24.

3/1999 International Rice Research Institute

International Rice Reasearch Notes
IRRI home page: http://www.cgiar.org/irri
Riceweb: http://www.riceweb.org
Riceworld: http://www.riceworld.org
IRRI Library: http://ricelib.irri.cgiar.org
IRRN: http://irriwww/IRRIHome/irrn.htm
Copyright International Rice Research Institute 1999 http://www.cgiar.org/irri/irrn.htm

The International Rice Research Notes (IRRN) expedites communication among scientists concerned with the development of improved
technology for rice and rice-based systems. The IRRN is a mechanism to help scientists keep each other informed of current rice research
findings. The concise scientific notes are meant to encourage rice scientists to communicate with one another to obtain details on the
research reported. The IRRN is published three times a year in April, August, and December by the International Rice Research Institute.

About the cover Wild rice species were Editorial Board Production Team
Michael Cohen (pest science and management), Katherine Lopez, Managing Editor
collected in many countries in Asia. Mr. Editor-in-Chief Editorial
Makara Uok of the Cambodia-IRRI- Darshan Brar (plant breeding; molecular and Bill Hardy and Tess Rola
Australia-Project collects wild rice Oryza cell biology)
Design and layout
nivara near a rice field in Kompong Speu, David Dawe (socioeconomics; agricultural
The CPS Creative Services Team:
Cambodia. Inset: Different types of wild engineering)
Albert Borrero, Grant Leceta, Erlie Putungan,
Achim Dobermann (soil, nutrient, and water
and weedy rice were found in Nepal and management; environment)
Juan Lazaro, Emmanuel Panisales
Lao. Bao-Rong Lu (genetic resources) Word processing
Cover photos: Baorong Lu Len Wade (crop management and physiology) Arleen Rivera

Contents
4 MINI REVIEW
Taxonomy of the genus Oryza (Poaceae):
historical perspective and current status
B.R. Lu

RESEARCH NOTES
Plant breeding

9 Effect of planting time on outcrossing percentage
in CMS line seed production of rice
C. Lavanya, R. Vijaykumar, and N. Sreerama Reddy
10 Association between simple sequence repeat
(SSR) marker diversity, pedigree record,
quantitative trait variation, and hybrid
performance in rice
W. Xu, S.S. Virmani, J.E. Hernandez, Z.K. Li, and
E.D. Redoña
11 Epistatic QTLs affecting hybrid breakdown
in recombinant inbred populations derived
from indica-japonica crosses
Z.K. Li, L.J. Luo, H.W. Mei, D.B. Zhong,
C.S. Ying, Q.Y. Shu, D.L. Wang, R. Tabien,
J.W. Stansel, and A.H. Paterson
12 Molecular mapping of quantitative trait loci
(QTLs) associated with whitebacked planthopper
in rice
P. Kadirvel, M. Maheswaran, and K. Gunathilagaraj

NEW
14 WEB NOTES

2 December 1999
Pest science & management

15 Effect of organic manures on some predators 18 Predation rates of Atypena formosana on brown
in the rice ecosystem planthopper and green leafhopper
J.C. Ragini, D. Thangaraju, and P.M.M. David L. Sigsgaard and S. Villareal

16 Effect of culture nutrients on the production 19 A procedure for determining the mating status
of Rhizoctonia solani toxins of the yellow stem borer
J. Danson, K. Wasano, and A. Nose A.M. Dirie, M.B. Cohen, and J.S. Bentur

17 Susceptibility of some cereal crops to cyst
nematode Heterodera sacchari in West Africa
D.L. Coyne and R.A. Plowright
20 A genomic library of Xanthomonas oryzae pv.
oryzae in the broad host range mobilizing
Escherichia coli strain S17-1
L. Rajagopal, S. Dharmapuri, A.T. Sayeepriyadarshini,
and R.V. Sonti

Soil, nutrient, & water management

22 Dual cropping of Azolla substitutes for second 23 Tools for plant-based N management in different
topdressing of N in rice rice varieties grown in southern India
R. Thamizh Vendan, G. Gopalaswamy, and R.M. Kumar, K. Padmaja, and S.V. Subbaiah
S. Antoni Raj

Crop management & physiology

25 Response of organic manures in a rice (Oryza 26 Effect of growth hormones on outcrossing

sativa)–chickpea (Cicer arietinum) crop sequence of cytoplasmic male sterile lines
G.R. Singh, S.S. Parihar, and N.K. Chaure R. Singh

28 NOTES FROM THE FIELD 35 NEWS

32 RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS 39 INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

IRRI marks 40th year

IRRI will celebrate its 40th year of founding in April 2000 under the
theme Rice Research for the New Millennium. During this time, the
Institute will reflect on its research accomplishments and focus on
new research thrusts that will ensure global food security in the new
millennium. m
To mark the occasion, the Institute will host the International
iu
w M i ll e n n

Rice Research Conference from 31 March to 3 April; a special Farmer’s

Day on 3 April; and special events on the actual anniversary day of 4
April at which Philippine President Joseph Ejercito-Estrada has been
invited. Other high-ranking government officials, representatives from
other Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
(CGIAR) centers and nongovernment organizations, former IRRI staff, 1960-2000
Ne

alumni, and other guests are expected to attend the anniversary

celebration. ce
Ri

th
e

The IRRI 40th anniversary logo (right) shows stylized leaves and Res r
panicles rising out of a rice bowl, symbolizing four decades of rice earch fo
research that represents increasing quantity and quality of grain output.
IRRI at 40—40 years of achievement and 40 more years of challenges
ahead!

IRRN 24.3 3
MINI REVIEW

Taxonomy of the genus Oryza

(Poaceae): historical perspective
and current status
B.R. Lu, Genetic Resources Center, IRRI

Dr Baorong Lu, germplasm specialist of IRRI’s Genetic Resources

Center (GRC), collects wild rice Oryza rufipogon in Eastern Nepal.

Introduction

T he genus Oryza L. is classified under the tribe Oryzeae, subfamily Oryzoideae, of the grass family Poaceae
(Gramineae). This genus has two cultivated species (O. sativa L. and O. glaberrima Steud.) and more than 20
wild species distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics. The Asian cultivated rice (O. sativa) is an
economically important crop that is the staple food for more than one-half of the world’s population. All the wild
relative species in the genus Oryza, together with weedy rice and different rice varieties, serve as an extremely
valuable genepool that can be used to broaden the genetic background of cultivated rice in breeding programs
(Brar and Khush 1997, Bellon et al 1998). Fuller exploitation of the wild rice genepool will provide many more
opportunities to significantly enhance rice productivity. More effective conservation management and more efficient
use of the valuable genetic diversity in the rice genepool, however, largely rely on the development of an appropriate
taxonomic and biosystematic framework for the genus Oryza.
Species in Oryza have already attracted enormous attention from scientists worldwide because of their
agronomic importance. Many studies on taxonomy, phylogeny, and genetic relationships of the Oryza species
have been conducted (Roschevicz 1931, Sampath 1962, Tateoka 1963, Sharma and Shastry 1965, 1972, Chang
1985, Vaughan 1989, 1994, Morishima et al 1992, Wang et al 1992, Lu et al 1998). Diversity in Oryza is tremendous,

4 December 1999
which is reflected in the different genomes and genomic
combinations in the genus, and in the significant morphological
variation within and between species. On the other hand, the
great morphological variation in this genus also causes certain
taxonomic difficulties, leading to ambiguous delimitation between
Table 1. Species of Oryza as recognized by different taxonomists.The
“+” indicates species recognized by the author(s). The italic epithets
indicate commonly accepted taxa in modern literature; the bold italic
epithets indicate taxa that are no longer included in the genus Oryza.
Nonitalic epithets indicate names that are not valid anymore in the
genus Oryza.

Sharma & Shastry (1972)

some Oryza taxa. In addition, different classification systems or

Ghose et al (1965)
Roschevicz (1931)

Chatterjee (1948)
taxonomic treatments have been proposed by authors who had

Chevalier (1932)
Prodoehl (1922)
Linnaeus (1753)

Sampath (1962)

Vaughan (1989)
Baillion (1894)a

Tateoka (1963)

Chang (1985)
access to herbarium specimens representing only certain
geographic regions. This makes the taxonomy of Oryza species
even more complicated. No single system has been generally
O. alta + + + + + +
accepted by scientists from different parts of the world to date. O. australiensis + + + + + + + + +
O. barthii +d +d +d +d +d + + + +
Historical perspective and species enumeration O. brachyantha + + + + + + + +
O. cubensis +
The genus Oryza was first described by Linnaeus (1753), who O. eichingeri + + + + + + +
recognized only one species, O. sativa, based on the samples of O. glaberrima + + + + + + + + + +
cultivated rice from Ethiopia. During the past two centuries, more O. glumaepatula + +i +
than 100 species were published in Oryza by different authors O. grandiglumis + + + + + + + + +
O. granulata +b +b + + +h +b + +
(for review, see Vaughan 1989), which gives this genus great O. latifolia + + + + + + + + + +
taxonomic complexity. Baillion (1894) was the first who tried to O. longiglumis + + + + +
make a more systematic classification of the genus. He recognized O. longistaminata +e +e +e +e + + + +
O. malampuzhaensis + + + +
five Oryza species and divided them into four sections, i.e., Sect. O. meridionalis + + +
Euoryza (O. sativa), Sect. Padia (O. meyeriana), Sect. O. meyeriana + + + + + +g + + + +
Potamophila (O. parviflora), and Sect. Maltebrunia (O. O. mezii +
O. minuta + + + + + + + + + +
leersioides and O. prehensilis). The latter two sections have been
O. nivara + + + +
treated as independent genera in the current taxonomy of the O. officinalis + + + + + + + + + +
tribe Oryzeae (Vaughan 1989). Roschevicz (1931) made a O. perennis + +
comprehensive review and detailed studies on Oryza species, O. punctata +c +c +c + +f +c + + + +
O. rhizomatis +
which were considered as the greatest contribution to Oryza O. ridleyi + + + + + + + + + +
taxonomic research at that time. He established a classification O. rufipogon + + + + +i +
system with 20 species in four sections, i.e., Sect. Sativa (with 12 O. sativa + + + + + + + + + + + +
O. schlechteri + + + + + + + + + +
species), Sect. Granulata (2 species), Sect. Coarctata (5 species), O. stapfii + + +
and Sect. Rhynchoryza (1 species). This system served as a O. angustifolia + +
foundation for Oryza taxonomic studies thereafter, although O. coarctata + + + + + +
O. perrieri + + + + +
some species have been transferred to other genera of the
O. subulata + + + + +
Oryzeae. Since then, the genus has been extensively reviewed O. tisseranti + + + + +
and revised by many taxonomists. Table 1 summarizes the number a
Only includes species currently recognized in Oryza. bO. abromeitiana was recognized. cO.
of species in the major taxonomic treatments of Oryza since its schweinfurthiana was recognized. dNamed as O. breviligulata by the author. eNamed as O.
establishment by Linnaeus in 1753. The number of species varied barthii by the author. fO. ubanghensis was recognized. gIncluding subsp. granulata and subsp.
abromeitiana. hO. indandamanica was recognized. i Including O. perennis.
from 5 to 27 in different systems established at different times.
The delimitation of the genus Oryza also varied through
time in different systems. The earlier taxonomists, such as Baillion
(1894), Roschevicz (1931), Chevalier (1932), Chatterjee (1948), The subdivisional treatment
Sampath (1962), Tateoka (1963), Sharma and Shastry (1965, The subdivision of Oryza into four sections by Roschevicz (1931)
1972), and Oka (1988), offered a wider generic delimitation. had a fundamental influence on subsequent rice taxonomists,
However, I recognize the same generic delimitation of Chang although the sectional epithets have been modified because of
(1985) and Vaughan (1989), in which the genus Oryza is the legitimacy of botanic nomenclature. Sect. Sativa and Sect.
characterized by having a spikelet containing a single terminal Granulata recognized by Roschevicz (1931) correspond to Sect.
fertile floret (composed of a lemma, palea, six stamens, and a Euoryza and Sect. Padia published by Baillion (1894). According
bifid feathery stigma) and two sterile lemmas (sometimes referred to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN),
to as glumes) connected to the base of the floret through a rachilla. however, the type section should be named Oryza, which should
O. coarctata is now in Porteresia; O. angustifolia, O. perrieri, replace both Sect. Euoryza and Sect. Sativa. Sect. Padia is a valid
and O. tisseranti are in Leersia, and O. sabulata is in epithet because it was legally published by Baillion (1894) earlier
Rhynchoryza.
IRRN 24.3 5
than Sect. Meyeriana named by Roschevicz (1931). Sect.
Coarctatae and Sect. Rhynchoryza should no longer be included
in Oryza, following the present generic delimitation by Chang
(1985) and Vaughan (1989). Table 2 summarizes the subdivisional
treatments of Oryza by different taxonomists at different times.
Among these treatments, the ones by Sharma and Shastry
(1965, 1972) and Vaughan (1989) have been more extensively
accepted in different parts of the world. The subdivisional
treatments by Sharma and Shastry (1965, 1972) seemed to be
influenced by that of Roschevicz (1931), but with a significant
revision in terms of the subdivisional ranks and their species
inclusion. In the systems of Sharma and Shastry (1965, 1972), 26
species were recognized and included in eight (or nine) series of
three sections. Species included in Sect. Oryza and Sect. Padia
by Sharma and Shastry (1965) all conform to the present generic
delimitation of Oryza, but most of the species (including the type
species O. angustifolia) recognized by Sharma and Shastry (1965)
in Sect. Angustifolia have no longer been included in Oryza. Only
O. brachyantha remains in the genus. Therefore, the epithet
Angustifolia should not be valid as a section in Oryza. Considering
that O. brachyantha is morphologically and genetically very
distinct from all other Oryza species, this species should be
treated as a separate section.
Vaughan’s classification of four complexes (1989) was
obviously influenced by that of Tateoka (1962a). Based on an
extensive morphological study of all Oryza species from different
sources, Tateoka (1962a,b, 1963) made a comprehensive revision
of the genus Oryza. He divided the Oryza species into two major
categories, based mainly on morphological variation. The first
group contained morphologically distinct species, such as O.
schlechteri, O. australiensis, O. brachyantha, O. coarctata, O.
angustifolia, O. perrieri, and O. tisseranti, whereas the second
group included species with taxonomic difficulties. He placed all
species belonging to the second group into five complexes, i.e.,
O. latifolia complex (7 species), O. sativa complex (3 species),
O. glaberrima complex (3 species), O. ridleyi complex (2
species), and O. meyeriana complex (2 species). Species between
different complexes had a distinct morphological variation, but
species within complexes had an ambiguous delimitation.
Following this concept, Vaughan (1989) developed a classification
system and recognized 22 species in four complexes (Table 2),
with two species, O. brachyantha and O. schlechteri, outside of
these four complexes. The significant change in this Oryza
classification system is that, based on a thorough study of target
plant materials from all over the world, Vaughan (1989) removed
a few species from Oryza and made the delimitation of this genus
more reasonable. He also provided distribution maps of all Oryza
species and available genomic data for most species, which largely
promoted a better understanding of the species relationships in
the genus. In his later publication titled “The wild relatives of
rice: a genetic resources handbook,” Vaughan (1994) provided
further information for each Oryza species, such as morphological
characterization, distribution, habitat, and species affinities within
the genus. He also included his newly published species, Oryza
rhizomatis Vaughan from Sri Lanka, in this handbook.
A proposed taxonomic treatment
Since the publication of Sharma and Shastry’s taxonomic systems
(1965, 1972), several newly described species, such as O.
meridionalis Ng, O. rhizomatis, and O. neocaledonica Morat,
have been added to Oryza. On the other hand, some species
recognized by Sharma and Shastry (1965, 1972) in their systems,
such as O. cubensis Ekman, O. malampuzhaensis Krish. et
Chand., O. angustifolia Hubb., O. perrieri Camus, and O.
tisseranti A. Chev., have been either considered as invalid epithets
or moved from Oryza to other genera of the Oryzeae. The generic
delimitation of Oryza by Sharma and Shastry (1965, 1972)
therefore needs to be updated to respond to current changes in
the genus. Vaughan’s classification (1989) better reflects the
current circumscription and enumeration of the genus Oryza,
but unfortunately the subdivisional rank “complex” that he
adopted in his system has no legal standing in the International
Code of Botanic Nomenclature (Art. 21.1, Greuter et al 1994). In
addition, this classification system leaves two species outside of

Table 2. Subdivisional treatments of Oryza by different rice taxonomists.

Roschevicz Chevalier Ghose et al Sharma & Shastryb Tateokac Oka Vaughanc
(1931) (1932) (1965) (1965, 1972) (1963) (1988) (1989)
Sect. Sativa Sect. Euoryza Sect. Sativa Sect. Oryza O. latifolia Sect. Oryzae O. sativa
Sect. Granulata Sect. Padia Sect. Officinalis Ser. Latifoliae O. sativa Sect. Schlechterianae O. officinalis
Sect. Coarctataa Sect. Sclerophylluma Sect. Granulata Ser. Sativae O. glaberrima Sect. Granulatae O. ridleyi
Sect. Rhynchoryzaa Sect. Rhynchoryzaa Sect. Padia O. ridleyi Sect. Ridleyanae O. meyeriana
Ser. Schlechterianae O. meyeriana Sect. Angustifoliaea Otherse
Ser. Meyerianae Othersd Sect. Coarctataea
Ser. Ridleyanae
Sect. Angustifoliaa
Ser. Brachanthae
Ser. Perrierianae
a
All or some species in this section are no longer included in Oryza. bThe treatments by Sharma & Shastry in 1965 and 1972 were essentially the same. In the earlier treatment (1965),
Sect. Oryza included the third Ser. Australienses. cThe entity “complex” was used as a subdivisional rank. dFive species were placed outside of any of the complexes. eTwo species were
placed outside of any of the complexes.

6 December 1999
any of the complexes, which makes the classification incomplete.
I therefore propose a taxonomic system of Oryza basically
following the classification into three sections suggested by
Sharma and Shastry (1965), but with certain modifications to
match current changes in the genus. In my proposed system, 24
species are recognized and placed in three sections, i.e., Sect.
Padia (with 3 series and 6 species), Sect. Oryza (3 series and 17
species), and the newly established Sect. Brachyantha (1 series
and 1 species). This classification mirrors appropriately the
enumeration of Oryza species and their relationships, and it also
gains support through many morphological, cytological, and
molecular studies of the genus.
I. Sect. Padia (Zoll. et Mor.) Baill. (Type: O. granulata Nees et
Arn. ex Watt).
1. Ser. Meyerianae Sharma et Shastry. (Type: O.
granulata).
O. granulata
O. meyeriana (Roll. et Mor. ex Steud.) Baill.
O. neocaledonica Morat
2. Ser. Ridleyanae Sharma et Shastry. (Type: O. ridleyi
Hook. f.).
O. longiglumis Jansen
O. ridleyi
3. Ser. Schlechterianae Sharma et Shastry. (Type:
O. schlechteri Pilger).
O. schlechteri
II. Sect. Brachyantha B.R. Lu, sect. nov. (Type: O. brachyantha
Chev. et Roehr.).
Plantae graciles, annuae; culmi tenues, erecti, glabri; folia
linearia; inflorescentia erecta, racemosa; rami principes
inflorescentiae flexui, nervosi; spicula linearia oblongaque, 8.5-9
× 0.8-1.8 mm; lemmata sterilia glabra, subulata, 1-2 × 8.5-9 mm,
aliquando absentia; rachila curvata lunae instar; lemma fertilis
mucronatum, 6-8 mm longum, 0.8-1.5 mm latum; aristae robustae,
scabrae, 6-10 cm longae; antherae 1.8-2.5 mm longae.
Plants gracile, annual; culms slender, erect, glabrous; leaves
linear; inflorescence erect, racemose; main axes of inflorescence
flexuous, ribbed; spikelets oblong-linear, 8.5-9 × 0.8-1.8 mm;
sterile lemmas glabrous, subulate, 1-2 mm long, sometimes
absent; rachilla bent in a comma-shape; fertile lemma mucronate,
6-8 × 0.8-1.5 mm; awns robust, scabrous, 6-10 cm long; anthers
1.8-2.5 mm long.
4. Ser. Brachyanthae Sharma et Shastry. (Type: O.
brachyantha).
O. brachyantha
III. Sect. Oryza. (Type: O. sativa L.).
5. Ser. Latifoliae Sharma et Shastry. (Type: O. latifolia
Desv.).
O. alta Swallen
O. eichingeri A. Peter
IRRN 24.3
O. grandiglumis (Doell) Prod.
O. latifolia
O. minuta J.S. Presl. et C.B. Presl.
O. officinalis Wall. ex Watt
O. punctata Kotechy ex Steud.
O. rhizomatis Vaughan
6. Ser. Australienses Tateoka ex Sharma et Shastry. (Type:
O. australiensis Domin.).
O. australiensis
7. Ser. Sativae Sharma et Shastry. (Type: O. sativa L.).
O. barthii A. Chev.
O. glaberrima Steud.
O. glumaepatula Steud.
O. longistaminata Chev. et Roehr.
O. meridionalis Ng
O. nivara Sharma et Shastry
O. rufipogon Griff.
O. sativa
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4th International Rice Genetics Symposium set for

October 2000

The Fourth International Rice Genetics Symposium (IRGS) will be Scientists interested in attending the symposium should
held at IRRI on 22-27 October 2000. The first IRGS was held in send a registration form indicating their name, academic title, ad-
1985. It led to the birth of the Rice Genetics Cooperative (RGC), dress (phone, fax, email), and tentative presentation title to Dr. G.S.
which aimed to promote international cooperation in rice genetics. Khush at IRRI, MCPO Box 3127, Makati City 1271, Philippines (fax:
The same year, the Rockefeller Foundation organized the Interna- 0063-2-761-2404; email: g.khush@cgiar.org or to Dr. T. Kinoshita,
tional Program on Rice Biotechnology, which has played a major Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Kita 9, Nishi 9, Sapporo
role in advancing the frontiers of rice science, international 060, Japan (fax: 0081-11-706-4934; email:
collaboration, and human resource development in rice. During Takamure@abs.agr.hokudai.ac.jp).
the second IRGS (held in 1990), a unified numbering system for
Important dates
rice chromosomes and linkage groups was established. More than
1 April 2000 - Deadline for abstracts
500 scientists from 31 countries participated in the third IRGS (held
in 1995). Correct orientation of classical and molecular linkage maps 30 June 2000 - Deadline for full papers
was one of the symposium highlights.
The members of the organizing committee are J. Bennett, D.S. Brar,
Major advances in the genetics and molecular biology of
rice have become apparent during the past 15 years. A high-density S.K. Datta, B. Hardy, M.T. Jackson, G.S. Khush, H. Leung, and Z. Li.
molecular genetic map of more than 2,300 DNA markers has been For more information, contact
developed and several genes of economic importance as well as D.S. Brar
quantitative trait loci (QTL) have been tagged with molecular Chair, Organizing Committee
markers. Synteny relationships between genomes of rice and 4th International Rice Genetics Symposium
several other cereals have been established. Molecular marker- International Rice Research Institute
aided selection is being used to move genes from one varietal MCPO Box 3127, Makati City 1271, Philippines
background to another and to pyramid genes. Scientists have Tel.: (63-2) 845-0563 ext. 709
developed BAC and YAC libraries and are using them in the physical Fax: (63-2) 891-1292, 761-2406, 845-0606
mapping of the rice genome. A map-based cloning strategy has E-mail: d.brar@cgiar.org
been used to isolate agronomically important genes. Regeneration IRRI Web site: http://www.cgiar.org/irri
from protoplasts of many indica and japonica varieties has allowed
researchers to introduce novel genes into elite germplasm through
transformation. More recently, biolistic and Agrobacterium-medi-
ated transformation procedures have become available.
International programs on rice genome sequencing and functional
genomics have been established. These developments have opened
new frontiers in rice molecular biology, particularly for
understanding the genetic architecture of traits and their
manipulation, modifying gene expression, genome sequencing,
functional genomics, and gene discovery. Researchers are using
these breakthroughs to develop rice varieties with higher yield
potential and yield stability for feeding 50% more rice consumers
by 2025.
The fourth IRGS will feature plenary sessions, oral presen-
tations, and poster sessions. Participants will discuss the latest de-
velopments in rice systematics and evolution, cytogenetics, classical
genetics, tissue and cell culture, molecular markers, genetic engi-
neering, and genomics. The proceedings will be published.

8 December 1999
Plant breeding

Effect of planting time on outcrossing percentage

in CMS line seed production of rice
C. Lavanya, R.Vijaykumar, and N. Sreerama Reddy, Agricultural Research Station (ARS), Maruteru
534122, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, India E-mail: ravi_lavanya@hotmail.com

Commercial exploitation of hybrid rice
depends on the identification of suitable
heterotic combinations; their stable
cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS), maintainer,
and restorer lines and economically viable
seed production technology; seed
distribution infrastructure; and other
factors. Although several heterotic
combinations with stable CMS lines of IRRI
origin were developed at the ARS, seed
production is yet to be perfected. A higher
outcrossing rate is one of the major factors
contributing to higher seed yield in
hybrid rice. Seed yield depends on several
cultural and environmental factors such as
planting time and weather parameters
from flowering to maturity. This study
identifies suitable seasons for effective
and economically viable hybrid seed
production.
A trial was carried out at monthly
intervals from 1 November 1993 to 1
October 1994 at ARS following standard
seed production practices. IR62829A was
sown on the first of every month followed
by staggered sowing of IR62829B at 2-d
intervals, i.e., on the fifth and seventh of
every month. Twenty-eight-day-old
seedlings were transplanted in each plot
of 40 m2 consisting of 24 rows with a row
ratio of 4A: 2B lines and a spacing of 15 ×
20 cm. During transplanting, seedlings of
B lines sown during different dates (D1 and
D2) were planted alternately. Two rows of
B lines were planted at the end of each set
as border rows. At initial flowering, flag
leaves of CMS lines were clipped from the
top half to one-third to facilitate free
movement of pollen. Supplementary
pollination techniques such as pulling a
long nylon rope (5 mm diam) back and
forth every 30 min or shaking the pollen
parent with a bamboo pole were followed
at peak anthesis for about a week to
increase outcrossing percentage.
Data on yield, yield components,
and daily meteorological information for
10 d from the initial flowering date are
presented for each set of sowing dates (see
table). A simple correlation was estimated
between outcrossing percentage, seed
yield, and weather parameters.
Results revealed that June
flowering (April sowing) was the most
favorable time, followed by August and
September flowering periods. An
increasing trend was observed between
wind velocity and outcrossing percentage
(r = 0.95**) and seed yield (r = 0.97**).
In this study, maximum temperature
(cv 6.7%), minimum temperature (cv
13.3%), and relative humidity (cv 5.2%)
were less variable than wind velocity (cv
56.5%). Both maximum and minimum
temperatures within a range of 28.9/19.6
°C to 36.2/29.4 °C, however, were not
correlated with outcrossing (r = 0.27, 0.56)
and seed yield (r = 0.08, 0.56). Relative

Weather parameters affecting outcrossing percentage in CMS line seed multiplication.

Temperature Relative Wind

Month of Initial Outcrossing Seed yield (%) humidity velocity
sowing flowering (%) (kg ha-1) (%) (m s-1)
Max Min

June 23 Aug 93 22.8 819 31.9 27.5 85.0 2.20

July 17 Sep 93 12.4 408 30.9 26.2 91.7 1.60
Aug 15 Oct 93 9.5 327 32.9 27.3 92.3 0.60
Sep 23 Nov 93 11.9 374 31.4 21.7 88.3 0.90
Oct 24 Dec 93 15.0 492 28.9 19.9 86.1 1.40
Nov 31 Jan 94 11.8 347 30.5 19.6 90.6 0.70
Dec 3 Mar 94 12.3 434 33.2 21.7 89.5 0.80
Jan 24 Mar 94 13.5 459 33.4 22.8 91.9 0.98
Feb 28 Apr 94 15.4 498 36.2 25.8 78.3 1.40
Mar 24 May 94 17.9 514 35.8 27.1 80.0 1.70
Apr 22 June 94 24.6 912 34.9 29.4 86.2 3.14
May 19 July 94 23.3 861 32.2 25.8 87.3 3.08
Mean 15.9 554 32.7 24.6 87.3 1.54
“t” calculated 1.37 0.29

IRRN 24.3 9
humidity was negatively correlated with The outcrossing potential in CMS (mean 1.54 m s -1) prevailing at ARS,
outcrossing (r = –0.47) and seed yield lines, however, was higher in semiarid Maruteru. Seed production of hybrid rice
(r = –0.5). The study indicates that seed zones such as Warangal (43.9%) and Palem may thus be more efficient and economical
production can be taken up in areas of (40.2%) than in a humid zone such as in semiarid zones of the country.
artificial irrigation with tube wells or bore Maruteru (19.4%) in Andhra Pradesh. This
wells during summer months (April and may be due to the relatively higher ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

May) without hindering the normal crop humidity (80-90%) and low wind velocity
season.

Association between simple sequence repeat (SSR)

marker diversity, pedigree record, quantitative trait
variation, and hybrid performance in rice
W. Xu, IRRI and Plant Breeding and Biotechnology Division (PBBD), Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice), Nueva
Ecija; S.S.Virmani, IRRI; J.E. Hernandez, Department of Agronomy, University of the Philippines Los Baños; Z.K. Li, IRRI;
and E.D. Redoña, PBBD, PhilRice, Philippines E-mail: s.s.virmani@cgiar.org

Knowledge of genetic diversity among
prospective parental lines is important for
the success of a hybrid breeding program.
Genetic diversity is usually measured using
pedigree information, plant phenotypic
data, and molecular markers. In this study,
we determined the relationship between
various genetic diversity measures and
hybrid performance in rice.
The materials used in this study
were 37 maintainer and 44 restorer lines
of the WA-CMS (wild abortive-cytoplasmic
male sterile) system, which represented
germplasm of different origins (IRRI,
Philippines, and China) used in our
tropical hybrid rice breeding program. The
pedigrees of these parental lines could be
traced back to ultimate ancestors that had
no known pedigree information based on
published pedigree records (IRRI 1985,
1995) and PhilRice technical notes. Of
these lines, 10 maintainer and 18 restorer
lines were randomly selected to produce
34 F1 hybrids in 1997. The hybrids and their
parents were evaluated at three field
locations in the Philippines from the 1997
dry season to 1998 dry season.
Coefficients of coancestry were
calculated for the parental lines using the
pedigree information. D2 estimates were
derived using data on 11 quantitative
characters: days to flowering, flag leaf
length and width (cm), plant height (cm),
number of productive tillers, panicle
length (cm), 100-grain weight (g), grain
yield per plant (g), grain length and width
(mm), and panicle weight (g). SSR assays
with 37 primer pairs were made at
PhilRice’s Genetic Laboratory. Nei and Li
(1979) coefficients were then derived.
Correlation analysis between various
diversity measures and hybrid
performance or midparent heterosis on six
measured traits (plant height, grain yield,
total plant weight, 100-grain weight, grain
length and width) was performed.
In the analysis of variance across
three locations, significant to highly
significant differences were observed for
all quantitative traits under investigation,
except for flag leaf width. The mean
number of alleles per SSR locus was 4.24
± 1.71, ranging from 2 to 9. There was one
locus where more than 5 alleles were
resolved.
There was no or poor correlation
between different measurements of
diversity and the pedigree records for both
B and R lines (Table 1). These results
suggested that the methods for measuring
genetic diversity are not consistently
associated with each other. This confirms
previous reports in durum wheat (Autrique
et al 1996) and barley (Shut et al 1997).
No correlation was observed
between the diversity measures based on
all SSR markers and F1 performance or
midparent heterosis for all quantitative
traits measured (Table 2), indicating that
molecular diversity in a random set of SSR
markers is not useful in predicting
midparent heterosis. Prediction power
should be improved if selected markers are
linked to quantitative trait loci affecting
heterosis. Genetic diversity measured by
the pedigree-based coefficient of
coancestry was significantly correlated
with the F1 mean performance but not with
midparent heterosis for highly heritable
traits, inluding 100-grain weight, grain
length, and plant height. Therefore,
pedigree information can be useful in
tracing genes of additive action. D 2
estimates based on quantitative trait
differences between parents were
significantly associated with F1 performance
for plant height and midparent heterosis
for total plant weight, plant yield, and 100-
grain weight.

10 December 1999
Table 1. Correlation coefficients among genetic diversity measures in maintainer (B) and References
restorer (R) lines of rice.a Autrique E, Nachi MN, Monneveux P, Tanksley SD,
Quantitative trait SSR Sorrels ME. 1996. Genetic diversity in durum
wheat based on RFLPs, morphological traits
Pedigree record –0.061 (B) 0.092* (B)
and coefficient of parentage. Crop Sci.
0.216**(R) 0.033 (R)
Quantitative trait 0.025 (B)
36:735–742.
0.047 (R) Nei M, Li W. 1979. Mathematical model for
a
*, **indicate significance levels of P ≤ 5% and 1%, respectively. studying genetic variance in terms of
restriction endonucleases. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA 76:5269–5273.
Table 2. Correlation between hybrid performance (F1), midparent heterosis (HMP), and differ- Shut JW, Qi X, Stam P. 1997. Association between
ent diversity measures of parental lines.a relationship measures based on AFLP
markers, pedigree data and morphological
Basis for Plant height Total plant Grain yield 100-grain Grain length Grain width traits in barley. Theor. Appl. Genet.
diversity (cm) weight per plant weight (mm) (mm) 95:1161–1168.
(g) (g) (g)
SSR markers ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

F1 –0.03 –0.02 0.07 –0.04 –0.01 0.09

HMP 0.30 –0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.01
Pedigree record
F1 0.34* 0.19 –0.07 0.43** 0.43** –0.26
HMP 0.30 0.14 0.10 0.01 0.26 0.05
Quantitative traits
F1 0.40* –0.03 –0.18 0.16 0.05 0.32
HMP 0.12 0.38* 0.40* 0.42* 0.23 0.01
a
*, **indicate significance levels of P ≤ 5% and 1%, respectively.

Epistatic QTLs affecting hybrid breakdown in recombinant

inbred populations derived from indica-japonica crosses
Z.K. Li, IRRI and Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 USA; L.J.
Luo, H.W. Mei, D.B. Zhong, C.S.Ying, China National Rice Research Institute (CNRRI), Hangzhou; Q.Y. Shu, D.L. Wang,
Department of Agronomy, Zhejiang Agricultural University, Hangzhou, China; R. Tabien, J.W. Stansel, IRRI; and A.H.
Paterson, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University, USA E-mail: Z.Li@cgiar.org

Inbreeding depression (ID), the depressive
effect on the expression of traits, arises
primarily from increasing homozygosity in
outcrossing species. Heterosis (H), the
biomass, which appeared to shed some
light on the genetic basis of HB in rice.
A set of 254 F10 recombinant inbred
lines (RILs) derived from a cross between
QTLMAPPER v. 1.0 based on a threshold
of LOD >2.5 (Wang et al 1999).
The mean HB of the RILs was –2.7
t ha (–54.6%) and –3.7 t ha-1 (–37.7%),
-1

superiority of F1 performance relative to
parental performance, is associated with
heterozygosity (Allard 1960, Filho 1999). In
quantitative genetic theory, ID and H are
due to nonadditive gene actions and are
considered as two aspects of the same
phenomenon (Mather and Jinks 1982).
Recently, Li et al (1997) suggested that
hybrid breakdown (HB) in rice is part of
ID due largely to additive epistasis. In this
study, we examined HB in a recombinant
inbred (RI) population of rice and mapped
main-effect and epistatic quantitative trait
loci (QTLs) associated with grain yield and
Lemont (japonica) and Teqing (indica) was
used. The parents and RILs were evaluated
for grain yield (GY) and biomass (BY) per
plant in a replicated trial conducted
at CNRRI in 1996. Genotyping was
conducted at Texas A&M University, USA.
A complete linkage map of 182 markers
spanned 1,918.7 cM and covered 12 rice
chromosomes with an average interval of
11.3 cM between markers (Li et al 1999).
The values of HB (RILs – MP) for GY and
BY were used as input data, where MP was
the mid-parent value. A mixed linear model
was used for mapping epistatic QTLs using
ranging from –4.5 t ha-1 (–90.8%) to 2.5 t
ha-1 (50.8%) for GY and from –7.6 t ha-1
(–78.4%) to 4.1 t ha-1 (42.2%) for BY.
The segregation of the RILs for BY
and GY could be largely explained by four
main-effect QTLs and seven pairs of
epistatic loci (see table). Four main-effect
QTLs affecting both GY and BY were
mapped to chromosomes 2, 3, and 9,
which unlikely contributed to HB since the
effects of two alleles at each QTL tend to
cancel each other. On the other hand, all
but one pair of the epistatic QTLs had
significant positive epistatic effects on GY

IRRN 24.3 11
and/or BY. According to Mather and Jinks
(1982), this indicated that most
interactions between alleles from the same
parents generally resulted in increased GY
and/or BY, whereas those between alleles
from different parents resulted in reduced
GY and BY. These results indicated that
disharmonic interactions between the
japonica (Lemont) alleles and the indica
(Teqing) alleles at these epistatic loci were
largely responsible for HB observed in the
RI population.
References Li ZK, Pinson SRM, Paterson AH, Park WD, Stansel
Allard RW. 1960. Inbreeding depression and JW. 1997. Genetics of hybrid sterility and
heterosis. In: Principles of plant breeding. hybrid breakdown in an inter-subspecific
New York: John Wiley & Sons. p 213–223. rice (Oryza sativa L.) population. Genetics
145:1139–1148.
Filho JBM. 1999. Inbreeding depression and
heterosis. In: Coors JG, Pandey S, editors. Mather K, Jinks JL. 1982. Biometrical genetics.
Genetics and exploitation of heterosis in London: Chapman and Hall.
crops. Madison, Wisconsin (USA): American Wang DL, Zhu J, Li ZK, Paterson AH. 1999.
Society of Agronomy and Crop Science Mapping QTLs with epistatic effects and
Society of America. p 69–80. QTL × environment interactions by mixed
Li ZK, Luo LJ, Mei HW, Paterson AH, Zhao XH. model approaches. Theor. Appl. Genet. (in
press)
1999. A “defeated” rice resistance gene acts
as a QTL against a virulent strain of
Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae. Mol. Gen.
Genet. 261:58–63. ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Main-effect QTLs and digenic epistatic loci affecting hybrid breakdown of biomass (BY, in t ha-1) and grain yield (GY, in t ha-1) in the Lemont/
Teqing RILs of rice.

Trait Chromosome Marker interval i Chromosome Marker interval i LOD a ia aj aij

BY 2 C624x–G45 2.65 1.08***

GY 2.26 0.55***
BY 3 C515–RG348 9.81 –1.86***
GY 8.37 –0.84***
BY 3 G249–RG418 5.50 –1.54***
GY 5.87 –0.82***
BY 9 RG451–RZ404 3.53 –1.03***
GY 2.29 –0.43***
BY 5 gl1–Y1049 11 L457b–G2132b 3.80 - - 0.76***
GY 4.66 - - 0.44***
BY 1 R210–RZ382 5 RG556–gl1 2.58 - - 0.42**
GY 3.98 –0.29* - 0.31***
BY 7 G20–RG30 12 G402–RG20q 5.10 –0.73** - 0.65***
GY 2.52 –0.29* - 0.23**
BY 8 CSU754–G104 10 CDO98–RG752 2.86 - –0.56* 0.52***
GY 3.95 - –0.42** 0.28***
BY 2 RG654–RG256 9 CDO82–CDO226b 4.24 - –0.68** 0.51***
GY 2.66 - - 0.23**
BY 1 RZ382–RG532 11 RG1109–RZ537b 2.50 –0.57* - –0.54**
a
ai and aj were the main effects of the epistatic loci associated with the Lemont allele, and aij was the epistatic effect between loci i and j. *, **, *** represent the significance levels of P
<0.05, 0.001, and 0.0001, respectively.

Molecular mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTLs)

associated with whitebacked planthopper in rice
P. Kadirvel, M. Maheswaran, Marker-Aided Selection Laboratory, Center for Plant Breeding and Genetics; and K.
Gunathilagaraj, Department of Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, India

The whitebacked planthopper (WBPH),
Sogatella furcifera (Horvath)
(Homoptera: Delphacidae), has emerged
as a major pest of rice in India and other
Asian countries. Classical genetic analysis
of selected rice accessions resulted in the
identification of five major genes: Wbph 1
(Sidhu et al 1979), Wbph 2 (Angeles et al
1981), Wbph 3 and Wbph 4 (Hernandez
and Khush 1985), and Wbph 5 (Wu and
Khush 1985). These genes have been
incorporated into improved germplasm to
broaden the genetic base for resistance to
WBPH. The need to identify gene loci
conferring durable resistance to insect
pests, however, led to the molecular
marker-based QTL (MBQTL) analysis
involving 96 doubled-haploid lines derived
from IR64/Azucena.

12 December 1999
 Parents and 96 doubled-haploid
lines were evaluated by screening at the
seedling and maturity stage. For seedling
screening, the mass screening method was
adopted. Pregerminated seeds of test lines
were sown 3 cm apart in 20-cm rows in 50
× 50 × 10-cm wooden boxes. Each line was
planted in a replication across the width
of the seedbox with 15 plants per row. One
row each of the susceptible check, TN1,
and the resistant check, PTB33, was sown
at random in all seedboxes. Ten days after
seeding, each seedling was exposed to 5-8
first- to third-instar WBPH nymphs. After
infestation, the wooden seedboxes with
seedlings were covered with wire-mesh
wooden cages. Test plants were observed
daily for WBPH damage. A damage rating
of test plants was made by row when 90%
of the plants in the susceptible check row
were killed.
For mature plants, the pot screening
method was adopted. Pregerminated
seeds of each test line and TN1 were sown
in 16-cm-diam pots. Thirty days after
sowing, seedlings were thinned to 2 pot-1
and covered with cylindrical mylar film
cages (13 × 90 cm). Two treatments using
first-instar nymphs were used for the 35-
d-old plants: 0 and 50 pot-1. Treatments
were replicated twice.
At 32 d after infestation, visual plant
damage ratings were taken on all test lines
and the WBPH progenies were collected
in glass vials with a suction device. Insects
were dried in an oven at 50 °C for 60 h and
weighed. Infested and uninfested test
plants (both shoots and roots) were
removed from the pots and air-dried for 3
h, dried in an oven at 50 °C for 70 h, and
weighed. From the data, tolerance
parameters such as functional plant loss
index (FPLI), tolerance index (TI),
antibiosis index (AI), and plant dry weight
loss per milligram of WBPH dry weight
produced (PDLOSS) were computed.
Phenotypic data gathered for various
parameters were subjected to QTL analysis
using marker data for IR64/Azucena
doubled-haploid populations. The results
of interval mapping indicated the presence
of a major QTL on chromosome 11 for the
IRRN 24.3
Dry weight of uninfested plant (mg) – dry weight of infested plant (mg)
PDLOSS =
Dry weight of WBPH progeny produced on the test line (mg)
phenotypic values of PDLOSS. Data on
PDLOSS were obtained using the formula CDO127
above (Panda and Heinrichs 1983). RZ638
The phenotypic value of this
RZ400
parameter varied greatly between the
parents (221.6 for IR64 and 377.0 for RG118
Azucena). The doubled-haploid lines Adh-1
ranged from 23.3 to 201.3 and had a mean
value of 248.0. TN1 had a value of 98.1. The AG1094
frequency distribution of the phenotypic
RG167
values is given in Figure 1. The skewed Npb44
nature of the distribution indicated the RG247
qualitative nature of the trait. The
heritability estimate was high for this
parameter (72%). The QTL mapped on
RG103
chromosome 11 was flanked by markers
RG103 and RG167 and explained the RG1109
phenotypic variance of 79% with a LOD
score of 7.31 (Fig. 2). No QTL could be RZ536
detected when phenotypic data of other Npb 186
parameters were used. The single-marker
analysis for the markers identified for
PDLOSS also indicated the association of Fig. 2. Marker interval indicating the presence
markers with QTLs. The single-marker of a QTL for PDLOSS.
analysis for the markers in between and
outside the interval of RG103-RG167
indicated no marker-QTL association,
suggesting the possibility of two QTLs for contributed more toward resistance. We
the trait (see table). The analysis of the anticipate identifying newer QTLs when
phenotypic effect of QTLs identified for additional phenotypic screening methods
WBPH resistance indicated that IR64 are used for screening rice varieties for
WBPH resistance.
References
Count Proportion per bar
Angeles ER, Khush GS, Heinrichs EA. 1981. New
40
0.4 genes for resistance to whitebacked
planthopper in rice. Crop Sci. 21:47–50.
30 Hernandez JE, Khush GS. 1985. Genetics of
0.3
resistance to whitebacked planthopper in
20
some rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties. Oryza
0.2 18:44–50.
Panda N, Heinrichs EA. 1983. Levels of tolerance
10 0.1 and antibiosis in rice varieties having
moderate resistance to brown planthopper
(Nilaparvata lugens Stål.)
0 0.0
0 500 1000 1500 Hemiptera:Delphacidae. Environ. Entomol.
PDLOSS 12:1204–1214.
Fig. 1. Frequency distribution among doubled-
haploid lines of IR64/Azucena.
13
Putative QTLs identified for PDLOSS based on single-marker analysis.a Sidhu GS, Khush GS, Medrano FG. 1979. A
dominant gene in rice for resistance to
No. of Mean of PDLOSS whitebacked planthopper and its
individuals with for DHLsb with relationship to other plant characteristics.
Marker F value Euphytica 28:227–232.
IR64 Azucena IR64 Azucena
allele allele allele allele Wu CF, Khush GS. 1985. A new dominant gene for
resistance to whitebacked planthopper in
RG1094 76 16 242.21 287.65 0.540 rice. Crop Sci. 25:505–509.
RG167 78 12 203.06 339.99 5.600c
Npb44 78 12 247.06 269.27 0.101
RG247 78 12 237.59 269.27 0.213 ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

RG103 52 38 209.17 312.37 4.780c

RG1109 76 16 242.21 287.65 0.540
a
The markers present in between RG167 and RG103 do not show linkage. bDHL = doubled-haploid line. cSignificant at
1% level.

Web notes Starting this issue, IRRN will feature useful and
interesting listservers and sites on the World
Wide Web on rice and other related or relevant
topics.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations operates a list server that sends reports on the
current food situation in several different countries
around the world. These reports are not restricted to
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the reports are issued in response to crisis situations.
The files are sent in zipped form because they are
somewhat large, so you must have the capacity to
unzip files. To subscribe to these free reports, type the
following command in the body of the e-mail message:
subscribe GIEWSAlerts-L
and send it to this address:
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includes abstracts of scientific papers, excerpts from
newspaper and magazine articles, and press releases
from governments, scientific societies, and
nongovernment organizations. It provides balanced
coverage of both sides of the intensive biotechnology
debate. There is news coverage from around the world,
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Subscription to the AgNet listserver is free.
Subscribers receive 1-2 e-mails per day, each containing
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States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prepares message type:
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reports (a separate one for each commodity) focus e.g., subscribe agnet-L Joe Oryza
primarily on production prospects in the United States,
but the reports also contain substantial information on The International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) in
production and prices in world markets. The reports are Paris maintains a site found at
issued with a frequency of slightly less than once a http://www.fertilizer.org
month. To subscribe to these free reports, type any This site contains the most comprehensive
number (one, two, or three) of the following commands information on fertilizers and their use in agriculture.
in the body of the e-mail message: Users will find the following:
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with regard to both scientific breakthroughs and - Information on fertilizer trade
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- Events such as meetings

14 December 1999
Pest science and management

Effect of organic manures on some predators

in the rice ecosystem
J.C. Ragini, D. Thangaraju, and P.M.M. David, Department of Agricultural Entomology, Agricultural
College and Research Institute, Killikulam,Vallanad 628252, Tamil Nadu, India

We studied the effect of organic manures
on some predators in field trials at the
Agricultural College and Research Institute,
Killikulam, in southern Tamil Nadu under
lowland irrigated conditions. ASD16, a
popular rice variety, was planted at 10- ×
8-cm spacing. Plot size was 10 × 2 m2. Trials
were laid out in a randomized block design
with five treatments: T1—farmyard manure
(FYM), T2—FYM + neem cake, T3—FYM
+ Azolla, T4—FYM + neem cake + Azolla,
and FYM + NPK as the control. In all
treatments, FYM at 12.5 t ha-1 was applied
basally. Neem cake was applied at 1.5 t ha-1.
Azolla was applied 20 d after transplanting
and allowed to multiply for about 15-20 d.
Visual counts m-2 were made on some
common predators such as ground beetle
(Ophionea sp.), rove beetle (Paederus disperse may fall prey to any of these active
sp.), coccinellid beetle, and spiders (per predators. Azolla cover may hamper the
m2 area) at early tillering, active tillering, exit of migrating larvae that make a window
and maximum tillering stages. on the internodes, mostly at the base.
Results showed that the predator The possible effect on the stem borer
population was higher in plots with Azolla, population, however, requires further
with or without neem cake (see table). The study.
mean predator population of Ophionea
indica, Paederus fuscipes, coccinellid References
beetles, and Lycosa sp. was significantly Raguraman S, Rajasekaran B. 1996. Effect of neem
higher in Azolla-applied plots. The Azolla products on insect pests of rice and the
predatory spider. Madras Agric. J.
mat on the water may have provided a
83(8):510–515.
favorable niche for colonization of beetles Reissig WH, Heinrichs EA, Litsinger JA, Moody K,
and spiders. The higher number of Fielder L, Mew TW, Barrion AT. 1986.
predators may have helped control rice Illustrated guide to integrated pest
pests, including stem borer larvae (Reissig management in rice in tropical Asia. Manila
et al 1986, Raguraman and Rajasekaran (Philippines): International Rice Research
Institute. 411 p.
1996). Early instar stem borer larvae that
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Effect of organic manures on some predators in the rice ecosystem.a

Mean (± SE) no. of insects m-2
Treatment
Ophionea indica Paederus fuscipes Coccinellid beetles Lycosa sp. Tetragnatha sp.

T1—FYM at 12.5 t ha-1 600.0 ± 0.1 1.7 ± 0.1 6.0 ± 1.0 5.0 ± 0.5 0.7 ± 0.1
(2.55) bc (1.47) c (2.55) b (2.34) b (1.08) a

T2—FYM at 12.5 t ha-1 + 400.0 ± 0.4 1.3 ± 0.3 6.3 ± 0.8 5.7 ± 0.2 0.7 ± 0.3
neem cake (NC) at (2.12) c (1.35) c (2.61) b (2.48) b (1.08) a
1.5 t ha-1

T3—FYM at 12.5 t ha-1 + 16.7 ± 0.4 5.3 ± 0.3 14.7 ± 0.3 8.0 ± 0.4 1.7 ± 0.1
Azolla at 5 t ha-1 (2.12) a (2.42) ab (3.89) a (2.92) a (1.47) a

T4—FYM at 12.5 t ha-1 + 15.7 ± 0.7 6.7 ± 0.8 12.3 ± 0.3 8.3 ± 0.9 1.7 ± 0.1
NC at 1.5 t ha-1 + (4.02) a (2.68) a (3.58) a (2.97) a (1.47) a
Azolla at 5 t ha-1

Control—FYM at 12.5 t ha-1+ 10.0 ± 0.4 3.7 ± 0.4 8.0 ± 0.4 7.0 ± 0.3 2.3 ± 0.2
NPK at 150:50:50 kg ha-1 (3.24) b (2.06) b (2.92) b (2.74) a (1.68) a

Mean 10.4 ± 0.4 3.7 ± 0.3 9.5 ± 0.3 6.8 ± 0.03 1.4 ± 0.3
(3.31) (2.06) (3.16) (2.70) (1.38)

a
Mean of three replications, numbers in parentheses are square roots of (x + 0.5) – transformed values. In a column, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different
at the 5% level by Duncan’s multiple range test.

IRRN 24.3 15
Effect of culture nutrients on the production
of Rhizoctonia solani toxins
J. Danson, K. Wasano, and A. Nose, Faculty of Agriculture, Saga University, Honjo-1, Saga 840-8502, Japan
E-mail: ug7328@edu.cc.saga-u.ac.jp

Sheath blight disease caused by
Rhizoctonia solani Kühn, an economically
important disease of rice, produces
phenylacetic acid (PAA) and its hydroxy
derivatives ortho (o-OH-PAA), meta (m-
OH-PAA), and para (p-OH-PAA) hydroxy
phenylacetic acid toxins in culture filtrates.
Extracts from rice infected by R. solani are
reported to contain PAA and m-OH-PAA
that may be involved in lesion symptom
development (Vidhyasekaran et al 1997).
This study reports on the effect of medium
nutrient composition on the production
of PAA derivative toxins in culture filtrates
of R. solani isolated from infected rice
plants.
Rhizoctonia solani isolate Rck-1-
2, a member of anastomosis group AG 1,
was obtained from a naturally infected rice
variety, Koshihikari, grown at the Kyushu
Agricultural Experiment Station, Chikugo,
Japan (Wasano and Hirota 1986). The
isolate was maintained on potato sucrose
agar and sclerotia were used to inoculate
50 mL of different culture media. The
following culture media were tested:
detected by high-performance liquid
chromatography using a Sim-pack CLC-
ODC (60 × 150 mm) at 250 nm and
identified by coinjection with authentic
standards. Data are means of three samples
for each treatment.
Weinhold medium, Modified
Fries medium, and potato dextrose
supplemented with asparagine and
phenylalanine all produced the three
derivatives of PAA, o-OH-PAA, m-OH-PAA,
and p-OH-PAA (see table). Potato sucrose
supplemented with both phenylalanine
and asparagine, however, produced m-
OH-PAA only, whereas potato sucrose and
potato dextrose supplemented with
asparagine produced p-OH-PAA. Weinhold
et al (1969) demonstrated that asparagine
in pathogen nutrition increased the
virulence of R. solani. The final pH of the
culture media after 15 d became more
alkaline because of fungus growth. Toxic
metabolites from R. solani that inhibit seed
germination and seedling growth have
been isolated from various plants, but their
role in rice sheath blight disease
development has not been established
(Vidhyasekaran et al 1997). Determining
suitable culture media for toxin production
by the rice sheath blight pathogen will
facilitate studies on the specific role of
toxins in disease development and disease
resistance mechanisms against the
pathogen.
References
Pringle RB, Scheffer RP. 1963. Purification of
selective toxin of Periconia circinata.
Phytopathology 53:785–787.
Vidhyasekaran P, Ruby Ponmalar T, Samiyappan R,
Velazhahan R, Vimala R, Ramanthan A,
Paranidharan V, Muthukrishnan S. 1997.
Host-specific toxin production by
Rhizoctonia solani, the rice sheath blight
pathogen. Phytopathology 87:1258–1263.
Wasano K, Hirota Y. 1986. Varietal resistance of
rice to sheath blight disease caused by
Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn, by the syringe
inoculation method. Bull. Fac. Agric. Saga
Univ. 60:49–59.
Weinhold AR, Bowman Tully, Dodman RL. 1969.
Virulence of Rhizoctonia solani as affected
by nutrition of the pathogen.
Phytopathology 59:1601–1605.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

potato sucrose broth (200 g potato, 20 g

sucrose) without or supplemented with
phenylalanine and/or asparagine, potato
Production of toxins by the rice sheath blight pathogen in different culture media.
dextrose broth (200 g potato, 20 g
dextrose) without or supplemented with Mycelia Crude
Culture Initial Final dry weight toxin Retention time of toxins b,c (min)
phenylalanine and/or asparagine, mediuma
pH pH (mg) (mg) o-OH-PAA m-OH-PAA p-OH-PAA
Weinhold medium (Weinhold et al 1969)
supplemented with phenylalanine and Weinhold medium
+P+A 5.3 8.2 658 ± 6 99 ± 18 9.9 ± 0.19 7.9 + 0.13 6.8 ± 0.13
asparagine, and Modified Fries No. 3 basal Modified Fries
medium (Pringle and Scheffer 1963) medium + P + A 5.3 8.2 649 ± 17 86 ± 4 9.8 ± 0.02 7.8 ± 0.15 6.7 ± 0.22
supplemented with phenylalanine and Potato dextrose (PD) 5.8 7.5 549 ± 13 62 ± 3 nd nd 6.6 ± 0.14
PD + A 5.7 8.3 722 ± 40 80 ± 8 nd nd 7.0 ± 0.14
asparagine. PD + A + P 5.2 8.3 883 ± 59 57 ± 11 9.8 ± 0.01 7.9 ± 0.16 6.8 ± 0.04
Pathogenicity and virulence were Potato sucrose (PS) 5.9 7.6 508 ± 18 72 ± 6 nd nd 6.6 ± 0.01
determined before media inoculation. The PS + A 5.9 8.2 770 ± 28 76 ± 7 nd nd 7.0 ± 0.09
50 ± 1 7.9 ± 0.28
fungus was grown in still culture at 25 °C PS + A + P
Standard toxins
5.2 8.2 741 + 33 nd
9.71 ± 0.10
nd
7.85 ± 0.10 6.86 ±0.20
and harvested after 15 d. The mycelia a
P = phenylalaline, A = asparagine. bMean of three samples. cnd = not detected.
weight was determined after drying at
80 °C for 48 h. All compounds were

16 December 1999
Susceptibility of some cereal crops to cyst nematode
Heterodera sacchari in West Africa
D.L. Coyne, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, and R.A. Plowright, CABI Bioscience,
Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK E-mail: dannycoyne@compuserve.com

The sugarcane cyst nematode, Heterodera
sacchari, is a parasite of rice throughout
West Africa (e.g., Babatola 1984, Coyne
1999). In Nigeria, it is considered
potentially important on rice (Babatola
1984). Babatola (1983) demonstrated its
high pathogenicity on susceptible upland
rice in pots. Cropping systems in West
Africa are diverse, reflecting the low-input
management systems of subsistence
farmers, who produce the majority of rice.
Maize, sorghum, and millet are commonly
intercropped, relay-cropped, or cultivated
in rotation with rice. The host status of
these crops for H. sacchari is unknown.
Two seeds of local varieties of
maize, millet, and sorghum and of a
susceptible rice check (IDSA6) were sown
in steam-sterilized sandy soil (9% clay, 15%
silt, 75% sand) in 8-L plastic pots. Seedlings
were thinned to 1 pot-1 at emergence. The
experiment was arranged on benches in
the screenhouse in a completely
randomized design with five replications.
Treatments comprised uninoculated
controls and 200 cysts pot-1 (25 cysts L-1
soil). Cysts were derived from mature
IDSA6 plant roots following several
generations in pots in a screenhouse.
Inoculum was mixed into the upper 5 L of
soil by hand prior to sowing.
At harvest, plant height, grain
weight, cyst density in soil, and mean
number of eggs per cyst were determined.
Leaf dry weight was measured after oven-
drying and root fresh weight was recorded
after rinsing each root system and dabbing
it dry. All data were analyzed using ANOVA.
Each crop in the study was
susceptible to H. sacchari (see table). Cyst
number pot -1 increased in all crops,
although significantly larger populations
developed on rice. The fecundity of cysts
on sorghum and maize was lower than on
either rice or millet.
Cereal crops commonly cultivated
in cropping systems with rice in West Africa
were poor hosts of H. sacchari. The
multiplication factor (Pf:Pi, final cyst
population:initial cyst population)
indicated that total egg populations
declined on each cereal host. Although the
decline was greatest on sorghum, the
reduced root weight in inoculated pots
shows that sorghum was not resistant to
H. sacchari. Each crop supported some
cyst production, suggesting that each
would maintain H. sacchari in the soil.
The occurrence of cysts with eggs
on these crops may indicate variability in
virulence within the inoculum. Hence,
selection for ability to multiply on poor
hosts may occur in later generations.
Intercropping, relay, or rotation cropping
of maize, sorghum, or millet with rice is
likely to reduce this selection pressure. It
is also likely that such cropping practices
would not lead to higher H. sacchari
population densities on rice. Multiple
cropping, if carefully managed, would
more likely provide some level of control
of H. sacchari in rice. Such a practice can
suppress the development of nematode
populations that are more capable of
reproducing on a susceptible crop or
cultivar (Wallace et al 1995). Practices that
are implemented to manage one
nematode should not, however,
encourage the development of other
potential pest nematodes. For instance,
intercropped maize may facilitate the
buildup of Pratylenchus zeae around rice
roots (Coyne et al 1998).
References
Babatola JO. 1983. Pathogenicity of Heterodera
sacchari on rice. Nematol. Mediterr. 11:21–25.
Babatola JO. 1984. Rice nematode problems in
Nigeria: their occurrence, distribution and
pathogenesis. Trop. Pest Manage. 30(3):256–265.
Coyne DL. 1999. Epidemiology and crop loss
assessment of rice nematodes in West Africa.
PhD thesis, University of Reading, UK. 213 p.
Coyne DL, Ndongidila A, Oyediran I, Heinrichs EA,
Plowright RA. 1998. Pratylenchus zeae in
upland rice as influenced by the ratio of
intercropped maize. Int. Rice Res. Notes
23(3):27–28.
Wallace MK, Orf H, Steinstra WC. 1995. Field
population dynamics of soybean cyst
nematode on resistant and susceptible
soybeans and their blends. Crop Sci. 35:703–707.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Susceptibility of maize, millet, sorghum, and rice in sandy soil to Heterodera sacchari.a
Pi Height RFW LDW Grain Pf Pf Pf:Pi Pf:Pi
Crop (cysts L-1 (mm) (g) (g) weight (cysts L-1 (eggs cysts eggsb
soil) (g) soil) cyst-1)
Maize 0 1,584 19.8 18.3 – – –
25 1,512 17.2 16.9 – 80.0 13.8 3.2 0.28
Sorghum 0 2,103 14.8 14.9 1.9 – -
25 1,941 8.8** 14.0 1.6 45.6 6.5 1.8 1.07
Millet 0 1,828 13.4 32.3 4.3 – -
25 1,597 7.5 23.1* 4.0 31.2 90.0 1.2 0.71
Rice 0 948 14.0 9.3 3.5 – -
(IDSA6) 25 712* 5.2*** 4.3** 1.6* 760.0 157.0 30.4 30.40
LSD (P = 0.05) – – – – 185.2 57.7 –

a
RFW = root fresh weight, LDW = leaf dry weight, Pf = final cyst population density, Pi = initial cyst population density. bAssuming that egg content of cysts at inoculation was the
same as at harvest (i.e., 157 eggs cyst-1). *, **, *** = means significantly different from that of uninoculated control at P = 0.05, P = 0.01, and P = 0.001, respectively.

IRRN 24.3 17
Predation rates of Atypena formosana on brown planthopper
and green leafhopper
L. Sigsgaard and S.Villareal, IRRI Email: lsigsgaard@cgiar.org
Atypena formosana (Oi 1997) (Araneae:
Linyphiidae) and Pardosa pseudoannulata
(Boesenberg and Strand) (Araneae:
Lycosidae) are the most common spiders
in irrigated rice fields in the Philippines.
A. formosana is already in the rice field
shortly after crop establishment (Sigsgaard
et al 1999). It may be a significant preda-
tor of small-bodied pests such as hopper
nymphs, being a possibly important part
of the natural enemy complex that checks
hoppers in unsprayed irrigated rice. This
study focused on the predation of A.
formosana on the brown planthopper
(BPH) Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) (Hemiptera:
Delphacidae) and the green leafhopper
(GLH) Nephotettix virescens (Distant)
(Hemiptera: Cicadellidae).
Functional response is defined as
the number of preys eaten per predator at
different prey densities. A functional re-
sponse has two essential components: the
instantaneous attack rate a and the han-
dling time Th. The functional response of
A. formosana adult females exposed to
hopper nymphs was assessed in the insec-
tary (60–80% relative humidity, 24–29 °C,
12 h light:12 h dark). The spiders were
captured from rice fields and starved for
3 d. Twenty-four hours before the experi-
ments, hoppers were introduced into 30–
40-d-old potted TN1 plants. Plants were
pruned to four tillers. The mylar cages
were 13 cm in diameter and 50 cm tall and
each enclosed one hill. Functional re-
sponse was evaluated at densities of 2, 4,
8, 16, 32, 64, 128, and 256 hoppers per
cage. The experiments lasted for 24 h. The
functional response of A. formosana was
fitted to Hollings type I, II, and III func-
tional response equations.
Supplementary studies included (a)
determination of dry weight of BPH and
GLH taken from 20 samples of 20 individu-
als each; (b) recording of the encounter
and success rates in 1-h observations of six
individual A. formosana females in the
18
same experimental setup as above, but
with 50 BPH and 50 GLH in each cage; and
(c) assessment of preference in a 24-h ex-
periment in the same experimental setup
as above, but with 40 preys in varying pro-
portions of GLH and BPH. Prey preference
a was analyzed following the method of
Chesson (1983), which allows for prefer-
ence analysis in experiments with food
depletion (i.e., where the number of prey
available is not assumed to be constant
during the experiment).
A. formosana attacked many of the
nymphs within 24 h, with more second
instars than third instars being eaten. The
best fit was obtained with a Hollings type
II equation using the random predator
model and n-weighted means (Rogers
1972) (see figure). The attack rate was
highest for the second instars, the handling
time was lowest for the GLH nymphs, while
the handling times for the second- and
third-instar BPH did not differ significantly.
Of the second instars, the handling time
for GLH was the shortest (mean ± SE; sec-
ond-instar BPH: a = 0.308 ± 0.045, Th =
0.018 ± 0.002, R2 = 0.98; second-instar
GLH: a = 0.280 ± 0.017, Th = 0.003 ±
0.001, R2 = 1.00; third-instar BPH, a = 0.090
± 0.014, Th = 0.012 ± 0.008, R2 = 0.99).
The dry weights of the second-in-
star GLH and BPH were not significantly
different; thus, the shorter handling time
Number of hoppers eaten in 24 h
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 management for effective biological control.
0 50 100 150 200 250
Initial number of hoppers
Functional response of A. formosana (mean ±
SE) to second-instar BPH ( ), third-instar BPH
( ), and second instar GLH (∆)
for GLH may be attributed to differences
in prey preference. In cages with equal
numbers of GLH and BPH, 73% (confi-
dence interval 62–84%, n = 75) of A.
formosana’s encounters with prey were
with BPH. However, an equal number of
the two prey species were eaten (5 each).
An equal number of encounters were ob-
served at a prey ratio of 1:4 (BPH:GLH). At
this prey ratio, A. formosana preferred
GLH (a= 0.794, SE = 0.123, t = 3.75,
P<0.01). At less extreme proportions, no
significant preference was observed.
Brown planthoppers aggregate on the
lower stem. Thus, once a predator enters
the lower part of the stem, its chances of
encountering BPH will be higher. In the
field, A. formosana webs are most often
found in the lower portion of the rice plant.
These observations support the higher at-
tack rate found on BPH. Heong and Rubia
(1989) also found a higher attack rate on
adult BPH than on adult GLH when they
assessed the functional response of adult
female P. pseudoannulata, which also
primarily searches the lower parts of the
stems.
References
Chesson J. 1983. The estimation and analysis of
preference and its relationship to foraging
models. Ecology 64(5):1297–1304.
Heong KL, Rubia EG. 1989. Functional response of
Lycosa pseudoannulata on brown
planthoppers (BPH) and green leafhoppers
(GLH). Int. Rice Res. Notes 14(6):29–30.
Rogers D. 1972. Random search and insect
population models. J. Anim. Ecol. 41:369–383.
Sigsgaard L, Villareal S, Gapud V, Rajotte E. 1999.
Directional movement of predators between
the irrigated rice field and its surroundings. In:
Hong LW, Sastroutomo SS, Caunter IG, Ali J,
Yeang LK, Vijaysegaran S, Sen YH, editors.
Biological control in the tropics, towards
efficient biodiversity and bioresource
Proceedings of the Symposium on Biological
Control in the Tropics. Malaysia: CAB
International. p 43–47.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
December 1999
A procedure for determining the mating status
of the yellow stem borer
A.M. Dirie, M.B. Cohen, IRRI; and J.S. Bentur, Department of Entomology, Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad 500030, Andhra Pradesh, India E-mail: a.m.dirie@cgiar.org

Determining the mating status of a female
insect (i.e., whether the insect has mated
and, if so, how many times) is important
for various studies of insect ecology and
pest management. We are studying
strategies to delay the evolution of yellow
stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae),
adaptation to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
toxins in transgenic rice (Cohen et al 1997).
One of our activities is to examine the
timing of mating in relation to adult
dispersal to determine whether Bt-
resistant insects will mate at random with
susceptible insects emerging from non-Bt
A and mated females. The spermatophore
“refuge” fields (Gould 1998). The mating
status of a female Lepidopteran is generally
determined by examining the bursa
copulatrix (a storage sac for sperm) for the
presence of a spermatophore (a packet of
sperm transferred by the male during
mating). Kapur (1964) and Chakravorty
(1986) provided a partial description of the
reproductive organs of S. incertulas but
did not describe the appearance of the
spermatophore. This note provides a full
description of the spermatophore and the
female reproductive organs to assist
researchers in determining the mating
status of female S. incertulas.
C
Female adult S. incertulas were
collected from a greenhouse-reared colony
and from light traps located in the field and
were dissected in the laboratory under a
dissecting microscope. To obtain virgin
females, female pupae were collected from
the colony and kept separate from males.
Figure 1 shows the arrangement of the
female reproductive organs. We deduced
the female mating status from the shape
of the bursa copulatrix and the presence
or absence of a spermatophore within the
bursa. The posterior one-third of the
abdomen was removed using dissecting
scissors and placed in a petri dish
containing 70% alcohol. The bursa
copulatrix was teased out from the
abdomen by pulling the ovipositor out
with fine-pointed forceps and holding the
rest of the abdomen steady with a needle.
The bursa copulatrix of a virgin
female is translucent, collapsed, and cup-
shaped (Fig. 2). The bursa of a mated
female is glossy, distended, and bulb-
shaped with a milky content (Fig. 2). The
bursa of a mated female that has laid eggs
(Fig. 2) again becomes collapsed and is
more sclerotized than the bursa of virgin
can be seen if the bursa is teased open
(Fig. 2). Opening the bursa to look for a
spermatophore can provide confirmation
of the mating status of a female if this
cannot be confidently determined from
the shape of the bursa.

B
F D

Fig. 1. Reproductive structures of female

G Scirpophaga incertulas: (A) ovary, (B) common
oviduct, (C) accessory gland, (D) accessory
gland reservoir, (E) ostium oviductus
E (ovipositor), (F) spermathecal gland, (G)
I spermatheca, (H) bursa copulatrix, (I) ostium
H bursae (vulva).

IRRN 24.3 19
 References
Chakravorty S. 1986. Effects of juvenoids on
morphogenesis of female reproductive system
in the pupae of Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Acta Entomol.
Bohemoslov. 83(6):401–410.
Cohen MB, Bentur JS, Aguda RM, Romena AM, Dirie
AM, Alinia F, Schoenly KG, Gould F. 1997. Bt
rice: sustainable use and integration into rice
pest management systems. General Meeting of
the International Program on Rice
Biotechnology, 15-19 September 1997,
Malacca, Malaysia.
Gould F. 1998. Sustainability of transgenic
insecticidal cultivars: integrating pest genetics
and ecology. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 43:701–726.
Kapur AP. 1964. Taxonomy of rice stem borers. In:
The major insect pests of the rice plant.
Proceedings of a symposium at the
International Rice Research Institute.
Fig. 2. The bursa copulatrix and spermatophore of S. incertulas: (A) bursa copulatrix of virgin Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins
female, (B) bursa copulatrix of mated female, (C) bursa copulatrix of mated female that had
Press. p 3–43.
laid eggs, (D) spermatophore after removal from bursa copulatrix. ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

A genomic library of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae in the

broad host range mobilizing Escherichia coli strain S17-1
L. Rajagopal, S. Dharmapuri, A.T. Sayeepriyadarshini, and R.V. Sonti, Center for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad
500007, India E-mail: sonti@ccmb.ap.nic.in

We used molecular genetic techniques to
identify virulence functions of
Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo).
These studies are being conducted on an
Xoo strain (BXO1) that belongs to a
pathotype (Ib) that is widely distributed
in India. Functional complementation of
virulence-deficient Xoo mutants by
mobilizing a genomic library of BXO1
(Rajagopal et al 1996) requires the transfer
of many individual clones into each mutant
strain.
Gene transfer into the BXO1 strain
by triparental matings, wherein a plasmid
(pRK600) in the helper E. coli strain
provides the mobilization functions
required in trans, was extremely low (1 cfu
10-9 recipient cells) and often resulted in a
lack of transconjugants. This suggested the
presence of a restriction barrier in the
BXO1 strain. Two restriction-modification
(r-m) systems have been reported from
Philippine strains of Xoo–XorI and XorII
(Choi and Leach 1994). The isochizomers
of these enzymes are PstI and PvuI,
respectively. Genomic DNA isolated from
the BXO1 strain was digested to
completion by these enzymes, indicating
the absence of XorI and XorII r-m systems
in BXO1.
We assumed that if there indeed
existed an r-m system in BXO1, then gene
transfer frequencies would be far higher
when plasmid DNA was introduced from
BXO1 into BXO1 compared with transfer
frequencies between E. coli and BXO1.
Therefore, two random clones from the
BXO1 genomic library (pLR17 and pLR18),
each with an approximate insert size of 35
Table 1. Frequency of gene transfer into BXO1.
Donor
E. coli/pLR17
BXO1/pLR17
E. coli/pLR18
BXO1/pLR18
kb, were individually mobilized into Xoo.
Plasmid DNA was isolated separately from
the E. coli DH5a and Xoo strains harboring
the pLR17 and pLR18 plasmids.
Approximately equal amounts of plasmid
DNA were electroporated into competent
cells of BXO1. The frequency of
electroporation was reduced by at least a
thousandfold when plasmid DNA was
electroporated from E. coli to BXO1
(Table 1). The pLR17 DNA isolated from
E. coli was also transformed into E. coli
DH5a competent cells to confirm that
there were no deficiencies in
transformation from E. coli to E. coli or
Frequency of transformants in BXO1 (no. of kanr
colonies µg-1 of plasmid DNA)
2.00 × 102
4.25 × 105
<1
3.12 × 105

20 December 1999
other artifacts. These results suggest a rate-
limiting process during transformation
from E. coli to Xoo, which might be due
to the existence of a previously
unidentified r-m system in BXO1.
To overcome this restriction
barrier, we transferred the genomic library
from E. coli DH5a to E. coli S17-1. The
latter strain can serve as a donor in
biparental matings with Xoo as the trans-
acting mobilization functions are
12 clones each of this library were made References
and can be collectively mobilized into Choi SH, Leach JE. 1994. Genetic manipulation of
X. oryzae pv. oryzae. Int. Rice Res. Notes
mutants of Xoo to identify genes by 19:31–32.
functional complementation. Rajagopal L, Yashitola J, Dharmapuri S,
This strategy has been used Karunakaran M, Rajeshwari R, Reddy APK,
successfully in our laboratory to isolate Sonti RV. 1996. Molecular genetic studies of
the bacterial leaf blight pathogen of rice in
clones that complement several India. In: Khush GS, editor. Rice genetics III.
interesting Xoo mutants (Table 2). We Manila (Philippines): International Rice
suggest that this approach be used to Research Institute. p 939–944.
isolate genomic clones that complement
other mutants of Xoo. ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

integrated into its chromosome. Gene

transfer from S17-1 in BXO1 was
reasonably efficient (1 cfu 10-7 recipient Table 2. Frequency of isolation of clones from X. oryzae pv. oryzae cosmic genomic library.

cells). Therefore, approximately 1,000
clones of the BXO1 genomic library
(average insert size of 30 kb) were
individually mobilized by triparental
matings from DH5a into S17-1.
Transconjugants carrying each of the
clones were individually stored at –70 °C
in 96-well microtiter plates. Also, pools of
Nature of X. oryzae pv. oryzae Frequency of occurrence in X. oryzae pv.
genes on cloned DNA oryzae cosmic genomic library (no. of clones
identified/no. of clones screened)
Genes for a Type II protein secretion systema 1/312
Shikimate dehydrogenase geneb 1/660
A gene clusterc encoding putative 1/600
glycosyl transferase and epimerase genes
a
Required for virulence on rice. bRequired for pigment production and aromatic amino acid biosynthesis. cRequired for
extracellular polysaccharide production and virulence.

Information support system for rice

crop management
TropRice is an information support system of best-bet practices designed to provide practical field-level guides for rice
crop management in the tropics. It aims to help users make informed decisions related to rice production.
It is not a single system for the world. It contains some generic information, but some are site- or region-specific.
TropRice is intended to be a template that could be modified for different environments. As improved systems on
component technologies become available, they will replace or be linked to the system. The present system is aimed
at irrigated rice in a Los Baños, Philippines-type of environment.
TropRice is an ongoing project developed by IRRI scientists and specialists who have contributed to the technical
content. It is intended for intermediary technology transfer agents as a response to the recognition that many farmers
do not have access to information on how to grow rice. Current information technology offers new ways of packaging
and presenting information. The system is being evaluated among three separate groups: nongovernment organizations,
farmers, and the private and public sector.
TropRice will be available in CD soon. Watch out for our announcement.

Web site: http://www.cgiar.org/irri/TropRice

Source: Training Center, IRRI

IRRN 24.3 21
Soil, nutrient, and water management

Dual cropping of Azolla substitutes for second

topdressing of N in rice
R. Thamizh Vendan, G. Gopalaswamy, and S. Antoni Raj, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Aduthurai 612101,
Tamil Nadu, India

The integrated use of bioorganic and
inorganic sources of N is essential in
achieving higher N use efficiency, increased
yield, and sustained soil fertility. Biological
N 2 fixation (BNF) through the Azolla-
Anabaena complex is considered to be a
potentially useful system because it
contributes 40–60 kg N ha-1 in addition to
increasing rice yield at a comparatively low
cost. Whenever bioinoculants are used,
fertilizer N should be reduced by 25%. So
far, no specific study has been conducted
to determine the suitable time for input
reduction. This study was conducted to
learn whether N can be reduced uniformly
during all application times or if one
topdressing can be skipped.
Field experiments were conducted
during the 1995 and 1996 kuruvai (June-
September) and thaladi (October-March)
seasons. The control treatment consisted of
incorporated at 30 DAT. A layer of Azolla
covering a hectare of rice field supplies
about 25–30 kg N ha -1 . Trials were
conducted in a randomized block design
with three replications. Soil samples were
taken at 0, 35, and 65 DAT for available N
estimation and grain yield was recorded at
harvest.
Results clearly revealed that dual
cropping of A. microphylla with rice
enhanced soil available N status and grain
yield. Available N content increased in the
soil because of the incorporation of A.
microphylla (Table 1). N increase was
evident in the treatment where the second
topdressing was skipped. Azolla is usually
incorporated at 30 DAT, which coincides
with the second topdressing of N, releasing
more ammoniacal N at this time because of
Azolla mineralization. Furthermore, Azolla
excretes ammonia continuously in
floodwater during growth. Dual cropping of
Azolla with rice always resulted in a yield
increase (Table 2). Grain yield was greater,
however, when the second topdressing of
N was skipped, with 6.2 and 5.6 t ha-1 during
the 1995 and 1996 kuruvai seasons,
respectively. A similar trend was seen in the
thaladi seasons. The yield increase may be
due to the release of micronutrients such
as Ca, Mg, and S upon decomposition of
Azolla. Moreover, the development of a
thick mat of Azolla successfully suppressed
weeds in rice fields.
At 30 DAT when Azolla is
incorporated, topdressing can therefore be
skipped. One less topdressing means less
fertilizer and labor costs. The study clearly
indicated the possibility of reducing fertilizer
N when Azolla is raised as a dual crop.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

applying 12.5 kg ha-1 of urea basally and 25

kg ha-1 as topdressing at 15, 30, and 45 d Table 2. Effect of Azolla dual cropping on rice yield (t ha-1).a
after transplanting (DAT) (Table 1). Azolla
N treatment (kg ha-1) Kuruvai Thaladi
microphylla was applied in combination
with the elimination of any one of the three 0 DAT 15 DAT 30 DAT 45 DAT Azolla 1995 1996 1995 1996
topdressings as well as the uniform 50 25 25 25 – 5.3 c 4.2 c 4.6 d 4.5 d
reduction in N in all applications or at basal 50 – 25 25 + 5.9 ab 5.3 ab 5.4 ab 5.3 b
application only. Phosphorus as single 50 25 – 25 + 6.2 a 5.6 a 5.7 a 5.6 a
50 25 25 – + 5.8 b 5.3 ab 5.2 bc 5.1 bc
superphosphate and potassium as muriate 40 20 20 20 + 5.9 ab 5.2 ab 5.2 bc 5.1 bc
of potash were applied basally at 50 kg ha-1 25 25 25 25 + 5.7 bc 4.9 b 5.2 bc 5.1 c
each. Fresh fronds of A. microphylla were 12.5 25 25 25 + 5.6 bc 4.9 b 5.0 c 5.0 c
inoculated at 1 t ha -1 at 10 DAT and a
Same letters denote parity among respective treatments using LSD.

Table 1. Effect of Azolla dual cropping on soil available N status (kg ha-1).
Kuruvai Thaladi
N treatmenta
(kg ha-1) 1995 1996 1995 1996
0 DAT 15 DAT 30 DAT 45 DAT Azolla 0 DAT 35 DAT 65 DAT 0 DAT 35 DAT 65 DAT 0 DAT 35 DAT 65 DAT 0 DAT 35 DAT 65 DAT

50 25 25 25 – 90.7 130.2 135.4 91.0 133.0 145.6 96.6 120.4 135.8 95.8 126.0 130.2
50 – 25 25 + 141.4 149.8 140.0 151.2 127.4 142.8 131.6 138.6
50 25 – 25 + 148.4 155.2 147.0 156.8 130.2 148.4 135.8 142.8
50 25 25 – + 134.4 145.4 135.8 154.0 126.0 138.6 132.5 137.5
40 20 20 20 + 133.0 142.8 142.8 142.8 126.0 140.0 128.6 134.4
25 25 25 25 + 131.6 140.0 123.2 149.8 127.4 141.4 130.2 136.4
12.5 25 25 25 + 131.6 137.2 128.8 147.0 124.6 138.6 131.6 137.5
LSD (0.05) 5.38 9.63 6.01 7.96 4.99 4.05 7.67 6.41
a
+ or – indicates presence or absence of treatment, respectively. DAT = days after transplanting.

22 December 1999
Tools for plant-based N management in different rice
varieties grown in southern India
R.M. Kumar, K. Padmaja, and S.V. Subbaiah, Division of Agronomy, Directorate of Rice Research (DRR), Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad 500030, Andhra Pradesh, India E-mail: pdrice@x400.nicgw.nic.in
Increasing application rates of N fertilizers
is very common among Indian farmers, who
attribute rice crop greenness and growth to
N application. There is a need to
synchronize N fertilizer application with
plant needs to optimize nutrient use and
minimize environmental pollution.
Appropriate diagnosis of N status in leaves
is necessary to decide about the need for
topdressing fertilizer N. Tools such as the
chlorophyll meter (SPAD) or the leaf color
chart (LCC) can be used for dynamic
adjustment of fertilizer N applications based
on actual plant N status (Balasubramanian
et al 1999). They require testing, however,
under different environmental conditions
and adjustment to different rice varieties
such as those grown in southern India.
We studied the performance of rice
varieties during 1997 kharif and 1997-98 rabi
(three high-yielding varieties, Rasi, Vikas,
and Krishna Hamsa; three hybrids, VRH-4,
DRH-1, and ProAgro 6201; and three
scented varieties, Kasturi, Pusa Basmati, and
IET13549) to (1) compare different
approaches of N management, (2) assess
varietal differences in SPAD and LCC
readings, and (3) correlate SPAD readings
with LCC readings for future work. The
trials, conducted in a split-plot design, had
five main plot treatments consisting of four
N levels (0, 45, 90, and 135 kg N ha-1, applied
in two splits: basal + maximum tillering)
and subplot treatments with SPAD-based N
management with nine cultivars. A
threshold SPAD value of 35 was used
uniformly for all nine varieties. Whenever it
fell below 35, N was applied. The
experiment was conducted on a typical
Vertisol at the DRR Farm with a soil pH (1:2)
of 8.2, CEC of 43.5 (mol+) kg-1, organic
carbon content of 0.58%, KMnO4-N of 165
kg ha-1, Olsen P of 25.52 kg ha-1, and
exchangeable K (ammonium acetate-K) of
217.46 kg ha-1 in a surface soil of 20-cm
depth.
SPAD readings were taken at critical
crop growth stages for the topmost fully
expanded leaf. A minimum of 10 readings
from randomly selected hills were taken
IRRN 24.3
from each treatment plot and average values
were recorded. Similarly, color chart
readings were also taken at the same time.
Standard pest management guidelines were
followed, and 17 kg P ha-1 as well as 33 kg K
ha-1 were applied to all plots.
Nitrogen application significantly
influenced grain yield in both seasons. In
the kharif season, the average grain yield of
all varieties was 4.8 t ha-1 with SPAD-based
management compared with 4 and 4.4 t ha-1
for fixed N rates of 90 and 135 kg N ha-1,
respectively. In the rabi season, grain yields
of the N-90, N-135, and SPAD treatments did
not differ significantly. Grain yield increased
by 45% and 43% (mean of seasons) over the
control for SPAD-N and N-135, respectively.
Across all varieties, the amount of N applied
with SPAD-based management was 75 and
80 kg N ha -1 during kharif and rabi,
respectively.
Among the cultivars averaged over
N levels, hybrids recorded higher grain
yields than conventional high-yielding and
scented varieties. The hybrid ProAgro 6201
recorded the highest grain yield, 5.0 t ha-1
in kharif and a yield comparable with VRH-
4 during rabi. The average yield increase in
hybrids was 38.3% and 24.6% compared
with scented and high-yielding varieties,
respectively.
Agronomic efficiency (kg grain yield
increase kg-1 N applied) was larger in SPAD-
based N application than with N application
at different levels (2-split application).
Partial factor productivity (kg grain kg-1 N
applied) was higher for SPAD-based N
application than in the N-50 and N-135
treatments (Table 1).
At the same growth stage, varieties
exhibited different SPAD and LCC values.
Among the cultivars, higher SPAD and LCC
values were recorded in scented varieties
at all growth stages compared with high-
yielding varieties; SPAD and LCC values for
scented varieties were on a par with those
for hybrids (Table 2). These higher values,
however, had no effect on grain yield, and
signify the inherent trait of some genotypes
to show a consistent greenness from
planting to maturity. In such cases, a
uniform SPAD value of 35 cannot be used
for all cultivars because it would lead to
insufficient N application.
SPAD and LCC values increased
significantly with a rise in N rate (Table 2).
In general, higher SPAD and LCC values
were observed during the rabi season.
Mean SPAD and LCC values were
positively correlated at all growth stages
with mean grain yield of cultivars: r = 0.58–
0.70 (P<0.01) and r = 0.36–0.53 (P<0.05)
in kharif and rabi, respectively. Correlation
coefficients between SPAD and LCC
readings at different growth stages ranged
from 0.78 to 0.85 (P<0.01) in kharif and 0.78
to 0.90 (P<0.01) in rabi (Table 3).
Presumably, topdressing of N can be
practiced based on either LCC or SPAD
readings. The LCC, however, can be
prepared at low cost and is freely available
and easy to handle in the field. The
chlorophyll meter is expensive and requires
technical skill for operation. Also, color
charts are well accepted by farmers in
developing countries such as India. The use
of color charts to determine topdressing of
N not only reduces the N requirement but
also enhances N use efficiency as N is
applied based on requirement. The lower
amount of N applied in SPAD-based N
management indicates that 50–55 kg N
ha-1 can be saved without any yield loss.
More research is needed to identify optimal
LCC and SPAD values for different variety
groups.
References
Balasubramanian V, Morales AC, Cruz RT,
Abdulrachman S. 1999. On-farm adaptation
of knowledge-intensive nitrogen
management technologies for rice systems.
Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 53:59–69.
Peng S, Garcia FV, Laza RC, Sanico AL, Visperas
RM, Cassman KG. 1996. Increased N-use
efficiency using a chlorophyll meter on
high-yielding irrigated rice. Field Crops Res.
47:243–252.
Turner FT, Jund MF. 1991. Chlorophyll meter to
predict nitrogen topdress requirement for
semidwarf rice. Agron. J. 83:926–928.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
23
Table 1. Effect of variety and N level on grain yield (t ha-1) during wet and dry seasons, 1997-98.

0 kg N ha-1 45 kg N ha-1 90 kg N ha-1 135 kg N ha-1 SPAD-Na Mean

Cultivar
Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry
Rasi 2.2 3.4 2.8 4.4 4.8 4.5 4.3 5.5 5.0 5.0 3.9 4.6
Vikas 2.3 3.2 3.5 4.2 4.0 4.8 4.2 5.5 4.6 5.5 3.7 4.6
Krishna Hamsa 2.1 3.5 4.2 4.2 4.2 6.0 4.4 5.7 4.8 5.8 3.9 5.0
Mean 2.2 3.4 3.5 4.2 4.3 5.1 4.3 5.5 4.8 5.4 3.8 4.7
ProAgro 6201 2.9 3.3 4.4 4.7 5.9 6.4 5.8 6.0 6.3 5.6 5.0 5.2
DRH-1 2.6 3.6 4.3 4.7 5.7 5.5 5.7 5.6 5.9 5.4 4.8 5.0
VRH-4 2.4 3.4 3.8 4.6 5.7 6.4 5.6 5.7 6.0 6.5 4.7 5.3
Mean 2.6 3.4 4.1 4.7 5.8 6.1 5.7 5.8 6.1 5.8 4.9 5.2
Kasturi 1.6 2.3 3.0 2.9 3.2 3.1 2.6 3.3 3.1 3.1 2.7 2.9
Pusa Basmati 2.2 2.2 3.0 2.5 3.4 2.8 3.0 2.4 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.6
IET13549 2.1 2.6 2.8 3.9 3.9 4.4 3.6 4.7 4.4 4.7 3.4 4.0
Mean 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.1 3.5 3.4 3.1 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.0 3.2
Mean of N 2.3 3.1 3.5 4.0 4.5 4.9 4.4 4.9 4.8 5.0 3.9 4.4
CD (0.05)
Wet Dry
Nitrogen 0.3 0.4
Variety 0.5 0.4
Interaction SIG SIG
MXS 1.0 0.9
SXM 1.0 0.9
AENb – – 27.77 21.11 25.11 20.33 15.40 13.85 33.73 23.87
PFPc – – 78.22 88.88 50.33 54.22 32.22 36.44 64.00 62.00
a
SPAD-N = kharif = 75 kg ha-1 and rabi = 80 kg ha-1. bAEN = grain yield of treatment – grain yield of control/fertilizer N. cPFP = partial factor productivity (grain yield of treatment/
fertilizer N).

Table 2. Mean SPAD and LCC values as influenced by variety and N level.

Kharif Rabi
Treatment 30 DAT 60 DAT 90 DAT Mean 30 DAT 60 DAT 90 DAT Mean
SPAD LCC SPAD LCC SPAD LCC SPAD LCC SPAD LCC SPAD LCC SPAD LCC SPAD LCC

Rasi 33.95 4.36 34.39 4.45 34.12 4.52 34.15 4.44 34.94 5.00 34.62 4.70 34.61 4.55 35.21 4.70
Vikas 34.53 4.51 34.39 4.76 33.63 4.69 34.18 4.65 35.85 4.98 35.08 4.95 35.81 5.00 35.83 4.99
Krishna Hamsa 34.40 4.46 34.17 4.78 34.02 4.80 34.20 4.68 35.80 5.08 35.02 5.13 34.56 5.13 35.64 5.11
Mean 34.29 4.44 34.32 4.66 33.92 4.67 34.18 4.59 35.53 5.02 34.91 4.93 34.99 4.89 35.56 4.94
ProAgro 6201 34.69 4.85 34.56 5.31 33.78 4.86 35.75 5.07 35.49 5.11 36.16 5.56 35.44 5.64 37.48 5.65
DRH-1 35.87 5.12 35.34 5.23 35.04 4.91 35.42 5.09 36.52 5.28 37.04 5.81 35.68 5.60 36.70 5.49
VRH-4 37.05 5.23 35.74 5.16 34.43 5.01 34.34 5.01 36.64 5.35 37.38 5.85 37.52 5.80 35.98 5.46
Mean 35.87 5.07 35.21 5.23 34.42 4.93 35.17 5.05 36.22 5.25 36.86 5.74 36.21 5.68 36.72 5.54
Kasturi 35.67 5.19 34.82 5.53 34.60 5.00 35.03 5.24 35.77 5.45 38.10 5.98 38.87 5.82 36.44 5.70
Pusa Basmati 35.80 5.17 35.66 5.47 34.37 4.88 35.28 5.17 36.50 5.11 38.44 5.85 36.61 5.76 36.88 5.54
IET13549 34.68 5.21 35.38 5.53 34.09 4.89 34.72 5.21 36.80 5.28 36.43 5.79 36.12 5.64 36.53 5.45
Mean 35.38 5.19 35.29 5.51 34.23 4.92 35.01 5.21 36.36 5.28 37.66 5.87 37.20 5.74 36.62 5.56
Overall mean 35.18 4.90 34.94 5.14 34.19 4.84 34.79 4.95 36.03 5.18 36.47 5.51 36.14 5.44 36.30 5.35
CD (0.05) 0.81 0.17 0.79 0.21 1.17 0.26 0.83 0.22 1.15 0.20 0.77 0.27
N-0 28.01 3.29 26.87 3.42 29.55 3.06 28.14 3.26 26.35 3.84 28.77 3.86 29.67 3.70 29.87 3.80
N-45 34.76 4.46 35.94 4.45 33.82 3.87 34.84 4.26 36.39 4.37 35.78 5.05 35.38 5.13 35.85 4.85
N-90 37.42 5.14 36.76 5.58 35.98 5.46 36.72 5.39 38.08 5.51 37.53 5.88 37.86 5.83 37.82 5.74
N-135 37.75 5.82 37.66 6.10 35.99 5.59 37.13 5.84 39.23 6.05 41.50 6.38 40.19 6.13 39.12 6.19
N-SPAD 37.98 5.78 37.46 6.13 35.83 6.21 37.09 6.04 40.12 6.13 38.80 6.38 37.57 6.39 38.84 6.30
Mean 35.18 4.90 34.94 5.14 34.23 4.84 34.79 4.96 36.03 5.18 36.47 5.51 36.14 5.44 36.30 5.37
CD (0.05) 0.52 0.17 0.88 0.21 0.69 0.16 0.59 0.17 1.31 0.10 0.98 0.32

Table 3. Correlation coefficient valuesa between SPAD and LCC values during kharif and rabi
at 30, 60, and 90 d after transplanting.

1997 kharif 1997-98 rabi

LCC30 LCC60 LCC90 LCC30 LCC60 LCC90
SPAD30 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.81 0.84 0.89
SPAD60 0.83 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.87 0.90
SPAD90 0.80 0.78 0.84 0.78 0.81 0.84
a
Significant at P = 0.05 and P = 0.01.

24 December 1999
Crop management and physiology

Response of organic manures in a rice (Oryza

sativa)–chickpea (Cicer arietinum) crop sequence
G.R. Singh, S.S. Parihar, and N.K. Chaure, Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Regional Agricultural
Research Station, Bilaspur 495001, Madhya Pradesh, India

The rice-chickpea cropping system prevails
in the eastern part of India, where
nitrogenous fertilizers are both costly and
scarce. Therefore, various organic
materials were tested for their beneficial
effects on rice and chickpea yields as well
as on soil nutrient levels. A field
experiment was carried out during the
kharif (direct effect) and rabi (residual
effect) seasons of 1995-96 on an Alfisol soil
with pH 7.1, organic C content of 0.53%,
available N (alkaline KMnO4) of 230 kg
ha-1, available P (Olsen) of 30 kg ha-1, and
available K (flame photometry) of 440 kg
ha-1. Eight treatments replicated four times
in a randomized block design were used:
T1 = control, T2 = Sesbania rostrata at
75 kg seed ha-1, T3 = sunn hemp at 75 kg
seed ha-1, T4 = poultry manure at 5 t ha-1,
T5 = farmyard manure (FYM) at 5 t ha-1
using local method (cow dung kept in an
open pit to decompose), T6 = Nadep
compost (crop residue and cow dung kept
in a brick-constructed tank and fully
covered by dung and mud slurry) at 5 t
ha-1, T7= neem cake at 5 t ha-1, and T8 =
80-22.7-25 kg NPK ha-1. These treatments
were applied only to rice. IR36 was
transplanted on 1 July 1995 and harvested
on 22 October 1995.
To study the residual effect of
fertilizer N sources on chickpea yield after
the rice harvest, chickpea (JG-74) was
sown at 80 kg ha-1 without fertilizer in zero
tillage on 14 November 1995 and harvested
on 4 March 1996. Both the rice and
chickpea were grown in irrigated plots of
10 × 5 m.
The application of organic
materials to the soil significantly enhanced
the grain and straw yields of rice and
chickpea relative to the unfertilized control
(see table). Further, most organic materials
had a significant residual effect on chickpea
yield relative to chemical fertilizers (T8).
Only the neem cake (T7) treatment
resulted in significantly higher yields in
both rice and chickpea, while all other
organic materials except FYM, the local
method (T5), resulted in significantly
higher yields only for chickpea.
Higher nutrient availability under
these treatments might have contributed
to higher yields of rice and especially
chickpea, as incorporation of organic
materials generally increased the soil
organic carbon (SOC) content, available N,
and available P significantly in both seasons
compared with the mineral fertilizer
treatment. The highest SOC contents were
observed in the S. rostrata, sunn hemp,
poultry manure, and Nadep compost
treatments. Available N was highest in the
poultry manure, neem cake, and S.
rostrata treatments. The poultry manure
and FYM treatments had slightly higher
available P than the other treatments.
Across all treatments, SOC content
was significantly and positively correlated
with yield of chickpea (r = 0.81, P< 0.05)
but not of rice. The correlation with
available soil N was highly significant for
chickpea yield (r = 0.93, P< 0.001) but
weaker for rice yield (r = 0.67, P< 0.10).
Correlations of available P with yield were
not significant for either rice or chickpea.
Apparently chickpea yield was more
dependent than rice yield on soil C and
available N levels, while neither crop was
greatly limited by P supply.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Direct and residual effects of organic manures on yields of rice and chickpea and soil nutrients.

Rice (direct effect) Chickpea (residual effect)

Treatment Grain Straw Organic Available Available Grain Organic Available Available
yield yield carbon N P yield carbon N P
(t ha-1) (t ha-1) (%) (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1) (t ha-1) (%) (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1)

T1 3.2 3.3 0.55 231 13 1.1 0.60 228 13

T2 4.9 5.1 0.73 261 15 1.5 0.75 253 14
T3 3.9 4.1 0.72 254 16 1.4 0.77 249 15
T4 4.5 4.3 0.75 266 20 1.7 0.78 258 19
T5 4.7 3.8 0.68 247 20 1.2 0.71 242 19
T6 3.9 4.2 0.72 255 20 1.4 0.76 250 16
T7 5.3 5.9 0.68 266 19 1.4 0.68 253 17
T8 4.6 4.7 0.60 243 18 1.2 0.61 238 16
CDa (5 %) 0.4 0.5 0.06 11 1 0.1 0.07 9.0 1
Linear correlation between yield of rice or chickpea and SOCb, N, and P
SOC GYc = 1.7 + 3.89 X, r = 0.40, r2 = 0.16 SOC GY = 0.17 + 2.17 X, r = 0.81, r2 = 0.65
N GY = 5.0 + 0.04 X, r = 0.67, r2 = 0.45 N GY = –3.13 + 0.02 X, r = 0.93, r2 = 0.86
P GY = 2.2 + 0.12 X, r = 0.49, r2 = 0.24 P GY = 0.85 + 0.37 X, r = 0.36, r2 = 0.13
a
CD = coefficient of determination. bSOC = soil organic content. cGY = grain yield.

IRRN 24.3 25
Effect of growth hormones on outcrossing
of cytoplasmic male sterile lines
R. Singh, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Science, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi 221005, India E-mail: vpkas@x400.nicgw.nic.in

Several artificial substances, such as growth
hormone gibberellic acid (GA3), are
applied to increase cross pollination of
cytoplasmic genetic male sterile (CMS)
lines in rice. Because GA3 is costly, cheaper
alternatives are always being sought. This
study was conducted in 1997-98 to confirm
and establish the performance of some
growth hormones used in previous
experiments. These experiments were
conducted at Varanasi to establish
mangiferin (extracted from mango plant
parts malformed by Fusarium mangiferin)
as a cheaper alternative to GA3 and involved
25 treatments on CMS line IR58025A
In general, it was observed (based
on mean performance of all four CMS
lines) that all treatments scored much
higher values than the control for
characters such as duration of floret
opening, angle of opened florets, panicle
exsertion, spikelet length, and seed grain
yield (Table 1). Growth hormones can be
ranked in terms of effectiveness on floral
and seed yield traits as (1) 60 ppm GA3,
(2) 60 ppm mangiferin, (3) 40 ppm GA3,
(4) 40 ppm mangiferin, and (5) the control.
The comparative response of different
cytosterile lines was evaluated based on
average performance of the five
treatments. Cytosterile lines PMS 10A, PMS
3A, and PMS 2A performed better in terms
of important floral traits related with
outcrossing such as duration of floret
opening, angle of opened florets,
percentage of exserted stigma, and panicle
exsertion percentage than IR58025A after
spraying growth hormones. Cytosterile
line IR58025A, however, scored much
higher in seed grain yield, spikelet length,
and plant height. Similar trends were
observed when control data were
evaluated, indicating an equal response to
treatments in all four cytosterile lines.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

during 1995-97 (data not included).

In this study, experiments were Table 1. Effect of certain growth hormones on different floral traits of four CMS lines of rice.
again conducted at the same location, but
with only five treatments, selected on the Floral traits vs cytosterile linesa
basis of their performance in the first
Cytosterile lines
experiment—60 ppm GA3, 40 ppm GA3, 60 Character
ppm mangiferin, 40 ppm mangiferin, and IR58025A PMS 2A PMS 3A PMS 10A
the control—that were tested on CMS lines
Duration of floret opening 94.7 148.9 159.5 160.8
IR58025A, PMS 2A, PMS 3A, and PMS 10A. (min)
Data on seven characters that may Angle of opened 25.9 28.6 27.6 30.9
influence outcrossing—duration of floret florets (°)
Exserted stigma (%) 90.2 95.1 93.6 92.1
opening, angle of opened florets, Spikelet length (mm) 10.5 9.1 9.6 9.3
percentage of exserted stigma, panicle Panicle exsertion (%) 62.3 71.2 68.8 67.9
exsertion, plant height, grain yield ha-1, and Grain yield (kg ha-1) 2,499 191 223 157
Plant height (cm) 79.5 76.3 76.1 74.4
spikelet length—were recorded. The
pooled data are given in Table 1. The first Floral traits vs growth hormonesb
part of the table indicates the responses Treatments
of different CMS lines to outcrossing- Character
related traits taken over the mean effect GA3 Mangiferin GA3 Mangiferin Control
(60 ppm) (60 ppm) (40 ppm) (40 ppm)
of growth hormones, and the second part
Duration of floret 154.6 143.5 142.6 142.3 121.4
shows the performance of growth
opening (min)
hormones taken over the mean of four Angle of opened 30.2 28.3 28.0 28.0 26.6
CMS lines. Table 2 shows information florets (°)
related to the analysis of each of seven Exserted stigma (%) 94.1 93.8 91.7 94.2 90.0
Spikelet length (mm) 10.0 9.4 9.6 9.5 9.6
characters in the CMS lines along with Panicle exsertion (%) 70.0 68.7 68.7 68.8 62.9
critical differences (5%) and coefficients of Grain yield (kg ha-1) 983 778 701 752 720
variation. Plant height (cm) 80.9 73.0 79.7 72.1 72.3
a
Shows performance of four cytosterile lines over mean of five combinations of different growth hormones. bShows
performance of treatments for eight floral traits over mean of four cytosterile lines.

26 December 1999
Table 2. Analysis of variance for seven floral and associated characters in four CMS lines.a

Line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Treatment IR58025A 544.42**c 8.40** 148.64** 27.03** 14.29** 1,104.60** 0.12**

(MS)+b PMS 2A 763.23** 20.27** 2.46 235.80** 66.46** 1.10** 0.35**
PMS 3A 491.14** 53.11** 1.59 130.65** 67.35** 9.27** 0.41**
PMS 10A 128.01 0.81 7.89 3.39** 116.72** 4.23** 0.91**

Error IR58025A 1.07 0.20 4.53 4.30 6.17 21.11 0.04

(MS)+ PMS 2A 10.99 5.54 0.80 0.70 17.67 0.03 0.09
PMS 3A 7.39 2.59 1.16 1.12 27.53 0.05 0.09
PMS 10A 5.89 0.60 2.60 0.32 2.20 0.06 0.09

CD (5%) IR58025A 1.69 0.74 3.48 3.39 4.05 23.73 0.30

(MS)+ PMS 2A 6.25 5.81 1.68 1.57 7.91 0.30 0.58
PMS 3A 5.12 3.02 2.03 1.98 3.30 0.39 0.58
PMS 10A 4.57 1.48 3.04 1.06 2.79 0.46 0.58

CV (%) IR58025A 1.05 1.70 2.43 2.72 4.08 16.69 1.79

(MS)+ PMS 2A 2.23 10.79 0.94 1.09 5.89 8.59 3.36
PMS 3A 1.71 5.84 1.15 1.39 7.62 9.09 3.21
PMS 10A 1.51 2.53 1.75 0.76 2.19 15.41 3.25
a
1 = duration of floret opening (min), 2 = angle of opened florets (°), 3 = percentage of exserted stigma, 4 = spikelet length (mm), 5 = panicle exsertion percentage, 6 = grain yield
(kg ha-1), and 7 = plant height (cm). bMean square values from respective ANOVA table. c**Significant at 1% level. CD = coefficient of determination, CV = coefficient of variation.

Instructional videos available

The Leaf Color Chart (LCC) (8:20 min)
Farmers generally observe the color of rice leaves to determine a rice crop’s need for nitrogen fertilizer. Dark green rice leaves mean a
high nitrogen content, while pale green rice leaves necessitate the application of more nitrogen fertilizer.
Mere observation, however, holds no absolute guarantee in measurement accuracy. Thus, to better help farmers determine their
rice crops’ need for nitrogen, the Leaf Color Chart (LCC) was developed.
The Leaf Color Chart (LCC) instructional video was produced to familiarize farmers and extension workers with the proper use of
this new and affordable farming implement.
Portable chlorophyll meter for nitrogen management in rice (13:30 min)
In agriculture, excess nitrates can actually be highly damaging to crops and the environment. There is, thus, a need to efficiently manage
the application of nitrogen fertilizers on rice crops.
The Portable Chlorophyll Meter for Nitrogen Management in Rice introduces the features and use of the chlorophyll or SPAD
meter which is capable of measuring the relative nitrogen content in plant leaves through a simple, quick, and nondestructive procedure.
Go break into the code (13:30 min)
Genetic engineering need not be a property of the scientific few. This is what IRRI had in
mind when it produced Go breAk inTo the Code: to make the general public grasp and
understand the seemingly complicated science through a visually stunning, fast-paced, and
entertaining presentation of the genetic code, DNA sequencing, and plant biotechnology.
The video also gives the public a glimpse as to how IRRI scientists are redesigning the
rice plant—that most important food staple, using biotechnology tools.
These instructional videos are available in English, in the 3/4-inch u-matic and VHS
formats, and in the NTSC, SECAM, or PAL systems.

For more information about the videos, contact:

Marketing and Distribution
Communication and Publications Services
IRRI, MCPO Box 3127, Makati City 1271
Philippines
E-mail: e.ramin@cgiar.org

IRRN 24.3 27
NOTES FROM THE FIELD
First record of the wild rice
Oryza meridionalis in Indonesia
B.R. Lu, Genetic Resources Center, IRRI,
and T.S. Silitonga, Research Institute of
Food Crop Biotechnology, Central
Research Institute for Food Crops
(CRIFC), Agency for Agricultural Research
and Development (AARD), Department
of Agriculture, Bogor, Indonesia
Oryza meridionalis Ng is an annual
diploid (2n = 2x = 24) wild species of rice,
which has only been reported as endemic
to the northern parts of Australia. This wild
rice contains the same AA genome as
cultivated rice (O. sativa L.), and is
therefore one of the most accessible
genetic resources in the wild rice genepool
for rice improvement. During a recent
exploration and collection mission (29
September–9 October 1999) for wild rice
species in Irian Jaya, Indonesia, O.
meridionalis was found and collected at
many sites in Merauke District. This is the
first record for O. meridionalis in Irian
28
Jaya. O. meridionalis was found in swampy
lowlands and forests, along canals and
ditches, and near or inside farmers’ rice
fields. According to local farmers, this
species occurs abundantly, particularly
during the wet season (February-May)
when water is sufficient. Farmers call this
wild rice Miyang Padi, which means
“awned rice,” or Padi Rawa Hitam,
meaning “black swamp rice.” They
complain about this wild rice infesting their
rice fields and interfering with fishing,
which shows the common occurrence of
O. meridionalis in the area.
The traditional staple food crops in
Irian Jaya are mainly sago and tuber crops,
such as sweet potato, cassava, and taro.
Cultivated rice, introduced into the area
only in the early 1980s by transimmigrants,
is now preferred by many people,
particularly those who have moved to Irian
Jaya from other parts of the country. The
most serious rice insect pests and diseases
occurring in this area are whitebacked
(Left) A panicle of Oryza meridionalis collected
near Wasur National Park in Merauke District
of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. (Below) Farmers
helped to collect seed samples from Oryza
meridionalis plants occurring in their field near
Kuprik at Merauke District.
planthopper [Sogatella furcifera
(Horvath)] and rice tungro disease, based
on information from the local agriculture
extension offices. Because O. meridionalis
occurs naturally in this area, it might be
worthwhile to screen its populations for
resistance to these pests. Other wild rice
species, such as O. officinalis, O.
longiglumis, and O. rufipogon, were also
found and collected in Irian Jaya during the
expedition. The exploration and collection
mission was jointly conducted by IRRI and
the Research Institute of Food Crop
Biotechnology, CRIFC, AARD, Department
of Agriculture of Indonesia.
Influence of unusual weather
on pest outbreaks and rice
production in Bangladesh
Zahirul Islam, Entomology Division,
Bangladesh Rice Research Institute
(BRRI), Gazipur, Bangladesh
During the past few years, unusual weather
conditions in Bangladesh have directly and
indirectly affected rice production. Rice in
Bangladesh is grown in four overlapping
seasons: aus (summer rice), transplanted
aman (monsoon rice), deepwater rice
(mostly floating rice), and boro (winter
rice). More than 93% of the 2.9 million ha
of boro rice is irrigated and is thus less
vulnerable to weather calamities. In
contrast, transplanted aman, which covers
about 5 million ha, is mostly rainfed and is
often affected by submergence and
drought.
The 1997 transplanted aman crop
was affected by a severe drought during
the crucial reproductive developmental
stage in October. A widespread outbreak
of brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata
lugens (Stål), also occurred in October.
BPH populations probably built up during
August and September, when rainfall was
adequate. The drought and BPH outbreak
caused localized yield losses of up to 50%
December 1999
and a 10–15% yield loss in the transplanted
aman season nationwide.
The 1998 transplanted aman crop
was severely affected by a long-lasting
flood, which reduced the rice-cropped
area significantly. Widespread outbreaks of
rice gall midge, Orseolia oryzae (Wood-
Mason), and sheath blight, caused by
Rhizoctonia solani, occurred in the early
planted higher lands. When the flood peak
subsided, farmers transplanted rice
in medium-high lands. In some areas,
severe outbreaks of rice leaffolders
[Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenee), ´ to young rice plants in late-planted fields.
Marasmia patnalis (Bradley), and M.
exigua (Butler)] occurred on late-planted
rice fields. A high incidence of BPH and
swarming caterpillar, Spodoptera mauritia
(Boisduval), was also observed in many
areas. The 1998 transplanted aman crop
suffered 20–25% yield losses from flood
and pest outbreaks.
In response to the shortfall in
transplanted aman rice production in 1998
and the anticipated increase in rice market
price, farmers expanded the boro area in
the following season. Historical data
indicated that, after severe floods and loss
of transplanted aman rice, farmers met the
shortfall by increasing boro rice coverage
in the following season (see table).
Recent abnormal weather patterns
have perhaps contributed to the unusual
outbreaks of BPH, gall midge, leaffolders,
and sheath blight in Bangladesh. For insect
pests in 1998, ovipositing females may have
aggregated in higher elevation rice fields
when low-lying fields were flooded. Later
generations of adults may have migrated
Two other trends might have
contributed to the disease and insect
problems: the higher use of nitrogenous
fertilizers and misuse of insecticides. A
positive correlation between levels of N
application and sheath blight incidence is
often observed because higher N levels
result in increased canopy density. It is well
established that insecticide misuse can
cause outbreaks of some pests, such as
BPH, because of the disruption in naturally
occurring biological control agents.
BRRI will continue to monitor
trends in weather patterns and pest
outbreaks. If pest outbreaks persist, it may
be necessary to change research and rice-
breeding priorities in Bangladesh.
Farmer participatory research
for rat management
in Cambodia
P.G. Cox, G.C. Jahn, S. Mak, N. Chhorn,
Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project (CIAP),
P.O. Box 1, Phnom Penh; and S.Tuy,
Catholic Relief Services Cambodia
Program (CRS), P.O. Box 493, Phnom
Penh, Cambodia
In 1998, CIAP researchers worked with a
local nongovernment organization (CRS)
to begin a program of farmer participatory
research (FPR) for improved rat
management in Svay Teap District of Svay
Rieng Province in southeastern Cambodia.
The research was compatible with the
action research process used by CRS as a
way of empowering local farmers to find

Effect of abnormal high floods on boro (winter) rice coverage and production in Bangladesh.a

Boro rice area planted to modern varieties Modern variety boro rice production
Year Flood situation in
previous monsoon (ha × 103) Change over (t × 106) Change over
previous year (%) previous year (%)
1973-74 Normal flood 589 – 1.6 –
1974-75 High flood 659 11.9b 1.6 1.2
1975-76 Normal flood 642 –2.6 1.6 0
1976-77 Normal flood 492 –23.4 1.2 –27.0
1977-78 Normal flood 589 19.71 1.5 25.2
1978-79 Normal flood 600 1.9 1.4 –7.4
1979-80 Late flood 724 20.7 1.9 36.2
1980-81 Normal flood 747 3.2 2.0 5.8
1981-82 Normal flood 898 20.2 2.5 26.1
1982-83 Normal flood 1,081 20.4 3.0 20.7
1983-84 Normal flood 1,006 –6.9 2.8 –6.6
1984-85 High flood 1,230 22.3 3.4 18.7
1985-86 Normal flood 1,213 –1.4 3.2 –3.9
1986-87 Normal flood 1,340 10.5 3.6 11.8
1987-88 High flood 1,639 22.3 4.3 19.8
1988-89 Very high flood 2,132 30.1 5.4 26.3
1989-90 Normal flood 2,154 1.0 5.7 4.6
1990-91 Normal flood 2,266 5.2 6.0 4.9
1991-92 Normal flood 2,334 3.0 6.4 7.1
1992-93 Normal flood 2,351 0.7 6.2 –2.0
1993-94 Normal flood 2,335 –0.7 6.4 2.9
1994-95 Normal flood 2,410 2.3 6.2 –3.4
1995-96 Normal flood 2,507 4.0 6.8 10.4
1996-97 Normal flood 2,547 1.6 7.1 3.9
1997-98 Normal flood 2,670 4.5 7.8 9.8
1998-99 Very high and 3,500c 31.1 10.0c 27.9
long-lasting flood
a
Data compiled from Statistical yearbook of Bangladesh (published annually), Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka. bEarly phase of modern variety boro adoption. cTentative estimate.

IRRN 24.3 29
solutions to their own problems. They had
already identified rat control as a key issue
in the management of rainfed lowland rice
crops. In Cambodia, these crops are usually
transplanted. The objective was to identify
weaknesses in farmers’ rat management
practices and to work through possible
improvements with them.
Farmers reported two to five kinds
of rats attacking their crops. Their
descriptions coincided with accepted
rodent taxonomy. Collections of rats made
by hunting and trapping confirmed the
presence of three species in, or near, rice
fields: Rattus argentiventer, Bandicota
indica, and Rattus exulans. Farmers were
convinced that rat populations are local,
living in bunds around rice fields and in
nearby wooded areas. They did not
consider mass migration of rat populations
to be important in Svay Teap.
Researchers considered rat
management to be a community issue
because rats move around the landscape
so easily and over long distances
(individual landholdings are often 1 ha or
less): what one farmer does, or does not
do, to manage rats affects other farmers
in the community. Farmers and
researchers met to discuss the rat problem,
how farmers control rats now, and what
opportunities exist to do something about
it. Researchers took part in a community
rat hunt organized by villagers (both in the
daytime and at night). Night hunting was
less effective than hunting and digging
burrows during the day. In three villages,
we provided the materials to build a plastic
fence with traps around an early wet-
season (EWS) rice crop to make an active
trap barrier system (TBS). Some EWS and
dry-season rice farmers in Cambodia
already use a plastic rat fence to protect
their crop. Farmers’ existing experiments
with EWS rice provided an opportunity to
test the TBS technology. They built and
maintained the TBS and monitored the
traps. Researchers trained farmers in
improved baiting, burrow digging, and rat
damage assessment in rice crops. Farmers
maintained records of the number of rats
captured by different methods, which were
used to estimate the effectiveness of
different technologies. A visit by a rodent
ecologist from the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization (CSIRO) in Australia
provided additional insights into the rat
species present and the management
implications of behavioral differences
between rat species.
Traps and baits were already widely
used, but these did not give adequate
control. Farmers proposed rat hunts as a
possible remedy. The TBS was not used in
wet-season rice crops in Svay Teap because
it is too expensive, although farmers did
agree to help test this technology if we paid
for it. Except for hunting/digging, all the
technologies have limitations (see table).
We believed that we could improve the
effectiveness of baiting and trapping by
paying attention to the quality of materials
and through training in techniques. But we
saw little we could do to improve the
effectiveness of the TBS—the major
problem is the high cost compared with
the losses associated with rat damage. A

Comparison of technologies used in farmer participatory research in Svay Teap District, Svay Rieng Province, Cambodia.

Baiting Traps Hunts/digging TBSa

Initial cost Medium Medium Low High
Labor requirements Low Low Medium High
Effectiveness Low Medium High Low
Durability Days Years NAb A season
Reliability No Yes Yes No
Economies of scale No No Possible impact Yes (cost t-1 depends on
of community field size and shape)
rat management
Provides information No Yes Yes Yes
about rat populations
Requires continuous No Yes No Yes
monitoring
Environmental hazard Yes No No Unknown
Gender impact Primarily men’s work Primarily men’s work Men, women, and children Men and women
Health impact Unknown No Positive No
Compatibility with No (livestock) Yes Yes No (livestock)
farming system
Complexity Medium Low Low High
Adaptability Farmers modified Novel trap designs Adapted to include Difficult to modify, but
bait stations using were well accepted dogs in the hunt possible use as fish fences
aluminum cans
Relative disadvantage Some rat species Traps do not target May require community High cost; high complexity;
are bait-shy; rats that attack organization need for continuous
presence of cattle rice crops; theft monitoring; incompatible
reduces effectiveness with cattle in the farming
of baiting system; theft
Popularity Individuals Individuals Basis for social interaction Initial interest, but this
dissipated
a
TBS = trap barrier system. bNA = not applicable.

30 December 1999
rat hunt in the dry season appears to be a
viable alternative that is comparatively well
accepted, uses easily available resources,
avoids problems of theft and effects on
cattle, and can be targeted to small rat
populations close to rice fields at the end
of the dry season.
Recent discussions of sustainability
(e.g., Cox et al 1997, Röling and
Wagemakers 1998, van Veldhuizen et al
1997) have emphasized the importance of
participatory learning as a way of coming
to grips with the complex issues of
environmental management. Our
experience with FPR in Svay Teap has
already provided significant gains in terms
of
• An improved basis for the choice of
technology, e.g., dismissal of the TBS
option for wet-season rice crops in
areas like Svay Teap where yields are
low, and rejection of using the EWS
crop as a trap crop because its timing
does not coincide with high rat
populations.
• Identification of immediate
opportunities to improve practices,
e.g., baiting and trapping.
• Modification of solutions proposed
by farmers as technology is
progressively adapted to the local
farming system, e.g., the use of beer
cans as bait stations. These are more
durable than coconut shells, and
there is less chance of poisoning
cattle.
• Identification of an improved strategy
for rat management (digging for rats
in bunds in the dry season, possibly
as a community activity).
References
Cox PG, MacLeod ND, Shulman AD. 1997. Putting
sustainability into practice in agricultural
research for development. In: Stowell FA,
Ison RL, Armson R, Holloway J, Jackson S,
McRobb S, editors. Systems for
sustainability: people, organizations and
environments. London: Plenum Press.
p 33–38.
Röling NG, Wagemakers MAF, editors. 1998.
Facilitating sustainable agriculture:
participatory learning and adaptive
management in times of environmental
uncertainty. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge
University Press. 318 p.
van Veldhuizen L, Waters-Bayers A, de Zeeuw H.
1997. Developing technology with farmers:
a trainer’s guide for participatory learning.
London (UK): Zed Books. 230 p.

Digital Literacy for Rice Scientists

To help rice scientists take advantage of new information and communication technologies, the IRRI Training
Center has developed the Digital Literacy Course for Rice Scientists. The course aims to provide scientists with
information about what resources are available on the Internet and how they can go about accessing these resources.
The course is unique in that, it focuses on the needs of rice scientists, it provides a forum for rice scientists to
share their experiences and Internet resources with other rice scientists online, and it establishes a learner-centered
knowledge network in the form of an online community centered on rice research.
The topics covered by the course include
• What is the Internet
• What is the World Wide Web and what makes it
work
• Key Internet terminology
• How to use the Internet for communication with
other scientists
• How to use Web browsers
• How to search for information efficiently and
effectively
• What are some of the good sources of information
for rice scientists available on the Internet
• How to cite Internet documents
• What training opportunities are available online
Connection to the Internet offers national scientists
with a low-cost communication medium with other scientists
linked to the Internet, gives them access to the ever-growing
body of information available on and through interlinked
computers throughout the world, and provides access to formal and informal training offered
online from virtually anywhere.
The course was developed by Robert T. Raab and Buenafe Abdon of the IRRI Training Center. Watch for
more announcements in subsequent issues of IRRN.

IRRN 24.3 31
RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS
Kaewprakaisaengkul C, Gee-
Clough D. 1998. Evaluation and
improvement of Thai-made low-
lift pumps. Agric. Eng. J. 7:211-
230.
In many rice-producing regions in Asia,
investment in private irrigation pumps has
a higher priority than mechanization of
other farm operations. Therefore,
irrigation pumps are often among the first
farm machines acquired by farmers. In
Thailand, the number of locally made
water pumps used in agriculture increases
yearly, with more than 1.2 million pumps
used in 1991. About 70% of these pumps
are of the low-lift, high-discharge type, with
the axial flow pump being the most
popular because of its low cost and simple
design. Because of different designs and
lack of performance characteristics,
farmers have difficulty selecting pumps
that are suitable to their requirements.
Power and efficiency losses occur as well
because of incorrect design, improper
installation, or poor manufacturing.
This paper describes the first
controlled performance testing of low-
cost, locally made irrigation pumps that are
used extensively in rice production in
Thailand. Three main pump types (axial
flow, mixed flow, and radial flow) were
evaluated in a performance test that
included evaluation of total head, pump
discharge, pump speed, and power input.
Results indicated that axial flow and mixed
flow pumps are more suitable to the typical
requirements of Thai farmers. Based on
test results, improvements in pump design
were made, including modifications to the
drive shaft and impeller. When choosing
modifications, care was taken so that local
pump manufacturers would be able to
fabricate them. The improvements
resulted in a two- to threefold increase in
pump efficiency, along with a 40–50%
reduction in required power input. This
paper illustrates that, with proper testing,
analysis, and slight design modifications,
tremendous improvements in the
performance of agricultural equipment can
be realized.
32
Hayami Y, Kikuchi M, Marciano
EB. 1999. Middlemen and
peasants in rice marketing in
the Philippines. Agric. Econ.
20:79-93.
It is a common perception that traders and
middlemen use monopoly power to
extract profits from rice farmers. Farmers
are ostensibly forced to sell their rice at
very low prices because traders are few and
can control farmers. A study by Hayami et
al (1999) shows that this perception is not
true for a small village in Laguna Province,
Philippines, that is well served by
infrastructure.
Among a sample of 45 farmers in
this village, rice was sold to 37 different
buyers—13 different rice mills, 12
independent traders, and 12 commission
agents. This implies a tremendous amount
of competition among traders for buying
rice, which makes it easy for farmers to
switch to another trader if they believe that
they are being cheated. To keep their mills
operating at full capacity, millers bought
rough rice from farmers hundreds of miles
away. Competition among mills with such
a wide spatial distribution makes it difficult
for traders to collude with one another.
Farmers bought their inputs (fertilizer and
pesticides) from many specialized
agricultural supply stores, not rice traders,
making it difficult for traders to link rice
purchases to input supply. Farmers often
accepted delayed payment for their grain,
implying that they are lending money to
traders, not just vice versa. Several farmers
belonged to an agricultural cooperative
that engages in collective product
marketing, but none of these farmers sold
their rice to the cooperative.
All of these facts show that the
marketing system in this area is highly
competitive. The policy implication is that
governments should build transportation
and communication networks that would
allow many private individuals to enter the
trading business, instead of trying to
engage in trading directly to limit the
influence of monopolistic traders.
Haddad L. 1999. The income
earned by women: impacts on
welfare outcomes. Agric. Econ.
20:135-141.
In the past, traditional economic models
assumed that household decision-making
was unitary, that is, household income
from all sources was pooled and spending
decisions were made according to
preferences that were common to all
household members. Haddad (1999)
surveys the empirical literature that has
attempted to test the validity of this
assumption and finds that the assumption
has been consistently refuted in many case
studies. In general, women’s income tends
to be spent to a greater extent on food,
education, and health, whereas men’s
income tends to be spent disproportionately
on alcohol and tobacco, among other items.
These findings have implications for the
study of the effects of male migration to
cities in search of work, which often results
in female-headed households in rural
farming areas.
These differential spending effects
have been found in both economically
advanced and less advanced countries. The
empirical literature has been confined to
regression analyses of observational data,
however, and Haddad suggests that
studies with an experimental design that
randomly transfers income specifically to
men or women might be helpful in
convincing some skeptics (if such studies
are politically feasible).
Many countries have begun to alter
the design of poverty alleviation programs
in a manner consistent with these findings,
among them Bangladesh, Mexico, and the
United Kingdom. Besides the benefits of
targeting women, however, there are also
costs to this targeting, and not enough
research has been conducted to determine
whether the benefits outweigh the costs.
December 1999
Revsbech NP, Pedersen O, absent from soil from 4.5 mm below its analyses linking landscape structure with
Reichardt W, Briones A. 1999. euphotic, O2-generating surface. the aggregate responses of herbivore and
Microsensor analysis of oxygen Although, in principle, O2-induced natural enemy populations await further
and pH in the rice rhizosphere processes such as microbial oxidation of investigation.
under field and laboratory ammonium and ferrous iron tend to acidify Research projects involving IRRI
the rhizosphere, pH effects in the and collaborators in China, Vietnam, and
conditions. Biol. Fertil. Soils
rhizosphere of irrigated rice (IR72) the Philippines have been examining the
29:379-385.
remained negligible. Consequently, any effects of habitat diversity on biological
prediction of rhizosphere effects on control of rice insect pests for the past
Nutrient supply to rice should be affected
nutrient supply will have to consider the several years.
strongly by microenvironmental changes
strong buffering capacities of heavy clay
caused by leakage of O2 from the roots in
soil as this is typical of many highly
anoxic waterlogged soil. Likewise, O2
intensive irrigated rice-cropping systems.
leakage from rice roots is supposed to
Wang Z-X, Yano M, Yamanouchi
offset the toxic effects on rice plants of
elevated levels of reduced inorganic ions U, Iwamoto M, Monna L,
such as Fe2+. Microprofiles of O2 and pH Hayasaka H, Katayose Y, Sasaki
Thies C, Tscharntke T. 1999. T. 1999. The Pib gene for rice
measured directly with microsensors
inside and outside rice roots have led to Landscape structure and blast belongs to the nucleotide-
new insights into the microenvironment biological control in binding and leucine-rich repeat
for nutrient uptake by rice in submerged agroecosystems. Science class of plant disease resistance
anoxic soils. 285:893-895. genes
genes. Plant J. 19:55-64.
The aerenchyma of rice plants
functions like an open tube system without A long-standing debate in entomology is Rice blast, caused by the fungal pathogen
any restriction to O2 diffusion. Yet, with whether landscape diversity contributes to Magnaporthe grisea, is one of the most
progressive plant growth stages, the export more effective or more stable control of serious diseases in several rice-growing
of O2 into flooded rice soils is gradually insect pests by natural enemies (predators, countries. At least 30 resistance loci have
reduced. Inside the roots of irrigated rice parasites, and pathogens). The paper by been identified in rice and several of them
variety IR72, O2 concentrations were equal Thies and Tscharntke provides evidence have been mapped using molecular
to air saturation close to the root base, that landscape diversity is indeed markers. This is the first report on isolation
whereas only half of this O2 saturation level beneficial. Their study system in Germany of the rice blast resistance gene Pib. The
was retained (8 cm) further down the root consisted of the rape pollen beetle availability of a high-density molecular map
in regions containing rootlets. Outside the (Meligethes aeneus), a pest of oilseed rape and markers in the Pib region provided a
roots of 3-wk-old transplants, O2 gradients (Brassica napus), and three ichneumonid good starting point for chromosome
extended to about 0.4 mm into the (Hymenoptera) larval parasitoids of the walking. The deduced amino acid
surrounding rhizosphere soil. At this beetle. sequence of the Pib gene product contains
vegetative growth phase, rootlets were Beetle parasitism was greater in a nucleotide-binding site (NBS) and
surrounded by O2 layers about 150 mm rape fields adjacent to old field margins leucine-rich repeats (LRRs); thus, Pib is a
thick. At the flowering stage and beyond than in fields without such margins, and member of the NBS-LRR class of plant
it, however, O2 export from the roots had greater still in fields that were adjacent to disease resistance genes. A duplication of
come to an end, with minor O2 leakage large, old fallow habitats. Beetle parasitism the kinase 1a, 2, and 3a motifs of the NBS
apparently confined to some rootlets of did not differ near the edges of the three region was found in the N-terminal half of
flowering plants only. types of fields, but was higher in the center the Pib protein. In addition, eight cysteine
Depending on soil-buffering of fields that were adjacent to the old field residues are clustered in the middle of the
capacity and microbial communities, margins or fallow habitats. Parasitism also LRRs, a feature that has not been reported
leaking O2 is rapidly consumed by reduced increased, and plant damage declined, as for other R genes. Pib gene expression was
chemical compounds in the soil and by landscape complexity increased. induced upon altered environmental
microbial biofilms covering the roots. The Landscape complexity was measured as conditions, such as a change in
first in situ measurement of O2 profiles in the percentage of land area covered by temperature and darkness.
flooded rice fields ever accomplished noncrop habitats. Although this analysis
(long-term continuous cropping coupled landscape structure with
experiment at IRRI) revealed that O2 was biological control of M. aeneus, similar

IRRN 24.3 33
Witt C, Dobermann A,
Abdulrachman S, Gines HC,
Wang GH, Nagarajan R,
Satawatananont S, Tran Thuc
Son, Pham Sy Tan, Le Van Tiem,
Simbahan GC, Olk DC. 1999.
Internal nutrient efficiencies of
irrigated lowland rice in tropical
and subtropical Asia. Field
Crops Res. 63:113-138.
This study estimates the N, P, and K
requirements of irrigated rice in South
and Southeast Asia based on more than
2,000 on-station and on-farm experiments
in six Asian countries conducted between
1995 and 1997. The authors have
compiled the most comprehensive
database on crop nutrient requirements
available and used the data to model the
nutrient requirements for rice yields of
up to 11 t ha -1. The model QUEFTS
(Quantitative Evaluation of the Fertility of
Tropical Soils) was adjusted for rice. The
borderlines describing the minimum and
maximum internal efficiencies (IE,
kilograms grain per kilogram nutrient in
plant dry matter) of the three major
nutrients were estimated at 42 and 96 kg
grain kg-1 N, 206 and 622 kg grain kg-1 P,
and 36 and 115 kg grain kg-1 K, respectively.
The model predicted a linear
increase in grain yield if nutrients were
taken up in balanced amounts of 14.7 kg
N, 2.6 kg P, and 14.5 kg K per 1,000 kg of
grain until yield targets reached about 70-
80% of the climate-adjusted potential yield
(Ymax). The corresponding IEs were 68 kg
grain kg-1 N, 385 kg grain kg-1 P, and 69 kg
grain kg-1 K for balanced nutrition. The
model predicted a decrease in IEs when
yield targets approached Ymax. The actual
IEs of N, P, and K measured in farmers’
fields were lower than the predicted
optimal ones, mainly because of nutritional
imbalances, inadequate irrigation, or
problems with pests and weeds. Averages
and ranges of IEs were 59 kg grain kg-1 N
(27–100 kg kg-1), 354 kg grain kg-1 P (158–
1,069 kg kg-1), and 64 kg grain kg-1 K (27–
179 kg kg-1) with grain yields ranging from
1.5 to 9.9 t ha-1 (mean 5.2 t ha-1).
This research is an important step
toward developing site-specific nutrient
management technology for irrigated rice.
The proposed model is valid for all current
modern, high-yielding indica cultivars with
a harvest index of 0.5. Only Ymax is
required as site- or season-specific
information when estimating nutrient
requirements for a yield target, making the
model applicable to all irrigated lowlands
in South and Southeast Asia.

International Conference on
Paddy Soils Fertility
The International Conference on Paddy Soils Fertility will be held at the Conference Center of the Holiday Inn Resort,
Clark Field, Pampanga, Philippines, on 24-27 April 2000. The conference theme is Sustainable paddy soil ecosystem: a
global challenge in the next millennium.
The conference aims to
1. critically examine and analyze the role of paddy soils in food supply security,
2. identify and discuss major issues and concerns confronting paddy soils,
3. exchange information on available data about national paddy soil conservation programs and on R&D thrusts, and
4. come up with national and regional action programs on sustainable paddy soil fertility management.
The conference theme revolves around the following topics: role of paddy soils in food security strategies, paddy
soil issues and concerns, general policy scenarios on paddy soils, action program
on paddy soils, and wetland soils and global climatic change.
Practitioners from various disciplines are expected to attend the 4-day
meeting to enhance awareness, exchange research experiences, and share the
success of the demo project relating to paddy soil fertility issues.
For more information, contact the organizers by e-mail:
bswm@pworld.net.ph; by fax: (63-2) 920-4318; by mail: Paddy Soils Secretariat,
Bureau of Soils and Water Management, Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City,
Philippines.
The registration fee is US$250 for overseas participants and P3,500 for
local participants.

34 December 1999
NEWS
World-renowned social scientist
conferred National Scientist
Award
World-renowned social scientist, Dr Gelia
T. Castillo, was conferred the rank and title
of National Scientist by Philippine
President Joseph Ejercito Estrada recently.
Dr Castillo has been an IRRI consultant for
many years. She is known in international
circles for her expertise in the social
sciences and for her work on women in
rice farming.
The award recognized her
“distinguished individual achievement in
the social sciences and outstanding
contribution to national development.” Dr
Castillo was also cited for her “excellence
in sociological research and achievements
that have contributed immensely to the
acceptance and growth of empirically
based social science both in the Philippines
and abroad.” The citation also noted her
“rare ability to synthesize existing works
and to elucidate difficult theories and
concepts so that they become accessible
to policymakers and ordinary citizens.”
The award also highlighted Dr
Castillo’s “commitment to put science in
the service of equity and ethics, manifested
in her work that puts into practice her
belief that the best of science and scientists
must be devoted to the problems of those
who have less in life.”
As IRRI consultant, Dr Castillo,
served as chair of the outstanding Young
Women in Rice Science project in 1994.
She is a member of the Institute’s Ethics
Review Committee and advises IRRI on the
socioeconomic and cultural impact of rice
research and specific country-related
issues.
Dr Castillo is professor emeritus of
rural sociology at the University of the
Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) and an early
advocate of the concept of participatory
development. She authored All in a grain
of rice and has served on the board of the
International Development Research
Centre (Canada), International Potato
Center (Peru), International Service for
IRRN 24.3
G.T. Castillo
National Agricultural Research (The
Netherlands), International Centre for
Research in Agroforestry (Kenya), and the
International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute (Italy).
Ren Wang: new IRRI deputy
director general for research
IRRI has a new deputy director general for
research. Dr Ren Wang, former vice
president of the Chinese Academy of
Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), joins the
Institute in January 2000.
Director General Ronald Cantrell
said in an announcement that, “Dr Wang
brings to IRRI not only impressive
leadership experience and an excellent
scientific background but also a direct link
to China’s valuable contributions and
traditions of scientific excellence in rice
research. His joining the Institute will
undoubtedly strengthen ties between IRRI
and China and provide our research efforts
with an important boost at the start of the
new millennium.”
Formal links with China were
established in 1982 with CAAS as the lead
agency. In 1987, the China-IRRI liaison
office was formally established in Beijing.
As CAAS vice president, Dr Wang
was responsible for strategic planning,
priority setting, and developing major
R. Wang
agricultural research programs. He also
served on the expert advisory panel that
drafted China’s national guidelines for the
development of agricultural science and
technology (2001-2015). He was likewise
a member of the expert committee
charged with developing guidelines and
making strategic plans for the Ministry of
Science and Technology.
Before joining CAAS, Dr Wang was
deputy director of the International
Institute of Biological Control of the
Commonwealth Agricultural Research
Bureaux in the United Kingdom. He was
also a member of a specialist panel on
science and strategy that was part of the
Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR) System
review in 1998. He was a Rockefeller
Foundation PhD fellow from 1982 to 1985.
In 1991, he received an award for his
outstanding contribution to China’s
modernization from the Education
Commission and the Ministry of Personnel
Management.
Emil Q. Javier appointed as
TAC chair
Former IRRI board member and former
president of the University of the
Philippines (UP) System, Dr Emil Q. Javier,
is the new chair of CGIAR’s Technical
35

E.Q. Javier
Advisory Committee (TAC) effective
January 2000. Dr Javier was the unanimous
choice of the search committee whose
recommendation was fully endorsed by
the CGIAR system.
Dr Javier’s distinguished national
and international career as a scientist,
administrator, and government leader and
his involvement with the CGIAR system as
chair of the Secretariat Review Team and
vice chair of the IRRI Board of Trustees,
will help reposition the international panel
as an important mechanism for scientific
research and economic development.
The CGIAR advisory committee
provides independent but strategic
scientific advice and guidance to investors
in setting their agricultural priorities and
resource allocations.
“Dr Javier is naturally suited to join
the eminent line of TAC chairs established
by the renowned Australian scientist, Sir
John Crawford. He is particularly suited to
provide the CGIAR with strategic advice
and guidance as it confronts the challenges
that lie ahead,” said Dr Ismail Serageldin,
CGIAR chair, in formally announcing the
appointment in Washington.
Dr Javier was president of the UP
System from 1993 to 1999 and served as
Philippine minister of science from 1985
to 1986. He also served as director-general
of the Taiwan-based Asian Vegetable
Research and Development Center and a
member of the World Food Prize Selection
Committee. He is a member of the
Philippine Academy of Science and
Technology, the Third World Academy of
Science, and the World Academy of Arts
and Sciences.
36
Padolina appointed as DDG
for partnerships
Dr William G. Padolina was recently
appointed by the IRRI board as the
Institute’s new deputy director general for
partnerships.
Before this appointment, he served
as IRRI’s director for external relations,
where he led several different units, all of
them involved with the Institute’s many
different partners and collaborators. His
responsibilities included resource
mobilization, relations with the E. Javier
Philippines, IRRI’s research activities with
other countries, and matters relating to
intellectual property rights, training of rice New INGER coordinator
scientists, science publishing, and public
awareness. Dr Edwin Javier was recently appointed as
IRRI’s partnerships include relations the new coordinator of the International
with national agricultural research systems, Network for the Genetic Evaluation of Rice
technology evaluation networks, research (INGER) based at the Genetic Resources
networks and consortia, bilateral national Center, IRRI. Dr Javier was the plant
and shuttle research programs as well as breeder of the Cambodia-IRRI-Australia
joint ventures. Project from 1993 to 1998.
Under Dr Padolina’s leadership,
Prior to that, he served as the FAO
IRRI expects to increase, strengthen, and
enhance national research capacities in the rice breeder in Sri Lanka (1981-87, 1989-
region, and ensure greater collaboration 93); FAO consultant to Fiji, Papua New
across political borders and national Guinea, and DPR Korea; project leader on
barriers. rice activities and tobacco breeding in
Dr Padolina was a former Cabinet several national agencies in the
member in the Philippine government, Philippines; and instructor, assistant and
where he served as secretary of Science associate professor at UPLB.
and Technology from 1995 to 1998. He has The plant breeding and genetics
also served as assistant to the president of specialist has received several national
the University of the Philippines System, awards for his breeding work and teaching
vice chancellor of academic affairs of UPLB, in crop science.
and director of the National Institutes of
Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology
of UPLB.
Angara and Nemenzo join
W. G. Padolina
IRRI Board
Former Senator Edgardo Angara, secretary
of the Philippine Department of
Agriculture, and Dr Francisco Nemenzo,
the new president of the University of the
Philippines System (UP) joined the IRRI
Board of Trustees as a result of their
appointment in their new positions.
Secretary Angara and Dr Nemenzo
succeeded former Acting Agriculture
Secretary William D. Dar and former UP
President Emil Q. Javier, respectively. Dr
December 1999
Javier will assume his new post as chair of
the Technical Advisory Committee of the
Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR) on 1
January 2000, while Dr Dar has been
appointed as director general of another
CGIAR center, the International Crops
Research Institute for the Semiarid Tropics
(ICRISAT) based in India.
In welcoming the two new Board
members, Dr Ronald P. Cantrell, IRRI’s
director general, said that the Institute was
very fortunate to have access to the
experience, knowledge, and expertise of
both Secretary Angara and Dr Nemenzo.
“We are looking forward to working with
them because of their excellent
educational credentials. I am sure they will
make a big difference to the Board and to
IRRI’s operations, especially in the
Philippines,” Dr Cantrell said.
Secretary Angara served as Senate
president from 1993 to 1995 and is best
identified with landmark laws in education,
health, and culture and the arts. He was
the principal author of the Agriculture and
Fisheries Modernization Act. He served
previously on the IRRI Board of Trustees
(as UP president) from 1981 to 1987 as well
as on the Board of Trustees of the
International Center for Living Aquatic
Resources Management.
Dr Nemenzo was dean of the UP
College of Arts and Sciences from 1976 to
1981, a senior research fellow at the
Australian National University in Canberra
from 1982 to 1985, UP faculty regent from
1988 to 1989, and served as chancellor of
UP Visayas from 1989 to 1992. He
coauthored the books The Philippines
After Marcos (London/New York 1985)
and The Sovereign Quest: Freedom from
Foreign Military Bases (Manila 1988).
Dr Roelof Rabbinge of The
Netherlands heads the 15-member Board
of Trustees that governs IRRI. Dr Cantrell,
Secretary Angara, and Dr Nemenzo are ex
officio members.
International experts make up the
Board’s other 12 members-at-large. They
come primarily from rice-producing
countries and donor entities.
They are Ms Makiko Arima-Sakai
(communications and journalism, Japan);
Dr Sjarifudin Baharsjah (agricultural
IRRN 24.3
E. Angara F. Nemenzo
economics, Indonesia); Dr E.A. Siddiq attention to the livelihoods and nutritional
security of the poor.
(genetics and plant breeding, India); Dr
Dr Swaminathan’s work in crop
Hiroshi Fujimaki (genetics and plant
genetics and sustainable agricultural
breeding, Japan); Ms Angeline Saziso
development in India and the Third World
Kamba (public service and human
earned him the first World Food Prize in
resource management, Zimbabwe); Dr
1987, the Tyler and Honda Prizes in 1991,
Lene Lange (microbiology, Denmark); Dr
and the UNEP Sasakawa Award in 1994.
Calvin O. Qualset (genetics and genetic
Before joining IRRI, Dr Swaminathan
resources, United States); Dr Siene
had been the director of the Indian
Saphangthong (agronomy, Lao People’s
Agricultural Research Institute (1966-71),
Democratic Republic); Dr Emanuel
director general of the Indian Council of
Adilson S. Serrão (agronomy, Brazil); Dr
Agricultural Research (1972-80), and India’s
Jian Song (engineering and education, secretary of agriculture (1980-81). As
People’s Republic of China); and Dr secretary of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Mechai Viravaidya (population and Cooperation, he developed a strong food
community development, Thailand). security system in India.
After leaving IRRI, he created the M.S.
Swaminathan Research Foundation initially
using funds from the prizes he received as
Time names Swaminathan part of the awards. The foundation is
influential Asian devoted to promoting environmental
protection and sustainable agriculture.
Dr M.S. Swaminathan, IRRI director general The others on the Time list include
from 1982 to 1988, was named by Time Mohandas Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore,
Magazine as one of the 20 most influential Corazon Aquino, and Emperor Hirohito.
Asians of the 20 th century. In naming
Swaminathan to the exclusive list, Time
editors stated that “as father of India’s Green
Revolution, he brought blessings to the
service of a hungry Asia.”
As head of IRRI, Dr Swaminathan was
cited for developing new and innovative
approaches to training and technology
sharing. He also forged stronger
collaborative research ties with national
agricultural programs and universities,
sharpened the Institute’s focus on
sustainability, and had a sincere concern for
the environment, equity, and the role of
women. He was also praised for his constant
M.S. Swaminathan
37
Dr Luisa P. Ejercito-Estrada, Philippine First Lady (on podium), keynoted the Nutrition Conference held at IRRI on 5-7 October 1999. Others in
the photo (from left to right) are Dr Samson C.S. Tsou, director general of the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center;The Hon.
Minister Mahiuddin Khan Alamgir, state minister for Planning, Bangladesh; Dr Per Pinstrup Andersen, director general of the International
Food Policy and Research Institute, and Dr Ronald P. Cantrell, IRRI director general.

IRRI hosts nutrition conference
Improving human nutrition through
agriculture: the role of international
agricultural research was the theme of an
international conference on nutrition
organized by the International Food Policy
Research Institute (IFPRI) at IRRI in
October. The First Lady of the Philippines,
Dr Luisa P. Ejercito-Estrada, keynoted the
opening program.
In her keynote address, the First
Lady, a medical doctor, stressed the
importance that the government has put
on nutrition and health concerns. She said
that food security is one of the key
priorities of the current government
administration. She cited some of the
strategies that the government has
undertaken to combat the problem of
malnutrition, such as various food
fortification projects and the national
advocacy movement on ending hidden
hunger.
Dr Estrada challenged the
participants in coming up with strategies
for using agriculture as a valuable input in
the campaign against micronutrient
malnutrition. She enjoined international
research organizations, nongovernment
organizations (NGOs), the academe, and
the industry represented in the conference
to (1) breed and develop more nutrient-
dense and nutrient-filled crops, especially
staples, and (2) promote and encourage
the production of micronutrient-rich food
products.
The underlying goal of the
conference was to bring international
nutrition and international agricultural
communities together to evaluate current
partnerships and to identify promising
areas for future partnerships. More than
60 scientists, nutrition experts,
policymakers, and representatives from
international research centers, national
agencies, academic institutions, NGOs, the
donor community, and the private sector
participated in the 3-day meeting.
During the conference, recent
results from CGIAR efforts to enhance the
nutrition impact of international
agricultural research were presented and
discussed. In particular, the results of 4
years of work evolving from the CGIAR
Micronutrient Project were featured. This
project, which involves four CGIAR centers
(IFPRI, IRRI, CIMMYT, and CIP), seeks to
breed food staple crops that are dense in
micronutrients.
Source: Public Awareness Unit and IRRI Hotline

38 December 1999
 New IRRI Publications

Genetic Improvement of Rice

Rice Tungro Disease Management for Water-Limited Environments
T.C.B. Chancellor, O. Azzam, and K.L. Heong O. Ito, J. O’Toole, and B. Hardy

The Quest for Nitrogen Fixation

A Rice Village Saga in Rice
Y. Hayami and M. Kikuchi J.K. Ladha and P.M. Reddy

INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE

MCPO Box 3127, Makati City 1271, Philippines

Printed Matter

ISSN 0115-0944