A marketing ‘barometer’ for EU accession through female

perceptions of role portrayals in advertising at the border

of Europe: a Cross-cultural study of Ukraine and Turkey
EMAC 2007 Iceland

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this article is to examine contemporary female response to gender
role portraying in advertising across two different countries at the border of the EU namely
Ukraine and Turkey. While their advertising history remains different both have been for a
long time influenced by western lifestyle perceptions and brands and would like to be part of
the EU.
Design/methodology/approach – Survey data, collected by questionnaires, 145 respondents
in Ukraine and 135 in Turkey were analysed using principal components analysis to identify
the underlying dimensions of attitudes towards gender role portraying in advertising. The
factor congruency technique was then used to examine the extent of similarity between the
two samples.
Findings –The result indicated significant difference in female responses between two
samples..
Research limitations/implications – The study was limited to a particular sample. Future
research should include media content analysis over a longer period of time. As well as more
qualitative techniques to understand better salient factors.
Practical implications –
Originality/value – This article examines consumer response to gender role portrayals in ads
in countries that have been seldom studied. Both being new potential EU candidates, we argue
that gender stereotype could also be use as a barometer of progress and closure towards a
more general EU accepted behaviour towards women in the industry.
Keywords Attitude, Gender Role Portrayal, Advertising, Ukraine, Turkey,
Paper type Research paper
Introduction

Many measures are currently used to evaluate the appropriateness of new member states
accession to the EU. Many have criticise these rules being too economistic, and a poor
reflection of the actual motivation, way of life and expectation of the population under
concerns. “Most ad campaigns invoke gender identity, drawing their imagery primarily from
the stereotyped iconography of masculinity and femininity” p.21. Stereotypically the male
embodies the active subject, while the female occupies the passive subject, these stereotypes
dictate what is seen as attractive, desired by others , and the ‘ideal’ to aspire to. Consequently
it can be seen that the image projected in advertising now, as in the past, provides a key to
understanding how we make sense of ourselves and the world we live in maintains that socio-
cultural identity concerns questions such as ‘who are we and who are the others?’ and ‘how
are we related to each other?’. We contend here that these dimensions should be seen as key
factor in measuring ‘real possible’ European integration. Consequently advertising influences
both cultural and individual concepts of identity, as individuals are enabled to use advertising
images as “visual department store[s] of symbolic possibilities that can be tried on, adopted,
altered, or discarded in keeping with their desired self” (Hirschman and Thompson, 1997,
p.54). Findings are derived from a survey encompassing 56 statements over five key
dimensions (general advertisement sensitivity (9), role portrayal (30), effect on company
image (3), purchase intention (4) and female consciousness (10)) explored in the literature.
This paper first provides a brief review of the literature concerning gender role portraying in
advertising, and feminine consciousness in our case study countries. Attention then turns to
the issue of methodology. The final section provides a synopsis and discussion of the more
salient themes which have arisen from our analysis and concluding statements.

Literature Review:
Gender role portraying in advertising – an overview
Gender stereotyping in advertising is a major debate since the late 1960s . It has been claimed
that women are often portrayed as dependent on men or subservient to them, e.g. in a home
setting; mostly sown as preoccupied with their physical attractiveness, behaving as sex objects
or decorations, and as product users or demonstrators. These stereotypical portrayals seem to
have even increased in some ways during the last decade (Ferguson, Soley, Maracek, Gilly in
Ford et al., 1998). Three main types of studies are usually carried out to measure gender role
portrayal including (a) content analysis of magazines and or television ads XXXX, (b) survey
and experimental studies of consumer groups’ role portraying XXX and (c) critical studies
concentrating on ideological themes and impacts XXXXX.

Role portrayal in advertisements has been recognised as affecting society members’ self-
concept, achievement aspiration and self-images (Moschis and Moore, 1982, in . The ‘ideal’
body image is associated with the “good life” , furthering individual’s desires to peruse such
an image. With our bodies becoming recognised as a montage upon which people attach
meanings , there is no counter argument in the literature that body image represents gender
identity whether attainable or not. Additionally p.233 contrive body image as a continual
process or ‘project’; arguing that bodies are “not accepted as given; rather they are malleable,
capable of being transformed and reconstructed”. This brings into question how reliable
female body image is as both a construction and symbol of feminity/masculinity, if it can be
“transformed and reconstructed” p.233 to portray roles or to be moulded to suit any purpose.
Most of these differences influence the degree of gender stereotyping in advertising of a given
country. Ads will differ for example regarding simple criteria such as models’ age, models’
type of fashion (e.g. seductive vs. modest), type of setting (working vs. lifestyle/leisure),
psychological state, models’ relation to depicted products etc. Indeed Sandikci’s model
proposes gender identity to be complex, fluid and multi-dimensional truly reflecting how
societies perceive gender. Furthermore, individuals undergo a process of constant negotiation
and renegotiation adding weight to this view. have concluded that gender remains central to
the world of advertising, with advertising playing “a strong role in promulgating dualistic
gender roles and prescribing…identities” . Not only does advertising broadcast gender
identity, it assists in the construction and reinforcement of gender identities . Moreover,
Schroeder maintains that advertising does not exist in a vacuum, it is connected to both media
and cultural worlds, and historical frameworks that inform “production, consumption,
circulation and interpretation” p.238 of images. Advertising affects us and we affect
advertising” (Lammon and Cooper, 1983 cf. , p.205). Advertising does not control us, nor is
it responsible for solely creating gender identities that must be adhered to. It influences us in
many subtle ways, creating images of ‘perfection’ leading to unattainable gender images, to
which we can only aspire but can also be used in other manners such as ‘proxy barometer’ in
other context such as EU accession.

Feminine consciousness and advertising in Turkey and Ukraine

Turkey has experienced a substantial increase in the number of well-educated women,
increasing income level and global penetration of Western consumer values since the early
1980s. Feminism encompasses a wider modernisation trend within the Turkish state and
society. During Ottoman times, private space was associated with different dressing codes,
harems, isolation from economic-political life and strong patriarchy prejudices; while public
space was a masculine dominated place. One of the differences of Turkish feminism
compared to western ideology lies in the ideal for sharing the public space . Turkish feminist
from that perspective are often secular and have to integrate within their movement the
‘Kemalist ideology’. Indeed, Turkish national identity, feminism and consumptions are often
mixed together as ‘positive nationalism’ Arat, 1994). Another aspect comes from an
increasingly vocal group of ‘islamist women’ emerging with more traditional understanding
of women’s roles and status. Here the definition of progress, discrimination, inequalities and
appropriate behaviour in group or individually reflect the current political divide and
polarization of the Turkish society. Women, are now assuming new social roles,
responsibilities but this still need to be mediated and contrasted by issues such as the number
of women in Parliament, arranged marriages, domestic violence, polygamy, maternity rights,
pay levels etc. However, despite the aforementioned changes, traditional values are still valid
especially in rural areas and eastern Turkey. Advertising has always been part of Turkish way
of life. Multiple medias types are available and only loosely controlled by the government
(RTUK and RK). Turkey also has access to many satellite channels exercising a
counterbalancing influence while highlighting clear cultural clashes. The large expatriated
Turkish community in Europe is also mediating the understanding and interpretation of many
advertisements. Traditionally advertisements have been promoting modernity and global
brands using a mix of humour and national pride. Turkey has often developed strong national
brands instead of generic brands used in many other countries.

Until December 1991, Ukraine was a part of unified country Soviet Union. According to some
of the principles that Soviet constitution declared, - such as the equality and opportunity for
everyone, - females were treated more or less equal to males in many aspects of the society.
Feminism movement were institutionalised. From the 1930s Soviet’s women were employed
outside the home and at the same time were managing most of traditional household tasks .
Following Soviet Union collapse Ukrainian woman were often the main provider for the
family . Today, they are certainly experiencing more gender discrimination in salary level,
employment, carrier promotion etc. When the Soviet Union collapsed, external constraint
vanished, and women representation has fallen from 35% to 9.8% of the total legislative
number (Buckley 1997). Women’s pay averaged 70% of man’s, though now only averaging
40% (Linz 1996). Feminine movements are in need of organisation and lack awareness in the
general population. Advertising in the Ukraine is not new, Richman (1974) noted that goods
needed to be promoted to foreign and COMECON buyers. However, marketing mix decision
were centralised and the advertising managed by state owned agencies that were considered as
a political propaganda tool . The content was often informative but not directed at individual
satisfaction (Yu, 1994). Advertising was aimed at re-directing demand for a greater overall
economic and social welfare (Ostlund, 1973; Hanson, 1974). Advertising for foreign products
was censored and export oriented products were presented as showing Soviet Union
capabilities (; Feick and gierl, 1996). Post 1991, research showed that decision was affected
by unavailability of product, indifference to media and muted response to advertising
(VonDorn and Akimova, 1998).

Methodology
Data were collected through a questionnaire via face-to face interview in both countries. 56
statements designed to assess feminine role portrayal orientation were included in the survey.
Respondents were informed about the general purpose of the survey. Responses were
measured using five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1- Strongly Disagree to 5 – Strongly
Agree. A total of 280 filed questionnaires were analysed. The population of this study was
adult females over the age of 18 who reside in Ukraine (Dnepropetrovsk city) and Turkey
(Istanbul). Principal component were used to analyse the survey.
 Age Range Education Level Employment Status Monthly Income Marital Status
Turkey1

18-25: 47.4% Primary School: 5.3% Full-time: 18.7% 500YTL < : 17.5% Single: 63.2%
25-35: 28.3% High School: 32.5 Part-time: 64.5% 600YTL-1000YTL: 38.1% Married: 27.6%
36-45: 11.2% University: 62.3% Retired: 9.3% 1100YTL-2000YTL: 23.7% Divorced: 6.6%
46-55: 8.6% Looking for job: 7.5% > 2100YTL: 20.6% Widow: 1.3%
56-65: 2% Living together:
66 plus: 2.5% 1.3%
Ukraine2

18-25: 38.2% School: 9.8% Part-time: 20.9% $50 < : 7.7% Single: 48.5%
25-35: 28.2% High School: 4.5% Full day: 57.5% $60-$100: 29.8% Married: 35.8%
36-45: 16% Liceum / College: 19% Retired: 5% $110-$200: 43.3% Divorced: 8.2%
46-55: 12.2% Institute: 28% Looking for job: > $210: 19.2% Widow: 3.7%
56-65: 3.8% University: 38.6% 16.7% Living together:
66 plus: 1.5% 3.7%
1 2
N age=152; education=151; employment=107; income=97; marital=152 / N age=131; education=132; employment=120; income= 104; marital=134

TURKEY UKRAINE
Principal Variables Factor Variables Factor
Component Loading1 Loading2
Factor 1: I find images of woman in advertising to be too 0.805 I find using women in advertising offensive 0.795
offensive for our society The use of female sexuality in most of advertising is 0.722
I find using women in advertising offensive 0.693 unsuitable
Advertising usually humiliates women intelligence 0.629 Advertising that shows women as sexual object should 0.701
I would prefer to see women in advertising dressed 0.618 be restricted
with everyday fashion rather than too glamorously I find images of woman in advertising to be too 0.682
Advertising that shows women as sexual object offensive for our society
should be restricted 0.606 I would prefer to see women in advertising dressed with 0.669
The use of female sexuality in most of advertising is everyday fashion rather than too glamorously
unsuitable 0.530 I find that women image in advertising has a negative 0.626
I find that women image in advertising has a effect on my own perception by other
negative effect on my own perception by other 0.503 Advertising uses female bodies excessively 0.531
I don’t mind when advertising uses female sexuality to 0.519
attract attention
Factor 2: I prefer to watch advertisement that uses women to 0.662 Advertising that shows women as sexual objects 0.707
attract attention encourages other 35 women to feel freer in their
Advertising shows/uses realistic women 0.584 sexuality
Usually woman in advertising are a good example 0.576 I associate sexual images of woman in advertising with 0.699
for me to follow freedom
Advertising accurately shows women in most of 0.560 I prefer to watch advertisement that uses women to 0.652
their daily environment attract attention
Usually I can easily associate myself with women in 0.550
advertising
Factor 3: In advertisements women are only accessory to 0.668 Advertising shows men realistically 0.800
what is advertised Advertising shows accurately men in their daily activities 0.785
In most advertisements women are dependent on 0.668 Advertising accurately shows women in most of their
men daily environment 0.665
In most advertisements women do not do important 0.667
things
Factor 4: Advertising should use more ‘common’ everyday 0.768 Advertising only employ young and beautiful women 0.722
women Advertising usually shows women as objects of desires 0.565
Advertising only employ young and beautiful 0.716 Advertising usually shows men as the ideal companion 0.534
women to be with
Advertising uses female bodies excessively 0.550 Usually woman in advertising are a good example for 0.516
Advertising usually shows women as objects of 0.511 me to follow
desires
Factor 5: I associate sexual images of woman in advertising 0.757 In most advertisements women do not do important 0.652
with freedom things
Advertising that shows women as sexual objects 0.752
encourages other 35 women to feel freer in their
sexuality
Factor 6: Advertising shows men realistically 0.828 Advertising should use more ‘common’ everyday 0.746
Advertising shows accurately men in their daily 0.818 women
activities Advertising should show older women more often 0.717
Using older women in advertising is offensive 0.629
Factor 7: I don’t mind that advertising shows women as 0.636 Advertising usually humiliates women intelligence 0.711
being dependent on men I don’t mind that advertising shows women as being 0.632
I don’t mind when advertising uses female sexuality 0.609 dependent on men
to attract attention
1
Loadings presented as absolute values, with |0.500| as cut-off. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. A Rotation converged in 13 iterations.
2
Loadings presented as absolute values, with |0.500| as cut-off. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. A Rotation converged in 10 iterations.

Results analysis and discussion

 Three-way Crosstabs Pearson Response
Chi-Square
TURKEY
1 Advertising shows an accurate view of women power in society 0.000 Disagree
Age (18-25 & 26-35) * level of education (university)
2 In advertisements women are considered as an important market 0.000 Agree
Age (18-25 & 26-35) * level of education (university)
3 I usually buy products that are advertised 0.003 Disagree
Age (26-35 & 36-45 & 46-55)* monthly income (more than 2100YTL)
4 I prefer to watch advertisement that uses women to attract attention 0.001 No opinion
Age (18-25 & 26-35 & 46-55)* monthly income (1100YTL-2000YTL)
5 I don’t mind when advertising uses female sexuality to attract attention 0.000 Disagree
Age (18-25) * marital status (single)
6 I usually buy products that are advertised 0.004 Disagree
Level of education (university) * age (18-25)
7 Advertising usually shows women as objects of desires 0.000 Agree
Level of education (high school & university) * age (26-35)
8 I prefer to watch advertisement that uses women to attract attention 0.003 Disagree
level of education (university) * age (26-35)
9 Advertising that shows women as sexual object should be restricted 0.000 Agree
level of education (university) * age (26-35)
10 I find that women image in advertising has a negative effect on my own perception by 0.000 Disagree
other
level of education (university) * age (18-25)
11 If advertising of a product offends me I might still buy it if it will offer me attractive benefits 0.002 Agree
level of education (university) * age (18-25)
12 It is the men responsibility to initiate courtship 0.005 Disagree
level of education (university) * age (18-25)
13 Motherhood is an ideal career for women 0.005 Disagree
level of education (university) * age (18-25)
14 Companies should be more careful to the content of their advertisement 0.002 Agree
level of education (full-time)* employment status (university)
15 Usually I can easily associate myself with women in advertising 0.001 Disagree
level of education (high school & university) * employment status (full-time)
16 Advertising should use more 'common' everyday women 0.002 Agree
level of education (university) * employment status (part-time)
17 The use of female sexuality in most of advertising is unsuitable 0.000 Agree
level of education (high-school & university) * employment status (part-time)
18 Advertising that shows women as sexual object should be restricted 0.001 Agree
level of education (high-school & university) * employment status (full-time)
19 Advertising are more memorable if they use a women 0.000 & 0.002 Agree
level of education (high-school & university) * employment status (full-time & part-time)
20 Obedience of the wife to her husband is important 0.001 Disagree
level of education (university) * employment status (part-time)
21 It is the men responsibility to initiate courtship 0.001 Disagree
level of education (high-school & university) * employment status (part-time)
22 Motherhood is an ideal career for women 0.002 Disagree
level of education (high-school & university) * employment status (part-time)
23 Most advertisements don't show changes of women status in society 0.004 Agree
level of education (university) * monthly income (1100YTL-2000YTL)
24 Usually woman in advertising are a good example for me to follow 0.003 Disagree
level of education (university) * monthly income (more than 2100YTL)
25 In advertisements women are considered as an important market 0.003 Agree
level of education (university) * monthly income (more than 2100YTL)
26 Advertising that shows women as sexual object should be restricted 0.004 Agree
level of education (university) *monthly income (more than 2100YTL)
27 Advertising usually humiliates women intelligence 0.002 Disagree
level of education (university) * monthly income (1100YTL-2000YTL)
28 It is the men responsibility to initiate courtship 0.003 Disagree
level of education (university) * monthly income (more than 2100YTL)
29 Motherhood is an ideal career for women 0.004 Disagree
level of education (university) * monthly income (more than 2100YTL)
30 Husband should be legal family representative 0.002 Disagree
level of education (university) * monthly income (more than 2100YTL)
31 I usually buy products that are advertised 0.004 Disagree
level of education (high-school & university) * marital status (single)
32 I find that women image in advertising has a negative effect on my own perception by 0.002 Disagree
other
level of education (high-school & university) * marital status (single)
33 If advertising of a product offends e I might still buy it if it will offer me attractive benefits 0.002 Agree
level of education (high-school & university) * marital status (single)
34 Women can have as many sexual partners as they wish 0.004 Agree
level of education (university) * marital status (single)
35 I would prefer to see women in advertising dressed with everyday fashion rather than too 0.003 Agree
glamorously
employment status (part-time & full-time) * age (18-25)
36 Women should be as free as men to make decisions 0.003 Agree
employment status (part-time & ful-time) * monthly income (more than 2100YTL)
37 If advertising of a product offends me I might still buy it if it will offer me attractive benefits 0.005 Agree
employment status (part-time) * marital status (married)
38 Advertising that shows women as sexual object should be restricted 0.004 Agree
monthly income (600YTL-1000YTL) * marital status (single)
UKRAINE
1 Most advertisements don't show changes of women status in society 0.004 Agree
range of age (18-25 & 26-35)* education level (university)
2 I find images of woman in advertising to be too offensive for our society 0.002 Disagree
range of age (26-35) * education level (college)
3 I find images of woman in advertising to be too offensive for our society 0.003 Disagree
range of age (26-55) * employment status (retired)
4 I find using women in advertising offensive 0.000 Disagree
range of age (26-55) * employment status (retired)
5 I find that women image in advertising has a negative effect on my own perception by 0.005 Disagree
other (26-55)
range of age * employment status (retired)
6 Company that shows women in offensive way in their advertising are usually 0.003 Disagree
discriminating against women in workplace as well
range of age (18-35) * employment status (part-time)
7 Advertising that shows women as sexual object should be restricted 0.002 Disagree
range of age (26-55) * monthly income ($110-$200)
8 I associate sexual images of woman in advertising with freedom 0.001 Disagree
range of age (26-45) * monthly income ($110-$200)
9 I find images of woman in advertising to be too offensive for our society 0.002 & 0.001 Disagree
range of age (18-35 & 36-55) * monthly income ($60-$100 & $110-$200)
10 I find using women in advertising offensive 0.002 Disagree
range of age (26-55) * monthly income ($110-$200)
11 Women should be able to do the all the different types of housework 0.004 Agree
range of age (18-35) * monthly income (more than $210)
12 Advertising that shows women as sexual objects encourages other 35 women to feel 0.003 Disagree
freer in their sexuality
range of age (26-45) * marital status (married)
13 I find images of woman in advertising to be too offensive for our society 0.000 Disagree
range of age (18-35) * marital status (single)
14 I find using women in advertising offensive 0.003 Disagree
range of age (18-25) * marital status (single)
15 I find that women image in advertising has a negative effect on my own perception by 0.003 Disagree
other
range of age (18-25) * marital status (single)
16 Company that shows women in offensive way in their advertising are usually 0.004 Disagree
discriminating against women in workplace as well
range of age (18-35) * marital status (single)
17 I prefer to watch advertisement that uses women to attract attention 0.004 Agree
education level (university) * employment status (part-time)
18 Companies should be more careful to the content of their advertisement 0.004 Agree
education level (institute & university) * marital status (married)
19 Advertising that shows women as sexual object should be restricted 0.001 Disagree
employment status (retired) * monthly income ($110-$200)
20 I find images of woman in advertising to be too offensive for our society 0.000 Disagree
employment status (retired) * monthly income ($110-$200)
21 I find using women in advertising offensive 0.000 Disagree
employment status (retired) * monthly income ($110-$200)
22 Advertising usually shows men as the ideal companion to be with 0.002 Agree
employment status (full-time) * marital status (married)
23 I find using women in advertising offensive 0.004 Disagree
employment status (full-time) * marital status (divorced)
24 Companies have understood the importance of women as consumers 0.002 Agree
employment status ( full-time)* marital status (married)
25 Companies should be more careful to the content of their advertisement 0.003 Agree
monthly income ($110-$200)* marital status (single)
26 Advertising shows an accurate view of women power in society 0.002 Disagree
monthly income ($60-$200) * marital status (married)
27 Advertising usually shows men as the ideal companion to be with 0.000 Agree
monthly income ($60-$200) * marital status (married)
28 The use of female sexuality in most of advertising is unsuitable 0.001 Disagree
monthly income ($110-$200)* marital status (single)
29 Companies have understood the importance of women as consumers 0.004 Agree
monthly income ($60-$100)* marital status (single)
30 Advertising that shows women as sexual objects encourages other 35 women to feel 0.000 Disagree
freer in their sexuality
range of age (26-35) * employment status (retired)
31 I associate sexual images of woman in advertising with freedom 0.001 Disagree
range of age (26-35) * employment status (retired)

Conclusion and recommendations

References