Chapter 5.

Metal Casting Processes ()

5.1 Introduction Definition of casting? (p.188) Advantages of casting (p.188) - Intricate shapes in a single piece - Almost final shape - Various sizes - All metal can be cast Important factors in casting - Solidification () - Flow of molten metal ( ) - Heat transfer () - Mold materials () (p.189)

5.2 Solidification of Metals ( ) Pure metal () p.189

FIGURE 5.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals. Note that freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time.

FIGURE 3.12 Schematic illustration of the various stages during solidification of molten metal. Each small square represents a unit cell. (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal. Note that the crystallographic orientation of each site is different. (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as solidification continues. (d) Solidified metal, showing individual grains () and grain boundaries ( ). Note the different angles at which neighboring grains meet each other. (p.91)

FIGURE 3.2

The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure

FIGURE 3.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure

FIGURE 3.4

The hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure

 Alloy ()

pp.190-191

Solid solution (): Substitution: Brass (Zn in Cu), Interstial: Carbon steel (C in Fe) Intermetallic compound ( ): CuAl2 Two-phase alloy (2): Pb-Cu alloy = mixture of Pb & Cu FIGURE 3.9 Various defects in a single-crystal lattice.

FIGURE 5.2 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed throughout the structure of a two-phase system, such as lead-copper alloy. The grains represent lead in solid solution of copper, and the particles are lead as a second phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a two-phase system, consisting of two sets of grains: dark and light. Dark and light grains have their own compositions and properties.

 Equilibrium phase diagram () Liquidus (), Solidus ()

(pp.191-193)

FIGURE 5.3 Phase diagram for nickel-copper alloy system obtained by a low rate of solidification. Note that pure nickel and pure copper each have one freezing or melting temperature, but their alloy solidifies over a range of temperature. The top circle on the right depicts the nucleation of crystals; the second circle shows the formation of dendrites; and the bottom circle shows the solidified alloy with grain boundaries.

 Fe-Fe3C phase diagram (pp.193-195) Ferrite, Austenite, Cementite Eutectoid reaction (), Pearlite, Eutectoid ferrite, Eutectoid cementite

FIGURE 5.4 (a) The iron-iron carbide phase diagram. (b) Detailed view of the microstructures above and below of 727C (1341F). Because of the importance of steel as an engineering material, this diagram is one of the most important phase diagrams

5.3 Cast Structure () Regions in cast structure (p.195) Chill zone () Columnar zone () Equiaxed zone () Cooling rate effect on grain size (p.198) Coarse Fine Amorphous () Grain size effect on casting properties Smaller grain exhibits; Higher strength & hardness Lower ductility Lower microporosity Lower tendency for cracking during solidificatio (Correct a mistake in textbook) (refer to 3.4.1 in p.92) FIGURE 5.5 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals, with preferred texture at the cool mold wall. Note in the middle of the figure that only favorable oriented grains grow away from the mold surface; (b) solid-solution alloys and (c) heterogeneous nucleation of grains by adding nucleating agent (refer to p.199).

 Crystal defect ( )

FIGURE 3.9

Various defects in a single-crystal lattice.

FIGURE 3.10 (a) Edge dislocation (), a linear defect at the edge of an extra plane of atoms. (b) Screw dislocation, a helical defect in a three-dimensional lattice of atoms.

Movement of edge dislocation

FIGURE 3.11 Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress. Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals is much lower than that predicted by atomic theory

5.4 Fluid Flow & Heat Transfer 5.4.1 Fluid Flow () Gating system () p.199 Pouring basin = Pouring cup () Sprue (): profile (p.201) Runner () Gate () Functions of gating system (p.202) Trap contaminants Avoid dross formation & introduction of impurities Avoid turbulence () Dross formation Gas entrapment () Control the flow rate Misrun Cold shut () Mold wash () Filtering: dross, slag, impurities FIGURE 5.10 Schematic illustration of a typical sand mold () showing various features.

5.4.2 Fluidity () Fluidity depends on molten metal characteristics & casting parameters Molten metal characteristics (p.203) Viscosity () Surface tension () Inclusion () Solidification pattern of alloy: freezing range Casting parameters (p.204) Mold design Mold material & its surface characteristics Thermal conductivity of mold Roughness of mold surface Heating of mold Degree of superheat () Pouring rate Heat transfer Castability (p.204) Test for fluidity (p.204)

5.4.3 Heat Transfer () Influencing factors Casting material () Mold material () Process parameters ()

FIGURE 5.11 Temperature distribution at the mold wall and liquid-metal interface during solidification of metals in casting

5.4.4 Solidification Time () Chvorinov's rule (p.205):

t= C ( Volume ) Sur face ar ea
n

FIGURE 5.12 Solidified skin on a steel casting; the remaining molten metal is poured out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is based on this principle

5.4.5 Shrinkage ()

p.206

Three stages of shrinkage Effect of shrinkage: dimensional change (), cracking

TABLE 5.1 Volumetric solidification contraction or expansion for various cast metals.

5.5 Melting Practice & Furnace Charge (): Metal, Alloying elements, Flux () Melting furnace () Electric arc furnace () Induction furnace (): Coreless type Core type = Channel type Crucible furnace () Cupola ()

5.7 Ingot Casting & Continuous Casting (p.214) Ingot casting Gas entrapment reduction method: Bottom pouring Hot top 5.7.1 Ferrous alloy ingot Porosity due to dissolved gas (eg. O2) Steel ingot types: Killed steel (by Al) Semi-killed steel Rimmed steel

5.7.2 Continuous casting () = Strand casting 5.7.3 strip casting

FIGURE 5.15 (a) The continuous-casting process for steel. Note that the platform is about 20 m (65 ft) above ground level. (b) Continuous strip casting of nonferrous metal strip

5.8 Expendable-Mold, Permanent-Pattern Casting Processes (p.217) Terminology Expendable mold ( ) Permanent mold () Expendable pattern ( ) Permanent pattern () Expendable-mold, permanent-pattern casting processes Sand casting () Shell-mold casting Plaster-mold casting () Ceramic-mold casting () Vacuum casting ()

5.8.1 Sand casting Characteristics of sand Inexpensive Good resistance to high temperature Good permeability () Good collapsibility (/) Types of sand mold Green sand mold () Skin-dried mold () No-bake mold Cold-box mold Pattern One-piece pattern () Split pattern () Match-plate pattern ()

 Core Core print Chaplet

 Sand-molding machine () Squeeze () Jolt () Vertical flaskless Sandslinger Impact vacuum

 Sand casting operation

Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c) Patterns have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers. (continued)

(g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (g) The drag half is produced in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned with pins. (i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled and the casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when necessary).

Features of sand casting (p.219)

5.8.2 Shell-mold casting

FIGURE 5.17 Schematic illustration of the shell-molding process, also called the dump-box technique

5.8.3 Plaster-mold casting

5.8.4 Ceramic-mold casting

FIGURE 5.18 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

5.8.5 Vacuum casting

FIGURE 5.19 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a bottom gate. (a) before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal.

5.9 Expendable-Mold, Expendable-Pattern Casting Processes (p.223) 5.9.1 Expendable-Pattern Casting = Lost foam casting = Evaporative pattern casting

FIGURE 5.20 Schematic illustration of the expendable-pattern casting process, also known as lost-foam or evaporative-pattern casting.

5.9.2 Investment Casting = Lost-wax process

FIGURE 5.21 Schematic illustration of investment casting (lost wax process). Castings by this method can be made with very fine detail and from a variety of metals.

FIGURE 5.22 Microstructure of a rotor that has been investment cast (top) and conventionally cast (bottom).

5.10 Permanent-Mold Casting Processes (p.227) Permanent-mold Permanent-mold casting processes Slush casting Low-pressure casting () Die casting Centrifugal casting () Squeeze casting

FIGURE 5.12 Solidified skin on a steel casting; the remaining molten metal is poured out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is based on this principle

5.10.2 Pressure casting = Low pressure casting

FIGURE 5.23 The pressure casting process, utilizing graphite molds for the production of steel railroad wheels

Features: Compensation of shrinkage Reduction in entrapped gas Reduction in contaminants

5.10.3 Die casting = Pressure die casting

 Hot-chamber process

FIGURE 5.24 Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process.

 Cold-chamber process

FIGURE 5.25 Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. These machines are large compared to the size of the casting, because high forces are required to keep the two halves of the die closed under pressure.

 Die

Die materials Heat checking Lubricant

TABLE 5.6 Properties and typical applications of common die-casting alloys.

5.10.4 Centrifugal casting True centrifugal casting

FIGURE 5.26 Centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped hollow parts can be cast by this process.

Vertical type

 Semicentrifugal casting Centrifuging

FIGURE 5.27 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal forces

5.10.5 Squeeze casting

FIGURE 5.28 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the advantages of casting and forging.

5.11.8 Cleaning, finishing & Inspecting castings

5.12 Design Considerations (p.245) 5.12.1 Defects in castings Basic categories of casting defects Metallic projection: fin, flash

Cavity: blowhole, shrinkage cavity, pinhole

<shrinkage cavity>

<X-ray image: Pinholes>

 Discontinuity: crack, hot tearing, cold shut

Defective surface: scar

<surface defect>

Incomplete casting: misrun Incorrect dimension/shape Inclusion

 Porosity () Adverse effects: loss of ductility, poor surface finish, permeable Porosity due to shrinkage Mechanism Remedies: - Chill () - High k mold material - Hot isostatic pressing of casting

FIGURE 5.35 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills () (dark areas at corners), used in castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a larger volume of metal, as shown in (c).

 Porosity due to gas Sources of gas: - Dissolved gas - Gas from reaction between the molten metal and the mold material Remedies: - Gas flushing - Deoxidation (eg) N2 or Cl bubbles eliminate H2 gas in molten Aluminum. (eg) Killed steel - Melting & pouring in a vacuum

<microporosity due to gas>

FIGURE 5.36 Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum

5.12.2 General design considerations Design of cast parts Corners, angles, fillets, and section thickness - Corners, angles, fillets stress concentration, liquid-metal flow - section thickness Hot spot (): eliminated by small core or chill

FIGURE 5.37 (a) Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings. Note that sharp corners are avoided to reduce stress concentrations; (b, c, d) examples of designs showing the importance of maintaining uniform cross-sections in castings to avoid hot spots () and shrinkage cavities ().

[Elimination of shrinkage cavity with chill] [Elimination of shrinkage cavity with design modification]

 Flat area warping, poor surface finish Shrinkage: Shrinkage allowance ()

Staggered ribs: 1) reduce warping <surface defect> Draft () 2) prevent cracking due to shrinkage

Dimensional tolerance: As wide as possible Lettering & Marking: depression or protrusion Finishing operations: (eg) dimple for drilling

 Selecting the casting process TABLE 5.8 Casting Processes, and their Advantages and Limitations.

 Parting line () locations:

Height of casting Orientation of critical surface porosity Location of the parting line flash

Gate design & locations The number of gates Pouring time Location shrinkage cavity Fillet turbulence Distance between the gate and the sprue Length & cross-sectional area of gate Curved gate

 Runner design:

The number of gates Dross trap Height relative to the gate

Designing other features: Sprue, Pouring basin, Filter, Chill

5.12.3 Design principles for expendable-mold casting Mold layout Direction of solidification Riser design Shape & volume

Machining allowance ()

5.12.4 Design principles for permanent-mold casting

FIGURE 5.38 Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings.

5.12.5 Computer modeling of casting processes Fluid flow, heat transfer, microstructure 5.13 Economics of Casting

FIGURE 5.39 Economic comparison of making a part by two different casting processes. Note that because of the high cost of equipment, die casting is economical mainly for large production runs.