JV SALAZAR

Chemistry Exam Study Sheet Ch. 4

4.1 Ionic Compound: a compound composed of oppositely charged ions and the electrons are transferred i.e. Binary Ionic Compound: Metal and non-metal Ion: a charged particle formed from the loss or gain of one or more electrons Cation = Positive ion // + Anion = Negative ion // Valence Electron: an electron in the outermost occupied energy level Multivalent Metal: Metals that can form different ions, depending on the chemical reaction they undergo (i.e. copper can form ions with a 1+ or 2+ charge) Old naming system: -ic = highest charge/-ous = lowest charge New Naming System: Roman numerals after multivalent metal // ie. Copper (II) or Copper(I) Polyatomic Ion: an ion that is composed of more than one atom; groups of atoms that tend to stay together and carry and overall ionic charge Ternary Compound: a compound composed of three different elements

Common Polyatomic Ions (Know the bolded ones):

1+ Charge

3- Charge

2- Charge

1- Charge

Ammonium, NH4+

Phosphate, PO43Phosphite, PO33-

Carbonate, CO32Sulfate, SO42Sulfite, SO32Peroxide, O22-

Bicarbonate (Hydrogen Carbonate), HCO3Hydroxide, OHNitrate, NO3Nitrite, NO2Chlorate, ClO3-

4.2 Molecular/Covalent Compound: a compound formed when atoms of two or more different elements share electrons Molecule: a neutral particle composed of two or more atoms joined together by covalent bonds Binary Molecular Compound: a compound that is composed of two nonmetals joined by one or more covalent bonds
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Remember diatomic molecules: HONC FBI or HONCl FBrI <- Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Chorine, Fluorine, Bromine, Iodine How to name molecular compounds: however many atoms are in each element you use the prefix that corresponds to the number -> Diphosphorus Pentasulphide = P2S5 Note: Prefix is not needed for first atom if its only 1 // i.e. Carbon Dioxide, not Monocarbon Dioxide

Molecule Prefixes
Mono1 Di2 Tri3 Tetra4 Penta 5 4.3 Law of Conservation of Mass: In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products is always the same as the total mass of the reactants <- Antoine Dodson Lavoisier discovered this Reactant: a pure substance that undergoes a chemical change; the properties of the product are different from the properties of the reactants Chemical Reaction: a process in which new substances with new properties are formed Chemical Equation: a representation of what happens to the reactants and products during a chemical change Coefficient: a number that is placed in front of a chemical formula in a balanced chemical equation Hexa6 Hepta 7 Octa8 Nona9 Deca10

Examples of Types of Chemical Equations

Word Equation: Uses words, not chemical formulas hydrogen + oxygen -> water Skeleton Equation: Uses unbalanced chemical formulas H2 + O2 -> H2O Balanced Chemical Equation: Uses balanced chemical formulas 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O Remember States: (s), (l), (g), (aq) -> solid, liquid, gas, aqueous solution Practical Uses of the Conservation of Mass: Sometimes a chemical spill is cleaned up by adding another chemical which may also be toxic, so it is important to find out the exact amount of reactant needed so that no toxic chemical remains.

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Also, industrial chemistry utilizes this to minimize wasted chemicals/reactants, which can save them large amounts of money if they have use a lot of chemicals. Also, wasted chemicals can be harmful to the environment.

Chemistry Exam Study Sheet - Ch. 5

5.1 Evidence of Chemical Change:

Formation of a gas Formation of a precipitate Change in colour/odour Production of light and heat Change is difficult to reverse

Precipitate: an insoluble solid formed in a chemical reaction.

Classifying Chemical Reactions

Synthesis Reaction: a chemical reaction in which two or more reactants combine to produce a new product A + B -> AB // ie. 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O (reaction used to propel space shuttle) Decomposition Reaction: a chemical reaction in which a compound breaks down (decomposes) into two or more simpler compounds or elements AB -> A + B // ie. 2H2O -> 2H2 + O2 (reaction used as hydrogen fuel source/electrolysis) Single Displacement Reaction: a chemical reaction in which one element takes the place of another element in a compound A + BC -> AC + B (A is a metal) // ie. Zn + 2HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2 A + BC -> BA + C (A is a non-metal) // F2 + 2NaI -> I2 + 2NaF Double Displacement Reaction: a chemical reaction in which the positive ions of two different compounds exchange places, resulting in the formation of two new compounds- one of which may be a precipitate AB + DC -> AD + CB // 2AgNO3 + K2CrO4 -> Ag2CrO + 2KNO3 Combustion: Hydrocarbon + Oxygen (O2) = Water (H2O) + Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 5.3 This ch. shows examples of the use of chemical reactions in environmental issues

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Car exhaust sometimes doesnt fully combust and creates carbon monoxide and carbon soot. Catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a reaction and is regenerated at the end of the reaction Catalytic converters in cars can change unburned gasoline into CO2(g) and H2O(g). Car exhaust also creates nitrogen oxides (NO(g) and NO2(g)) which can contribute to smog and the formation of ground level ozone (O3(g)).
This is the only example from the book I put.

Chemistry Exam Study Sheet Ch. 6

6.1 Acid: a compound that produces hydrogen ions, H+(aq), when dissolved in water Forming Hydrogen Ions in Water: Acid dissolves in water and reacts with water to form hydrogen and -insert anion here- ions (ionization) e.g. Hydrogen chloride, when dissolved in water, reacts with the water to form ions, where the hydrogen ions and chlorine ions separate in the solution HCl(aq) -> H-(aq) + Cl-(aq) Binary Acid: an acid composed of hydrogen and a non-metal Naming Binary Acids: Classically: Hydro- + non-metal root + -ic // e.g. Hydrochloric Acid Hydrochloric Acid is naturally found in stomach acid IUPAC Modern Naming: Aqueous + Hydrogen + non-metal root + -ide // e.g. Aqueous Hydrogen Chloride It also is used in processing plastics and metals Oxoacid: an acid composed of hydrogen, oxygen, and another element or polyatomic ion Naming Oxoacids:
I made it look complicated but it really isnt lol

Anions that end in -ate: Classically: Replace -ate with -ic + acid // e.g. Sulfuric Acid H2SO4(aq) Sulfuric Acid is commonly used in most car batteries IUPAC Modern Naming:

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Aqueous + Hydrogen + Anion // e.g. Aqueous Hydrogen Sulfate Anions that end in -ite: Classically: Replace -ite with -ous + acid // e.g. Sulfurous Acid H2SO3(aq) Sulfurous Acid is commonly used in disinfecting and bleaching IUPAC Modern Naming: Aqueous + Hydrogen + Anion // e.g. Aqueous Hydrogen Sulfite Base: a compound that forms hydroxide ions, OH-(aq), when dissolved in water Forming Hydroxide Ions in Water: Base dissolves in water to form hydroxide and -insert cation here- (dissociation) e.g. Sodium hydroxide, when dissolved in water, reacts with the water to form ions, where the sodium ions and hydroxide ions separate in the solution NaOH(aq) > Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) Naming Bases: Use ionic compound naming rules e.g. NaOH -> sodium hydroxide Used, sometimes in conjunction with Cl2 and H2 (e.g. purifying drinking water), to make paper, glass, and soap 6.2 pH scale: a numeric scale ranging from 0 to 14 that is used to classify aqueous solutions as acidic, basic, or neutral pH: the measure of the concentration of H+ ions in solutions Acidic Solutions: pH < 7 Greater number of hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions in solution e.g. Lemons pH 2, hydrochloric acid (gastric fluids in stomach) pH between 1 and 2, milk pH 6 Basic Solutions: pH > 7 Greater number of hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions in solution e.g. Oven cleaner pH 13, eggs pH 8 Neutral Solutions: pH = 7
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Same number of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in solution e.g. Pure water, sodium chloride, sugar pH is a logarithmic scale, meaning that one unit on the scale is equivalent to a tenfold change in concentration -> pH 3 is 10x more acidic as pH 4 // pH 10 is 1000x less basic than pH 13 pH = -log10[H+] Exponential Form: by = x (e.g. 103 = 1000) Logarithmic Form: logbx = y (e.g. log101000 = 3 // In other words, 10 to the power of x is 1000, and x = 3) To find H+ concentration or pH from: H+ = 10-pH pH = -log10[H+] e.g. -> [H+] = 0.1 mol/L pH = -log10[0.1] = 1 Indicator: a chemical that changes colour as the concentrations of H+ or OHchanges i.e. red/blue litmus paper, pH meter, phenolphthalein, cabbage indicator, universal indicator (changes from red to blue for acid to base), etc.

Acid, Neutral, Base Comparison Chart Acid

Neutral

Base

sour produces H+ ions in solution pH < 7 red litmus colourless phenolphthalein corrosive conducts electricity most solutions are clear in appearance

do not produce H+ or OH- ion in solution pH = 7 does not change colour with cabbage indicator will not conduct electricity

bitter slippery feel produces OH- ions in solution pH > 7 blue litmus pink phenolphthalein conducts electricity most solutions are clear in appearance

6.3

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Neutralization: the reaction of an acid and a base to produce a salt and water e.g. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) -> H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) Salt: ionic compounds that result in the neutralization of an acid and a base // any ionic compound that is neither an acid or a base Note: Salts are usually is soluble in water and dont form precipitates Practical Application of Neutralizations: Antacids: to calm an over acidic stomach/heartburn To Neutralize Acid Spills: H2SO4(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) -> CaSo4(aq) + 2H2O(l) Acid Precipitation: Fumes from a cars engine create nitrogen oxides (NOX), which react with water to form acid e.g. NO2(g) + H2O(l) -> HNO3(aq) Also, sulphur oxides from industrial processes can cause acid precipitation in the form of sulphuric acid. // Scrubbers on stop of smoke stacks prevents this; turns SO2(g) into a solid which is then discarded Acid precipitation can change water pH and cause aquatic life to die and disrupt the food chain. Liming: the application of basic materials, typically lime-based (usually calcium carbonate), to renew acidified lakes and regions // liming can renew acidified lakes by making them more neutral Again, in this ch. there are more
environmental examples but Im not gonna put them on

MISCELLANEOUS

Atomic Particles
# of electrons = # of protons in nucleus // # of neutrons can vary Atoms masses are measure in atomic mass units or u. Mass number is an average of Isotope: atoms of the same element with different # of neutrons // 2+ isotopes are possible

Chemicals and Chemical Changes

Pure substance: made of identical particles // compounds (can be broken down) & elements (cant be broken down) Mixture: made up of different types of particles // mechanical mixtures (two visible components) & solutions (only one visible element) Physical Property: characteristics of a substance

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Chemical Property: characteristics of what happens when a substance changes into a new substance

Types of Diagrams
Bohr-Rutherford Diagrams: # of protons and neutrons in a circle with lines beside it indicating the # of electrons in each electron shell e.g. Chlorine -> Bohr Diagram: same as Bohr-Rutherford except the element symbol is in the circle instead of the # of protons and # of neutrons Lewis Structures: shows valence electrons as dots around the elements symbol Remember: [Li]+[F]- -> LiF e.g. Chlorine -> (Remember that dots go around the negative one in brackets ) Period Table References Alkali Metals: 1st column Note: Hydrogen is its own group, NOT part of the Alkali Metals Alkaline Earth Metals: 2nd column Halogens: 2nd last/17th column Noble Gases: last/18th column Columns: can also be referred to as groups or families // they also show how many valence electrons in the outer shell Atomic Number: Number at the top left corner of the element box; shows how many electrons/protons the element has Mass Number: Subtract atomic numbers from this to find the # of neutrons