibilities of stakeholders needs to be made regarding specific topics of IWRM. Data presented in the stakeholder relations diagram needs to be verified and accepted by the stakeholders. The who does what is very important in the stage of strategizing. Creating the IWRM plan Each municipality has five different plans related to water. The IWRM could be the integrating umbrella format for all of these, with the common, quality checked information base where other plans are specific chapters of this plan. This could remove the conflicts of sources and be a working tool for all municipalities. A future IWRM plan should also address the causes of deforestation and destruction of pramo, and manage their protection. Capacity training There is a lack of capacity in the rural areas of the catchment regarding plumbing and administration of water systems. There is a national goal to improve this. Perhaps the Governorate can initiate a project to improve this situation. Work in Guatavita Capacitate the office, get more funding, invest in infrastructure, get a campaign going on the value of water, and make sure everyone realizes things cannot continue the way they are going. Let people pay a fair price for the use. Process IWRM expert It could be recommended an IWRM expert join the facilitation team, working with the research team first, making sure that the chosen methodology is clear beforehand. The tasks are divided to wish and having regular meetings keeping everyone up to date of the progress. Take time for stakeholder contact Stay in the municipality for an extended period of time, and work full-time with the stakeholders. Create trust between the facilitation team and the stakeholders. Make clear action plan of what needs to be achieved, how much workshops are needed and plan them well ahead of time, so that stakeholders can anticipate.

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 50

8 References
8.1 Bibliography
Buytaert, W., Clleri, R., De Bivre, B., Cisneros, F., Wyseure, G., Deckers, J., et al. (2006). Human impact on the hydrology of the Andean pramos. Earth-Science Reviews, 79(1-2), 53-72. CAR (2006). Plan de Ordenacin y Manejo de la Cuenca Bogot: Resumen Ejecutivo. CAR Cundinamarca. CAR 2010 Daily values of the Volume in the Tomin Catchment in Millions of m3. http://www.car.gov.co/?idcategoria=12874, 30-6-2010 CAR 2011 Land Cover website CAR Centro de Documentacin DANE. (2010). Proyecciones nacionales y departamentales de poblacin 2005 - 2020. http://www.dane.gov.co/files/investigaciones/poblacion/proyepobla06_20/7Proyecciones_poblacio n.pdf. Daphnia Ltd. (2010) Monitoreo y Seguimiento a la Evaluacin de la Calidad del Agua del Embalse de Tomin. EEB, Emgesa, EAAB IDEAM (2010). Precipitation data. Retrieved September 20, 2010, from http://institucional.ideam.gov.co/jsp/loader.jsf?lServicio=Publicaciones&lTipo=publicaciones&lFunci on=loadContenidoPublicacion&id=1002 DCR 2011 Hydrologic Unit Geography. Virginia Department of Conservation & Recreation. 11/08/2011, http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/stormwater_management/hu.shtml EEB. (1999). Historia de la empresa de energa de Bogot. (J. Rodrguez & J. Camilo, Eds.)Colombia, Empresa de Energa de Bogot. Tomos I, II (p. 116). http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:Historia+de+la+empresa+de+ener ga+de+bogot#1. Engel, P. and Salomon, M. (1997). Resource Guide to RAAKS. A Participatory Actor-oriented Methodology on Networking for Innovation and Stakeholder Analysis (KIT/CTA/STOAS). http://www.kit.nl/-/INS/4616/Royal-Tropical-Institute/KIT-Information-and-Library-Services--/ILSInformation-services/ILS-Dossiers/Innovation-for-rural-development?tab=4#tocBK_45, 8/24/2011 EMPOWERS 2006, Module 5. Introduction to Water Resources Assessment. Retrieved from: http://www.project.empowers.info/content/search/?SearchText=module&SearchButton=Search EMPOWERS 2007 Moriarty, P., Batchelor, C., Abd-Alhadi, F., Laban, P., & Fahmy, H.. The EMPOWERS approach to water governance: guidelines, methods and tools. Amman, Jordan: INWRDAM (p. 9, 108 - 109, ch 3). FAO 2011 http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/ab488s/AB488S05.htm, 23/06/2011

51 References Guatavita 2009, PTAP - Guatavita, Diagnostico y propuesta de optimizacin and PMAA, Town Council of Guatavita. Global Water Partnership (2000). Integrated water resources management. GWP 2011 Taken from http://www.gwp.org on 24/06/2011 Henze, M., Ledin, A., 2001. Types, characteristics and quantities of classic, combined wastewaters. In: Lens, P., Zeeman, G., Lettinga, G. (Eds.), Decentralised Sanitation and Reuse IWA Publishing, UK, pp. 5772. IDEAM 2010 Meteorological data of the Guatavita and surrounding weather stations obtained from the Instituto de Hidrologa, Meteorologa y Estudios Ambientales(IDEAM) in 10/2010. INGEOMINAS 1990 Estudio Hidrogeologico Cuantitativo de la Sabana de Bogota. Informes. Convenio CAR-INGEOMINAS. Instituto Colombiano de Geologa y Minera. 1990 1990. ICWE 1992. The Dublin Statement and Report of the Conference. International Conference on Water and the Environment: Development Issues for the 21st century. 2631 January. Dublin. IRC 2007 Smits, S., Moriarty, P., and Sijbesma, C. (eds) (2007). Learning alliances: Scaling up innovations in water, sanitation and hygiene. Delft, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. (Technical paper series; no. 47). P18. JICA 2003. Estudio del Desarrollo Sostenible del Agua Subterrnea en la Sabana de Bogot, Colombia. Japan international cooperation agency JICA. 2009. Study on sustainable water supply for Bogot city and surrounding area based on the integrated water resources management in the republic of Colombia. Japan international cooperation agency Joslyn, C. and Rocha, L. (2000). Towards semiotic agent-based models of socio-technical organizations, Proc. AI, Simulation and Planning in High Autonomy Systems (AIS 2000) Conference, Tucson, Arizona, pp. 70-79. Law 142, Art. 5. Republic of Colombia (July 11, 1994). Ley 142 (Ley de Servicios Pblicos Domiciliarios). 14/07/2011 from: http://www.alcaldiabogota.gov.co/sisjur/normas/Norma1.jsp?i=2752 MAVDT 2003 Gestin Integral del Agua. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial, Direccin de Agua Potable y Saneamiento Bsico y Ambiental, Repblica de Colombia. http://www.minambiente.gov.co/Puerta/destacado/vivienda/gestion_ds_municipal/nuevas_poli/ges tionintegraldelagua_ultima.pdf, 12/08/11 MAVDT 2008 Resolucin 0776 - Plan de manejo ambiental para el embalse de Tomin. MAVDT 2011. Plan Departamental para el Manejo Empresarial de los servicios de Agua y Saneamiento CUNDINAMARCA. http://www.minambiente.gov.co/documentos/normativa/vas/Cartillas%20%20VAS/cartilla_pda_cundinamarca.pdf

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 52 Moriarty, P., Batchelor, C., Laban, P., Fahmy, H., (2010) Developing a Practical Approach to 'Light IWRM' in the Middle East. Water Alternatives 3:122. http://hdl.handle.net/10535/6431 PDM Sesquil 2008. Plan de Desarrollo Municipal: UNIDAD, TRABAJO Y PROGRESO POR SESQUIL (2008). Alcalda municipal de Sesquil Cundinamarca. PMAA Guatavita 2009 Plan Maestro de Acueducto y Alcantarrillado. Latin Consult 2009. PUEAA Guatavita 2008 Programa de Uso Eficiente y Ahorro del Agua. Alcalda municipal Guatavita Cundinamarca. PUEAA Guasca 2010. Programa de Uso Eficiente y Ahorro del Agua. Oficina de servicios publicos: Guasca Cundinamarca. Schindler, D., Vallentyne, J., The Algal Bowl: Over fertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries. (2004) University of Alberta Press. p. 1 SDP 2011 Secretara Distrital de Planeacin. Retrieved from http://www.sdp.gov.co/section-2117.jsp on 23/06/2011 SWITCH 2006, Morris, B. M.. Learning Alliance Briefing Note No 1 : An introduction to learning alliances. SWITCH 2008 SWITCH Approach to Strategic planning for Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM). http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/outputs/pdfs/W11_GEN_RPT_SWITCH_Approach_to_Strategic_planning_for_IUWM.pdf, 8/24/2011 SWITCH 2011 Jefferies C., Duffy A., The SWITCH Transition Manual: Managing Water for the City of the Future. University of Abertay Dundee, United Kingdom http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/outputs/pdfs/W13_GEN_MAN_D1.3.4_SWITCH_Transition_Manual.pdf, 11/08/2011 UNESCO IHP 2009. International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO. IWRM at River Basin Level GUIDELINES PART 2-1 THE GUIDELINES FOR IWRM COORDINATION. World Water Assessment Programme. http://www.unesco.org/water/news/pdf/Part_2-1_Guidelines_for_IWRM_Coordination.pdf, 24/08/2011 UN-Water (2008). Status Report on IWRM and Water Efficiency Plans for CSD 16: 5. Velez, C. A., A. Lobbrecht, et al. (2007). "Optimization of Urban Wastewater Systems Using Model Based Design and Control. Case Study of Cali, Colombia." World Bank 2006: Water, Electricity and the Poor. Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies?, p. 21 CIIA 2007 Centro de Investigaciones en Ingeniera Ambiental CIIA. Plan de seguimiento y monitoreo [PSM] para el embalse de Tomin. Informe Agosto 2006-Agosto 2007. Departamento de Ingeniera Civil y Ambiental Universidad de los Andes.

53 References

8.2 Websites
http://www.acueducto.com.co Agua y Alcantarrillado de Bogot http://www.car.gov.co Corporacin Autnoma Regional de Cundinamarca http://www.corpoguavio.gov.co Corporacin Autnoma Regional del Guavio http://cra.gov.co Comisin de Regulacin de Agua Potable y Saneamiento Bsico http://www.dnp.gov.co Departamento Nacional de Planeacin http://www.eeb.com.co Empresa de Energa de Bogot S.A. ESP http://www.emgesa.com.co Emgesa S.A. ESP http://institucional.ideam.gov.co Instituto de Hidrologa, Meteorologa y Estudios Ambientales http://www.project.empowers.info Euro-Med Participatory Water Resources Scenarios http://www.sdp.gov.co Secretara Distrital de Planeacin http://www.superservicios.gov.co Superintendencia de Servicios Pblicos http://www.switchurbanwater.eu SWITCH: Managing Water for the City of the Future http://www.unesco-ihe.org UNESCO-IHE: Institute for water education

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 54

9 Appendices
9.1 Rural Water board Data.

55 Appendices

Sesquil Rural Water Boards Water Board Tierra Negra Uval Nescuata La Villa Nescuat La Escuela Chaleche Q. El Urital Source Q. El Gaque Users # 90 96 89 220 Q. La Hormiga Q. La Hondura Q. El Cur N. El Manantialito Gobernador Salina Boitiva La Villa El Cajon Loma Larga Boita San Jose Manantial El Hato Espigas - Alta Espigas - Baja Springs Springs 40/45 Q. La Clara Q. Girardot / Buenavista 54 468 280 Q. La Clara Q. Grande Q. San Antonio 120 15 45 190 190 61 210 45 908 306 ? ? N N This area has no permanent water source and no infrastructure Water reliability is bad, as the springs dry up in the dry periods. In times of need they rely on water trucks from Sesquil. 0,76 0,72 600 80 154 1790 Y Y 1,39 0,59 0,69 1529 0,69 LPS Y 39190 Three storage tanks of resp. 180, 55 & 45 m3. One storage tank of 180 m3. Y Y 68 253 N 0,65 0,45 0,55 0,65 2 LPS 30672 Y Y 21470 Two storage tanks of 32 m3 each. 1400 Trimestral water rates are (in COP); locals: 3000, farmers: 15000, weekenders: 70000. Y Y People # 329 WTP Concession LPS Produced m3/month 37324 Meters Demand m3/month 26126 Together with Tierra Negra Notes

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 56

Guatavita rural water boards Water Board Source Hhs # Amoladero Carbonera Alta Carbonera Baja Chaleche I Chaleche Cocuos Choche Y Santa Mara Corales Guandita Hatillo Monquentiva Montecillo Potreritos Potrerolargo I Potrerolargo II Tomin De Blancos Tomin De Indios Q. El Quiebroyal Q. Pea Colorada Q. Las Peuelas 29 87 38 N N N 0,25 Y 5000 2000 4000 WWTP & Septic Tanks Septic Tanks Septic Tanks Q. EL Chuscal (later Q. San Francisco) Q. San Francisco Q. El Estanco 107 135 75 N 0,75 6000 Septic Tanks Commuters pay COP 20000/month N Y 1667 Septic Tanks WTP Concession LPS Produced LPS Meters Demand m3/month Price/month COP This area has no water board. The use limit is 40 m3, an extra m3 costs COP 12000. WW treatment Notes

Q. Corales Springs Q. Chuscales (or Gaitn) Q. Solo Cachos Q. San Francisco

130 102 180

2,5

2500 3500

Septic Tanks (30%) None

In the process of building a WTP. A new connection costs COP $1350000 The use limit is 35 m3. Water used to be filtered, but filters broke. Water quality affects the milk production. Filters don't work properly. In dry periods there is severe rationing. This area has no waterboard.

2,5-3

3000

35 52

N Filters

4000 7000

Septic Tanks Septic Tanks (few)

The use limit is 40 m3, an extra m3 costs COP 500 78 new hh are being connected. Waterboard is still being formed.

57 Appendices
Guasca rural water boards Water Board Mariano Ospina I Mariano Ospina II La Floresta I La Floresta II San Jois Source Q. Pericos Rio Chiguanos Rio Chipat Q. El Uval Rio Los Salitres & Q. Iligueron Q. El Chuscal Rio Chipat Rio Chiguanos Nacedero Rio Chipat Q. El Uval & Q. Montoque Q. El Uval & Q. Montoque Rio Chipat Hhs # 300 470 90 70 600 3500 Y Y 9,7 6000 In the dry period the production drops to 6,5 LPS. Until 40 m3 the price is COP 448, above that an m3 is COP 586. Y Y 3333/1667 People # WTP Meters Produced LPS Price/month COP The water source is only available in the wet periods. The use limit is 40 m3, an extra m3 costs COP 400 Notes

Santa Barbara Pea Negra Santa Lucia Trinidad - Pericos Llano Pastor Ospina - Flores I Pastor Ospina - Flores II Los Guayabos Trinidad - Betania Parehondo Los rboles Manantial Del Siecha La Concepcin El Espino Corcobado La Cabrerita

145 48 95 25 15 358 65 56 69 85 24 510 25 26 150 600 N

5000

N Y 6,5 4 N N N N 0,9 1,5

3333 10000/6000 There are two tariffs. The use limit is 65 m3, an extra m3 costs COP 200/300

8750 3000 5000 6000 The use limit is 20 m3, an extra m3 costs COP 10000

N N

1000 6000 The water has a high turbidity

MSc Thesis Chris Holtslag 58

9.2 Initial economic assessment of urban water supply systems.

WTP reference costs Average monthly supply (m3) Averagde monthly demand (m3) Households (hh) Average administration costs ($/ hh/month) Average operation & investment costs ($/hh/month) Costos de referencia alcantarillado Average monthly sewer discharge (m3) Households (hh) Average administration costs ($/ hh/month) Average operation & investment costs ($/hh/month) Guasca Sesquile 36.540 73.070 22.655 23.858 1.251 1.002 $ 4.992 $ 2.512,11 $ 326,14 $ 877,97 Guasca Sesquile 20 21.574 20.418 21 1.168 818 $ 1.996 $ 1.440,05 $ 100,85 $275,55 Guatavita 33.327 11.633 717 $ 2.881 $ 804,12 Guatavita 11.633 22 536 $ 1.152,4 $ 322

Balance WTPs (thousands of COP) Number of households Total anual income Total anual expenses Deficit Balance WWTPS (thousands of COP) Number of households Total anual income Total anual expenses Deficit

Guasca 1.251 $ 122.707 $ 218.383 -$ 95.676 Guasca 1.168 $ 45.956 $ 62.408 $ -16.451

Sesquile 1.002 $ 107.765 $ 281.844 -$174.079 Sesquil 818 $ 36.847 $ 82.465 -$45.617

Guatavita 717 $ 107.553 $ 347.726 -$ 239.173 Guatavita 536 $ 41.908 $ 54.408 $ -12.500

20 21

Oficina Servicios Pblicos Sesquile. Facturacin 2010 Oficina de Servicios Pblicos Guasca. Facturacin 2009 22 Usuarios Alcantarillado Guatavita. 2010

59 Appendices

9.3 Impressions of field work.

Taking GPS points and water samples

Visiting water intake

Interviewing rural citizens

Plumber shows small-scale rural WTP

Meeting with heads of rural water boards

A typical house has a storage tank of 1000L