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Tufts University Chem 1 Fall 2011 Lecture 3 Atoms

Atomic Theory of Matter


ca. 400 BC Democritus (Ancient Greece) the first idea of atoms as the smallest, fundamental, indivisible particles composing matter 1789 Lavoisier (France) law of conservation of mass in chemical reactions the mass of reactants is equal to the mass of products
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Atomic Theory of Matter


1794 Joseph Proust (France) the law of constant composition any pure substance has the same composition regardless of its origin 1803 John Dalton (England) proposed the first atomic theory based on the above experimental data, calculated the relative masses of atoms

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Atomic Theory of Matter


XIX century the triumph of atomic theory: most stable elements discovered, organized in a periodic table (Mendeleev, Russia, 1869)

Atomic Microscopy
Recently, since 1980s, direct methods to observe atoms were developed: atomic force microscopy (AFM) and others. AFM was discovered by Gerd Binnig (Germany/Switzerland) and coworkers.

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Chlorine atoms at the surface of NaCl

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

The Inner Structure of Atoms. Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons, which were discovered in 1897, 1907, and 1932, respectively. Helium atom: 2 e, 2 p, 2 n:
n p p n

Discovery of Electron
Cathode rays form when high voltage is applied between two metal electrodes in vacuum. J. J. Thompson discovered (1897) that the properties of the cathode rays are the same regardless of the nature of metal used for the electrodes. His conclusion: the rays are made of particles (electrons) that are the same in all metal atoms.

Properties of the Electron


J. J. Thompson, England, 1897: - electron is negatively charged; - the charge/mass ratio is 1.76 108 C/g Robert Millikan, University of Chicago, 1907: - the charge of electron is 1.60 10-19 C; - then its mass is 9.11 10-28 g. [C = Coulomb]

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Radioactivity
The spontaneous decomposition of certain atoms. Discovered by Becquerel (France, 1896). Three types of radiation were discovered by Rutherford (1907):

, and rays.

rays are very fast nuclei of helium (charge +2). rays are very fast electrons (charge -1). rays are high energy electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons), no charge = neutral.

Discovery of the Nucleus


Positive charge in a gold atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus; most of the volume of the atom is empty space. (Rutherford, England, 1910)

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

The Structure of Atom


Atom = nucleus + electrons. Nucleus is positively charged and has >99.95% of the mass of an atom. Electrons (e-) are negatively charged and relatively light. Size of an atom is 1-5 (1 Angstrom = 10-10 m).

The Structure of Atom


Nuclei consist of neurons (n) and protons (p). Protons are positively charged (p+) and neutrons are neutral. Electrons orbit around the nucleus very quickly.

n p

p n

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Helium atom

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Four Fundamental Forces in Nature 1) Gravitational force: all massive objects attract each other, not important in atoms. 2) Electromagnetic (Coulombic) forces: opposite charges are attracted, same charges are repelled; this force holds electrons near nucleus. 3) Strong nuclear force: hold protons and neutrons together in a nucleus.
4) Weak nuclear force: not important in chemistry.

Subatomic Particles

1 atomic mass unit = 1.6605410-24 g

Lecture Problem 1. A hydrogen atom consists of a proton and an electron. Calculate the mass of a hydrogen atom in amu and in kg.
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Isotopes

Ions
Atoms are neutral overall. An atom may lose one or several electrons and become a positive ion (cation): C+, C2+, etc. An atom may also gain one or several electrons and become a negative ion (anion): C-, C2-, etc. The charge of an ion is shown in the top right corner. Lecture Problem 2. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are there in cation 50V3+?

Mass number (A) is also the mass of an atom in amu rounded to a whole number [m(n) amu]. Atomic number (Z) is shown in the periodic table for each element. Isotopes are different kinds of atoms of the same element with different mass numbers (different numbers of neutrons): 11C, 12C, 13C, 14C. Isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties.

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Mass Spectrometry
Masses of individual ions and abundances of individual isotopes can be measured with great accuracy using a mass spectrometer. Masses of atoms can be calculated from these data.

Average Atomic Mass (Atomic Weight)


Because in most experiments we use very large numbers of atoms, we need to know the average atomic masses. Average mass is calculated from masses of the isotopes of an element weighed by their relative abundances. Lecture Problem 3. Chlorine has two stable natural isotopes: chlorine-35 (34.97 amu, 75.53%) and chlorine-37 (36.97 amu, 24.47%). Calculate the atomic weight of chlorine.
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Isotope Abundances from Atomic Weight Lecture Problem 4. Copper has two natural isotopes: 63Cu (62.93 amu) and 65Cu (64.93 amu). Using the atomic weight of copper from the periodic table, calculate the abundances of the isotopes in percent.

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