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Control Systems/Realizations
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The Wikibook of: Table of Contents All Versions PDF Version

Control Systems ← MIMO Systems Gain → Glossary

and Control Engineering

[edit] Realization
Realization is the process of taking a mathematical model of a system (either in the
Laplace domain or the State-Space domain), and creating a physical system. Some
systems are not realizable.

An important point to keep in mind is that the Laplace domain representation, and the
state-space representations are equivalent, and both representations describe the same
physical systems. We want, therefore, a way to convert between the two representations,
because each one is well suited for particular methods of analysis.

The state-space representation, for instance, is preferable when it comes time to move the
system design from the drawing board to a constructed physical device. For that reason,
we call the process of converting a system from the Laplace representation to the state-
space representation "realization".

[edit] Realization Conditions

Note:
Discrete systems G(z) are also realizable if these conditions are satisfied.

• A transfer function G(s) is realizable if and only if the system can be described by
a finite-dimensional state-space equation.
• (A B C D), an ordered set of the four system matrices, is called a realization of
the system G(s). If the system can be expressed as such an ordered quadruple, the
system is realizable.
 • A system G is realizable if and only if the transfer matrix G(s) is a proper rational
matrix. In other words, every entry in the matrix G(s) (only 1 for SISO systems)
is a rational polynomial, and if the degree of the denominator is higher or equal to
the degree of the numerator.

We've already covered the method for realizing a SISO system, the remainder of this
chapter will talk about the general method of realizing a MIMO system.

[edit] Realizing the Transfer Matrix

We can decompose a transfer matrix G(s) into a strictly proper transfer matrix:

Where Gsp(s) is a strictly proper transfer matrix. Also, we can use this to find the value of
our D matrix:

We can define d(s) to be the lowest common denominator polynomial of all the entries in
G(s):

Remember, q is the number of inputs, p is the number of internal system states, and r is
the number of outputs.

Then we can define Gsp as:

Where

And the Ni are p × q constant matrices.

If we remember our method for converting a transfer function to a state-space equation,

we can follow the same general method, except that the new matrix A will be a block
matrix, where each block is the size of the transfer matrix:
← MIMO Systems Control Systems Gain →
Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Control_Systems/Realizations"
Subject: Control Systems

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Control Systems/Gain
From Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection

< Control Systems

Jump to: navigation, search
 The Wikibook of: Table of Contents All Versions PDF Version

Control Systems ← Realizations Block Diagrams → Glossary

and Control Engineering

This page of the Control Systems book is a stub. You can help by expanding this page,
but make sure to follow the local manual of style. If you would like to help, but you
don't know how, you can ask on the main discussion page. (All Stubs)
Contents
[hide]

• 1 What is Gain?
o 1.1 Example: Gain
• 2 Responses to Gain
• 3 Gain and Stability

o 3.1 Conditional Stability

[edit] What is Gain?

Gain is a proportional value that shows the relationship between the magnitude of the
input to the magnitude of the output signal at steady state. Many systems contain a
method by which the gain can be altered, providing more or less "power" to the system.
However, increasing gain or decreasing gain beyond a particular safety zone can cause
the system to become unstable.

Consider the given second-order system:

We can include an arbitrary gain term, K in this system that will represent an
amplification, or a power increase:

In a state-space system, the gain term k can be inserted as follows:

x'(t) = Ax(t) + kBu(t)

y(t) = Cx(t) + kDu(t)
The gain term can also be inserted into other places in the system, and in those cases the
equations will be slightly different.

[edit] Example: Gain

Here are some good examples of arbitrary gain values being used in physical systems:

Volume Knob
On your stereo there is a volume knob that controls the gain of your amplifier
circuit. Higher levels of volume (turning the volume "up") corresponds to higher
amplification of the sound signal.
Gas Pedal
The gas pedal in your car is an example of gain. Pressing harder on the gas pedal
causes the engine to receive more gas, and causes the engine to output higher
RPMs.
Brightness Buttons
Most computer monitors come with brightness buttons that control how bright the
screen image is. More brightness causes more power to be outputed to the screen.

[edit] Responses to Gain

As the gain to a system increases, generally the rise-time decreases, the percent overshoot
increases, and the settling time increases. However, these relationships are not always the
same. A critically damped system, for example, may decrease in rise time while not
experiencing any effects of percent overshoot or settling time.

[edit] Gain and Stability

If the gain increases to a high enough extent, some systems can become unstable. We will
examine this effect in the chapter on Root Locus.

[edit] Conditional Stability

Systems that are stable for some gain values, and unstable for other values are called
conditionally stable systems. The stability is conditional upon the the value of the gain,
and often times the threshold where the system becomes unstable is important to find.

← Realizations Control Systems Block Diagrams →

Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Control_Systems/Gain"
Subjects: Control Systems | Control Systems/Stubs

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Control Systems/Block Diagrams

From Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection

< Control Systems

Jump to: navigation, search
The Wikibook of: Table of Contents All Versions PDF Version

Control Systems ← Gain Feedback Loops → Glossary

and Control Engineering

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Block Diagram Representation

• 2 Systems in Series
o 2.1 Series Transfer Functions
o 2.2 Series State Space
• 3 Systems in Parallel
• 4 State Space Model
o 4.1 In the Laplace Domain
 • 5 Adders and Multipliers
• 6 Simplifying Block Diagrams

• 7 External Sites

[edit] Block Diagram Representation

When designing or analyzing a system, often it is useful to model the system graphically.
Block Diagrams are a useful and simple method for analyzing a system graphically. A
"block" looks on paper exactly how it sounds:

If system H has a time-domain impulse response h(t), we can express y(t) as:

y(t) = u(t) * h(t)

Where the asterisk ( * ) denotes convolution. If system H has a Laplace-domain transfer

function H(s), we show the relationship between the input and the output as:

Y(s) = U(s)H(s)

[edit] Systems in Series

When two or more systems are in series, they can be combined into a single
representative system, with a transfer function that is the sum of the individual systems.

If we have two systems, f(t) and g(t), we can put them in series with one another so that
the output of system f(t) is the input to system g(t). Now, we can analyze them depending
on whether we are using our classical or modern methods.
If we define the output of the first system as h(t), we can define h(t) as:

h(t) = x(t) * f(t)

Now, we can define the system output y(t) in terms of h(t) as:

y(t) = h(t) * g(t)

We can expand h(t):

y(t) = [x(t) * f(t)] * g(t)

But, since convolution is associative, we can re-write this as:

y(t) = x(t) * [f(t) * g(t)]

Our system can be simplified therefore as such:

[edit] Series Transfer Functions

If two or more systems are in series with one another, the total transfer function of the
series is the product of all the individual system transfer functions.

In the time domain we know that:

y(t) = x(t) * [f(t) * g(t)]

But, in the frequency domain we know that convolution becomes multiplication, so we

can re-write this as:

Y(s) = X(s)[F(s)G(s)]

We can represent our system in the frequency domain as:

[edit] Series State Space

If we have two systems in series (say system F and system G), where the output of F is
the input to system G, we can write out the state-space equations for each individual
system.

System 1:

xF' = AFxF + BFu

yF = CFxF + DFu

System 2:

XG' = AGxG + BGyF

YG = CGxG + DGyF

And we can write substitute these equations together form the complete response of
system H, that has input u, and output yG:

[Series state equation]

[Series output equation]

[edit] Systems in Parallel

Blocks may not be placed in parallel without the use of an adder. Blocks connected by an
adder as shown above have a total transfer function of:

Y(s) = X(s)[F(s) + G(s)]

Since the Laplace transform is linear, we can easily transfer this to the time domain by
converting the multiplication to convolution:

y(t) = x(t) * [f(t) + g(t)]

[edit] State Space Model

The state-space equations, with non-zero A, B, C, and D matrices conceptually model the
following system:
In this image, the strange-looking block in the center is either an integrator or an ideal
delay, and can be represented in the transfer domain as:

or

Depending on the time characteristics of the system. If we only consider continuous-time

systems, we can replace the funny block in the center with an integrator:

[edit] In the Laplace Domain

The state space model of the above system, if A, B, C, and D are transfer functions A(s),
B(s), C(s) and D(s) of the individual subsystems, and if U(s) and Y(s) represent a single
input and output, can be written as follows:

We will explain how we got this result, and how we deal with feedforward and feedback
loop structures in the next chapter.

[edit] Adders and Multipliers

Some systems may have dedicated summation or multiplication devices, that
automatically add or multiply the transfer functions of multiple systems together

[edit] Simplifying Block Diagrams

Block diagrams can be systematically simplified.

Transforma
Equation Block Diagram Equivalent Block Diagram
tion
 Cascaded
1
Blocks

Combinin
2 g Blocks
in Parallel
Removin
g a Block
3 from a
Forward
Loop
Eliminati
ng a
4
Feedback
Loop
Removin
g a Block
5 from a
Feedback
Loop

Rearrangi
ng
6
Summing
Junctions

Moving a
Summing Image:Moving Summing Image:Moving Summing
7 Juction in Junction in front of Block Junction in front of Block
front of a 1.svg 2.svg
Block
Moving a
Summing Image:Moving Summing Image:Moving Summing
8 Juction Junction beyond Block Junction beyond Block
beyond a 1.svg 2.svg
Block
9 Moving a Image:Moving Takeoff Image:Moving Takeoff
Takeoff Point in front of Block Point in front of Block 2.svg
 Point in
front of a 1.svg
Block
Moving a
Takeoff
1 Image:Moving Takeoff Image:Moving Takeoff
Point
0 Point beyond Block 1.svg Point beyond Block2.svg
beyond a
Block
Moving a
Takeoff Image:Moving Takeoff Image:Moving Takeoff
1
Point in Point in front Summing Point in front Summing
1
front of a Junction 1.svg Junction 2.svg
Block
Moving a
Takeoff
Image:Moving Takeoff Image:Moving Takeoff
1 Point
Point beyond Summing Point beyond Summing
2 beyond a
Junction 1.svg Junction 2.svg
Summing
Junction

[edit] External Sites

SISO Block Diagram with transfer functions on ControlTheoryPro.com

← Gain Control Systems Feedback Loops →

Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Control_Systems/Block_Diagrams"
Subject: Control Systems

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