Electrokinetic Remediation

Research Status & Case Study

Yang, Ji-Won

Environmental Remediation Engineering Laboratory

Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
 Contents

 Introduction

 Electrokinetic Remediation
~ History of Electrokinetics
~ Principles of Electrokinetics
~ Hybrid Applications & Methods

 Research Status & Case Study

~ Research Status of Electrokinetic Remediation
~ Case Study: in-situ, ex-situ, pilot studies

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 Source of Contamination

 Landfills/Waste storage facilities

 Underground storage tanks
 Agriculture
 Mining
 Industrial facilities
~ Wood preserving
~ Pesticide manufacturing
~ Chemical manufacturing
~ Petroleum refining
 Nuclear

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 Soil & Groundwater Remediation

Original approach Ex-situ In-situ

Dig & Incineration

Dig & Dump Dig & Wash Development of
Pump & Treat several technologies

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 Remediation Technologies

Ex-situ In-situ
 Incineration  Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE)
 Soil Washing  Soil Flushing
 Solvent Extraction  Electrokinetic Process
 Composting / Landfarming  Bioventing
 Slurry Phase Treatment  Chemical Oxidation

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 Limitations of in-situ Technologies

 Works best for homogeneous, permeable soils

 Difficult to apply under heterogeneous subsurface conditions such

as:
~ Low-permeable soils
~ Presence of low permeable soil lenses or layers

Mobility improvement in low-permeable soils

Electrokinetic Process

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Electrokinetic Remediation

1. History of Electrokinetics
2. Principles of Electrokinetics
3. Hybrid Applications & Methods
 History of Electrokinetics

 The first EK phenomenon was observed. A direct current clay-

water mixture. (19C)
 Propose a theory dealing with the electroosmotic velocity and zeta
potential. (Helmholtz & Smoluchowski equation)
 Removing unwanted salts from agricultural soil. (1930s)
 Dewatering soil and sludges. (1939)
 To concentrate metals and to explore for minerals in deep soils.
(1970s)
 EK separation of metals from soils. (mid-1980s)

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 Electrokinetic (EK) Process

 Electrokinetics
~ A developing technology that is intended to separate and extract
heavy metals, radionuclides, and organic contaminants from
saturated or unsaturated soils, sludges and sediment, and
groundwater

 Electrokinetic remediation
~ Especially for the remediation of low-permeable contaminated
soils

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 Electrokinetic Remediation

 Removal of the
contaminants from low-
permeable soils
 Cost-effective in-situ process
 Supply of low-density
current

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 Principles of EK remediation

 Electrolysis
(anode) H2O → 2H+ + ½ O2 (g) + 2e-
(cathode) 2H2O + 2e- → 2OH- +H2 (g)

H+ Pb+ OH-
 Transport and removal of contaminants
OH-
~ Electroosmosis
Cu2+
H+ OH-
OH-

~ Electromigration
H+ H+ PAH OH-
(+) Cu2+ (-)
H+ OH-

H+ PAH
H+ Pb+
OH- ~ Electrophoresis

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 Applicable Contaminants

~ Heavy metals (Pb, Cd, As, Cr, Hg, Zn, Cu, Co, …)
~ Radioactive species (Cs137, Sr90, Co60, U)
~ Toxic anions (nitrates and sulfates)
~ Dense, non-aqueous-phase liquids (DNAPLs)
~ Cyanides;
~ Petroleum hydrocarbons (diesel fuel, gasoline, kerosene,
lubricating oils)
~ Explosives
~ Mixed organic / ionic contaminants
~ Halogenated hydrocarbons
~ Non-halogenated pollutants
~ Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
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 Hybrid Application & Methods 1

 Enhancement and Conditioning

~ To overcome the premature precipitation of ionic species
~ Addition of chelating agent, acid (cathode) or base (anode)
~ Electrolyte circulation

 Use of Cation-Selective membrane

~ In front of the cathode
~ To maintain the low soil pH OH-
(+) (-)

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 Hybrid Application & Methods 2

 LasagnaTM Process  Electrokinetic Fence

~ Movement of contaminants to
treatment zone Î EK
~ Immobilization or decomposition
Î Treatment zone

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 Hybrid Application & Methods 3

 Electrokinetic Bioremediation
~ To activate microbes and other microorganisms present in soils
~ Supply and dispersion of nutrients, heating, movement of MOs

 Surfactant-Enhanced Electrokinetic Remediation

~ To improve solubility of hydrophobic organic contaminants

- - - - - - - - - - -
- +
ANODE +
WATER
VELOCITY
PROFILE
- CATHODE

- - - - - - - - - -

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Research Status & Case Study

1. Research Trend
: Published papers related with electrokinetic
remediation between 2002 and 2004 (<100 papers)
2. Case Study of Electrokinetic Remediation
 Research Trends

 Target contaminants
~ Heavy metals :
• Cd, Cu, Cr(VI), Pb, Ni, Zn, Hg, As etc.
~ Organic compounds :
• PAHs (phenanthrene), Chlorinated hydrocarbons, Sovents
(phenol, ethylbenzene)
2%
~ Radionuclides: U, Sr
23%
Heavy metal
Organics
75%
Radionuclide

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 Research Trends

 Soil
~ Mainly artificially contaminated soil
~ The portion of the test with contaminated soil in field site is
considerable (mostly heavy metals).
22%

48% Spiked soil

Field soil
Etc.
30%

 Scale of the test

~ Lab-scale : > 92 %
~ Several pilot & field applications were attempted. (Metal removal)

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 In situ Remediation of As
1
Contaminated Site (by Geokinetics International, Inc.)

 Former timber impregnation plant, Loppersum, the

Netherlands (1989)
~ In situ electro-reclamation at the site
~ After remediation, site became residential area.

~ Volume: 250 m³
~ As in heavy clay
~ Duration:
80 days of 18 hours
~ Energy: 150 kWh/ton

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 Removal of Arsenic

As concentration

Max. 500 mg/kg

Average 115 mg/kg

25 m Max. 29 mg/kg
Average 10 mg/kg

As > 250 mg/kg

100 < As < 250 mg/kg
30 < As < 100 mg/kg
As < 30 mg/kg

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2 Ex situ Remediation of Heavy metals
(by Geokinetics International, Inc.)

 Military airbase, Woensdrecht, the Netherlands (1992-1994)

~ Ex situ electrokinetic remediation in temporary landfill
~ To reduce Cd to < 50 mg/kg

~ Volume: 3500 m³
~ Duration: 2 years
~ Energy: 150 kWh/ton

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Change of Heavy Metal Concentrations

Concentration (m g/kg) 8000 100

6000 95

Decrease (% )
90
4000
85
2000 80
0 75
Cr Zn Ni Cu Pb Cd
Start (m g/kg) 7300 2600 860 770 730 660
End (m g/kg) 755 860 80 98 108 47 < 50 mg/kg
Decreas e % 90 89 91 87 85 93

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 Removal of TCE
3
Using LasagnaTM Process (by Monsanto Company)

 Gaseous diffusion plant, Paducah, Kentucky (1995)

~ Initial TCE conc. : aver. 87 ppm

3 X 4.6 m

Electrodes > 50 ppm

5 ft

10 ft

Carbon

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Change of TCE Concentration 1

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Change of TCE Concentration 2

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4 Field-scale Test of Metal Contaminated Site
(Gent et. al., J. Hazard. Mater. 110 (2004) 53-62)

 Naval Air Weapons Station (NAWS), Point Mugu, Ventura

County, California (1998)
~ Contamination exists in a large area where electroplating and
metal finishing operations disposed of their effluent between
1947 and 1978.
~ Approximately 95 million gallons of plating rinse solution was
discharged.

~ Contaminant concentrations
• Cr : 180 ~ 1100 mg/kg (Regulation: <109 mg/kg)
• Cd : 5 ~ 20 mg/kg (Regulation: <3 mg/kg)

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 System Description

Anode-cathode spacing:
4.57 m (15 ft)
Same electrode spacing:
1.5 m (5 ft)
Depth: 3 m

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 System Description

 Constant voltage:
13 V/m
 Current density:
10 – 17 A/m2
 6 months
 Energy expenditure:
200 kWh/m3

 Control of cathode pH: citric acid

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 pH distribution in depth

 Between electrodes after 6 months of processing

High pH Injection of citric acid

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 Removal of Chromium

 Chromium extraction: 2319 g Î 1621 g

 78 % of soil volume has been cleared.

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 Removal of Cadmium

 Chromium extraction: 70.9 g Î 36.8 g

 70 % of soil volume has been cleared.

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 Remediation of VOCs using
5
EK Biofence (by Hak Milieutechniek BV)

 Chemical laundry at Wildervank, Groningen, the

Netherlands (2001-2004)

~ A pollution with VOCs has extended into a large plume of

about 250m length.
~ High grades (10 g/kg) of volatile chlorinated
hydrocarbons
~ 180 g/L of PCE mass transfer at 10 m below ground
surface

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 Site Characteristics

Horizontal dispersion of VOCs

by groundwater

Plume
Groundwater flow

EK Biofence
Laundry

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 Electrokinetic Biofence
Electrokinetic
Biofence area
Infiltration wells for
nutrients

Source of
 Inducement of nutrients Contamination

 Homogeneous dispersion
of nutrients
 Temperature increase
Contaminated
groundwater plume

Direction of groundwater flow Anode & Cathode

Enhancement of electrodes
biodegradation inside and
downstream of the fence
area
Aquifer

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 Nutrient Dispersion

Infiltration wells with nutrients Infiltration well

Contaminated
Groundwater plume
Negative charged
Positive charged nutrients
nutrients

Cathode Anode
Cathode

Groundwater
flow

Direction of
groundwater flow

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 Description of EK Biofence

 Fence data: 30ⅹ3ⅹ10 m (LⅹWⅹD)

 Volume: 900 m³
 A-C distance: 5 m
Electrodes
 Infiltration wells: 24
 Power: 30A/20V Monitoring wells
 GW flow: 7 m/year Nutrient filters

 Contaminants:
~ PCE, TCE, CIS, VC
 Duration: 2 years GROUNDWATER FLOW

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 Change of Chloride Index

Index of chloride, January 2003

July 2002
March 2001

Groundwater

C A C A C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Index of chloride
Cathode
Anode 1,0-1,5
Monitoring well 1,5-2,0
Nutrient infiltration 2,0-2,5
2,5-3,0
3,0-3,5
 Cl-index was decreased
Î VOCs were dechlorinated by bio-activity.

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 6 EK-Fenton Removal of Gas Station Site
(울산한국환경기술)

 Gas station site in Ulsan

~ Gasoline & diesel
contamination
휘발유 등유
유수분리조
사무실

~ 2 set of hexagonal electrode

Blower 경유 휘발유
등유

configuration
Separator
휘발유

정류기
등유 경유

분배기
2.92 2.1 2.75
1
2.26 경유 휘발유 휘발유 경유
6 2.0
2.0
1.95
2.17 2
2.7
2.15 11
2.07
2.23 9 2.0
1.96
7 1.97
3
2.47
1.65 4
2.4
1.85 12
1.5
8 1.45
2.25
2.34
10
2.35
5

(-) 전극 (+) 전극

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 Remediation of Gasoline & Diesel oil

Site information and

ITEMS UNIT Site closing
investigation
sand : 25% sand : 28.3%
Particle
% silt : 29.5% silt : 30.2%
distribution
clay : 45.5% clay : 41.5%
Water
% 21.3 23.1
content
Initial TPH : av.10,169 TPH : av. <10
㎎/㎏
concentration BTEX : av.185 BTEX : av. <100
Removal % TPH : av. 90% BTEX : av. 94%
Duration day 60 (72)
Power
Kw 220V×10mA×16hr×60day×1.2 = 2,534Kw
consumption
H2O2
ton 13.9
injection

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