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Atomic Microscopy
Recently, since 1980s, direct methods to observe atoms were developed: atomic force microscopy (AFM) and others. AFM was discovered by Gerd Binnig (Germany/Switzerland) and coworkers.
The Inner Structure of Atoms. Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons, which were discovered in 1897, 1907, and 1932, respectively. Helium atom: 2 e, 2 p, 2 n:
n p p n
Discovery of Electron
Cathode rays form when high voltage is applied between two metal electrodes in vacuum. J. J. Thompson discovered (1897) that the properties of the cathode rays are the same regardless of the nature of metal used for the electrodes. His conclusion: the rays are made of particles (electrons) that are the same in all metal atoms.
Radioactivity
The spontaneous decomposition of certain atoms. Discovered by Becquerel (France, 1896). Three types of radiation were discovered by Rutherford (1907):
, and rays.
rays are very fast nuclei of helium (charge +2). rays are very fast electrons (charge -1). rays are high energy electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons), no charge = neutral.
n p
p n
Helium atom
Four Fundamental Forces in Nature 1) Gravitational force: all massive objects attract each other, not important in atoms. 2) Electromagnetic (Coulombic) forces: opposite charges are attracted, same charges are repelled; this force holds electrons near nucleus. 3) Strong nuclear force: hold protons and neutrons together in a nucleus.
4) Weak nuclear force: not important in chemistry.
Subatomic Particles
Lecture Problem 1. A hydrogen atom consists of a proton and an electron. Calculate the mass of a hydrogen atom in amu and in kg.
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Isotopes
Ions
Atoms are neutral overall. An atom may lose one or several electrons and become a positive ion (cation): C+, C2+, etc. An atom may also gain one or several electrons and become a negative ion (anion): C-, C2-, etc. The charge of an ion is shown in the top right corner. Lecture Problem 2. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are there in cation 50V3+?
Mass number (A) is also the mass of an atom in amu rounded to a whole number [m(n) amu]. Atomic number (Z) is shown in the periodic table for each element. Isotopes are different kinds of atoms of the same element with different mass numbers (different numbers of neutrons): 11C, 12C, 13C, 14C. Isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties.
Mass Spectrometry
Masses of individual ions and abundances of individual isotopes can be measured with great accuracy using a mass spectrometer. Masses of atoms can be calculated from these data.
Isotope Abundances from Atomic Weight Lecture Problem 4. Copper has two natural isotopes: 63Cu (62.93 amu) and 65Cu (64.93 amu). Using the atomic weight of copper from the periodic table, calculate the abundances of the isotopes in percent.