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Abstract:

-----------Already we sent use that---------

BLOCK DIAGRAM Transmitter Section

User Control

Receiver Section

POWER SUPPLY

Comparator Micro Controller (AT89C51) DTMF Driver Circuit

Moisture Sensor

DC Motor

Microcontroller
---------------------------Use the pdf document here------------------------

Features
Compatible with MCS-51 Products 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Three-level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines

Two 16-bit Timer/Counters Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes 40-pin DIP

Pin Layout

Pin Description
Pin Number Description

1-8 9 10 - 17 18 19 20 21 - 28 29

P1.0 - P1.7 - Port 1 RST - Reset P3.0 - P3.7 - Port 3 XTAL2 - Crystal XTAL1 - Crystal GND - Ground P2.0 - P2.7 - Port 2 PSEN - Program Store Enable

30 31 32 - 39 40

ALE - Address Latch Enable EA - External Access Enable P0.7 - P0.1 - Port 0 Vcc - Positive Power Supply

Soil moisture sensor


Soil moisture sensors measure the water content in soil. A soil moisture probe is made up of multiple soil moisture sensors. One common type of soil moisture sensors in commercial use is a Frequency domain sensor such as a capacitance sensor. Another sensor, the neutron moisture gauge, utilize the moderator properties of water for neutrons.

Agriculture
Measuring soil moisture is important in agriculture to help farmers manage their irrigation systems more efficiently. Not only are farmers able to generally use less water to grow a crop, they are able to increase yields and the quality of the crop by better management of soil moisture during critical plant growth stages. Besides agriculture, there are many other disciplines using soil moisture sensors. Golf courses are now using sensors to increase the efficiencies of their irrigation systems to prevent over watering and leaching of fertilizers and other chemicals offsite. Landscape irrigation

In urban and suburban areas, landscapes and residential lawns are using soil moisture sensors to interface with an irrigation controller. Connecting a soil moisture sensor to a simple irrigation clock will convert it into a "smart" irrigation controller that prevents an irrigation cycle when the soil is wet.

DC Motors
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A currentcarrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion. Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that BEAMers will see), the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets1. The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.

The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the

direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue rotating.

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the position of the rotor).

So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the workings of one via an interactive animation (JavaScript required):

You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series wiring:

There's probably no better way to see how an average DC motor is put together, than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is tedious work, as well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly good motor.

Luckily for you, I've gone ahead and done this in your stead. The guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-PN motor (the same model that Solarbotics sells) are available for you to see here (on 10 lines / cm graph paper). This is a basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2

brushes and three commutator contacts.

The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite common, and has a number of advantages2. First off, the iron core provides a strong, rigid support for the windings -- a particularly important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also conducts heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be driven harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core construction is also relatively inexpensive compared with other construction types. But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron armature has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration. This construction also results in high winding inductances which limit brush and commutator life. In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a 'coreless' armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself for structural integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and the permanent magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC motors have much lower

armature inductance than iron-core motors of comparable size, extending brush and commutator life.

Diagram courtesy of MicroMo

The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller motors; meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are somewhat prone to overheating. As a result, this design is generally used just in small, low-power motors. BEAMers will most often see coreless DC motors in the form of pager motors.

Again, disassembling a coreless motor can be instructive -- in this case, my hapless victim was a cheap pager vibrator motor. The guts of this disassembled motor are available for you to see here (on 10 lines / cm graph paper). This is (or more accurately, was) a 3-pole coreless DC motor.

I disembowel 'em so you don't have to...

To get the best from DC motors in BEAMbots, we'll need to take a closer look at DC motor behaviors -- both obvious and not.

Dual-tone multi-frequency signaling


Dual-tone multi-frequency analog signaling (DTMF) lines in is used the for telecommunication voice-frequency band

signaling over

telephone

between telephone handsets and other communications devices and the switching center. The version of DTMF that is used in push-button telephones for tone dialing is known as Touch-Tone. It was first used by AT&T in commerce, using that name as a registered trademark. DTMF is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23. It is also known in the UK as MF4. Other multi-frequency systems are used for internal signaling within the telephone network. The Touch-Tone system, using the telephone keypad, gradually replaced the use of rotary dial starting in 1963, and since then DTMF or Touch-Tone became the industry standard for both cell phones and landline service. Multifrequency signaling Prior to the development of DTMF, automated telephone systems employed pulse dialing (Dial Pulse or DP in the U.S.) or loop disconnect (LD) signaling to dial numbers. It functions by rapidly disconnecting and re-connecting the calling party's telephone line, similar to flicking a light switch on and off. The repeated interruptions of the line, as the dial spins, sounds like a series of clicks. The exchange equipment interprets these dial pulses to determine the dialed number. Loop disconnect range was restricted by

telegraphic distortion and other technical problems, and placing calls over longer distances required either operator assistance (operators used an earlier kind of multifrequency dial) or the provision of subscriber trunk dialing equipment. Multi-frequency signaling (see also MF) is a group of signaling methods that use a mixture of two pure tone (pure sine wave) sounds. Various MF signaling protocols were devised by the Bell System and CCITT. The earliest of these were for in-band signaling between switching centers, where long-distance telephone operators used a 16digit keypad to input the next portion of the destination telephone number in order to contact the next downstream long-distance telephone operator. This semi-automated signaling and switching proved successful in both speed and cost effectiveness. Based on this prior success with using MF by specialists to establish long-distance telephone calls, Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling was developed for the consumer to signal their own telephone-call's destination telephone number instead of talking to a telephone operator. AT&Ts Compatibility Bulletin No. 105 described the product as "a method for pushbutton signaling from customer stations using the voice transmission path." In order to prevent consumer telephones from interfering with the MF-based routing and switching between telephone switching centers, DTMF's frequencies differ from all of the pre-existing MF signaling protocols between switching centers: MF/R1, R2, CCS4, CCS5, and others that were later replaced by SS7 digital signaling. DTMF, as used in push-button telephone tone dialing, was known throughout the Bell System by the

trademark Touch-Tone. This term was first used by AT&T in commerce on July 5, 1960 and then was introduced to the public on November 18, 1963, when the first push-button telephone was made available to the public. It was AT&T's registered trademark from September 4, 1962 to March 13, 1984,[1] and is standardized byITU-T . It is also known in the UK as MF4. Other vendors of compatible telephone equipment called the Touch-Tone feature Tone dialing or DTMF, or used their own registered trade names such as the Digitone of Northern Electric (now known as Nortel Networks). The DTMF system uses eight different frequency signals transmitted in pairs to represent 16 different numbers, symbols and letters - as detailed below. As a method of in-band signaling, DTMF tones were also used by cable television broadcasters to indicate the start and stop times of local commercial insertion points during station breaks for the benefit of cable companies. Until better out-of-band signaling equipment was developed in the 1990s, fast, unacknowledged, and loud DTMF tone sequences could be heard during the commercial breaks of cable channels in the United States and elsewhere #, *, A, B, C, and D

DTMF keypad layout.

DTMF dialing

How DTMF dialing sounds.

Problems listening to this file? , The engineers had envisioned phones being used to access computers, and surveyed a number of companies to see what they would need for this role. This led to the addition of the number sign (#, sometimes called 'octothorpe' or 'pound' in this context - 'hash' or 'gate' in the UK) andasterisk or "star" (*) keys as well as a group of keys for menu selection: A, B, C and D. In the end, the lettered keys were dropped from most phones,

and it was many years before these keys became widely used for vertical service codes such as *67 in the United States of America and Canada to suppress caller ID. Public payphones that accept credit cards use these additional codes to send the information from the magnetic strip. Precedence dialing is still done on the military phone networks, but using number combinations (Example: Entering 93 before a number is a priority call) rather than the separate tones and the Government Emergency Telecommunications Service has superseded Autovonfor any civilian priority telco access. Present-day uses of the A, B, C and D keys on telephone networks are few, and exclusive to network control. For example, the A key is used on some networks to cycle through different carriers at will (thereby listening in on calls). Their use is probably prohibited by most carriers. The A, B, C and D tones are used in radio phone patch and repeater operations to allow, among other uses, control of the repeater while connected to an active phone line. DTMF tones are also used by some cable television networks and radio networks to signal the local cable company/network station to insert a local advertisement or station identification. These tones were often heard during a station ID preceding a local ad insert. Previously, terrestrial television stations also used DTMF tones to shut off and turn on remote transmitters. DTMF signaling tones can also be heard at the start or end of some VHS (Video Home System) cassette tapes. Information on the master version of the video tape is encoded in

the DTMF tone. The encoded tone provides information to automatic duplication machines, such as format, duration and volume levels, in order to replicate the original video as closely as possible. DTMF tones are sometimes used in caller ID systems to transfer the caller ID information, however in the USA only Bell 202 modulated FSK signaling is used to transfer the data. A DTMF can be heard on most Whelen Outdoor Warning systems. Keypad

1209 Hz on 697 Hz to make the 1 tone Main article: Telephone keypad The DTMF keypad is laid out in a 44 matrix, with each row representing a low frequency, and each column representing a high frequency. Pressing a single key (such as '1' ) will send a sinusoidal tone for each of the two frequencies (697 and 1209 hertz (Hz)). The original keypads had levers inside, so each button activated two contacts. The multiple tones are the reason for calling the system multifrequency. These tones are then decoded by the switching center to determine which key was pressed.

DTMF keypad frequencies (with sound clips)

1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz 1633 Hz

697 Hz 1 770 Hz 4

852 Hz 7

941 Hz *

Special tone frequencies National telephone systems define additional tones to indicate the status of lines, equipment, or the result of calls with special tones. Such tones are standardized in each country and may consist of single or multiple frequencies. Most European countries use a single precise frequency of 425 Hz, where the United States uses a dual frequency system.

Event

Low frequency High frequency

Busy signal (US)

480 Hz

620 Hz

Ringback tone (US) 440 Hz

480 Hz

Dial tone (US)

350 Hz

440 Hz

The tone frequencies, as defined by the Precise Tone Plan, are selected such that harmonics and intermodulation products will not cause an unreliable signal. No frequency is a multiple of another, the difference between any two frequencies does not equal any of the frequencies, and the sum of any two frequencies does not equal any of the frequencies. The frequencies were initially designed with a ratio of 21/19, which is slightly less than a whole tone. The frequencies may not vary more than 1.8% from their nominal frequency, or the switching center will ignore the signal. The high frequencies may be the same volume as or louder than the low frequencies when sent across the line. The loudness difference between the high and low frequencies can be as large as 3 decibels (dB) and is referred to as "twist." The duration of the tone should be at least 70 ms, although in some countries and applications DTMF receivers must be able to reliably detect DTMF tones as short as 45ms. European Tones: Event Low frequency High frequency

Busy signal (Most of Europe) 425 Hz

----

Ringback Ireland)

tone (UK

&

400 Hz

450 Hz

Ringback Europe)

tone (Most

of

425 Hz

----

Dial tone (UK)

350 Hz

450 Hz

Dial tone (Most of Europe)

425 Hz

----

As with other multi-frequency receivers, DTMF was originally decoded by tuned filter banks. Late in the 20th century most were replaced with digital signal processors. DTMF can be decoded using the Goertzel algorithm.

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