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SCIENTIFIC MATHEMATICS
Annotated Handbook
MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS, DEFINITIONS,
AND FORMULAS

HUANG KEH-NING

Wu-Nan Book Inc.

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(02)2705-5066

KEH-NING HUANG
Professor of Physics, 1984present,
National Taiwan University and
Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences,
Academia Sinica
Born in Nanking, China
on December 6, 1947.
B. S. 1968,
National Cheng-Kung University,
Republic of China
Ph. D. 1974,
Yale University, USA.
Professional Experiences
President,
Physical Society of the Republic of China
Editor-in-Chief,
Chinese Journal of Physics

Chinese book title, calligraphy by the author.

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PREFACE
From my experiences in teaching Quantum Mechanics about thirty
three years ago at the University of Notre Dame in the United states and in
recent years at National Taiwan University, a student seldom has sufficient
familiarity with the mathematical language in which the entire subject of
quantum mechanics is developed. One unknown term every so often
leads to another, and very few books cover all the necessary terminologies
and treat them with sufficient rigor. It is the purpose of the present
monograph to summarize mathematics that are necessary to provide the
student a firm mathematical foundation as well as sufficiently broad
background for his advanced studies in quantum mechanics, which
underlies all current physical sciences.
Starting from set theory, I try to assemble essential mathematical
concepts, definitions, theorems, and formulas for the understanding and
application of quantum mechanics and physical sciences in general. I
have also tried to provide annotations to introduce new insights not to be
found in a traditional mathematics handbook. Complete proofs or full
discussions of listed results will not be given since the purpose of the
present text is to facilitate reference to and review of facts the reader is
assumed to have seen previously. The texts cited in the bibliography
often contain complete treatment of the subjects.
I wish to express my deep appreciation to Ms. Hsian-Ping Yen for
typing the earlier version of this monograph many years ago and to Mr.
Hao-Tse Shiao and Ms. Tung-En Hsiao for the final editing. Without
their contributions, this book project will never be completed. Also my
gratitude goes to my wife Yueh-Miao Yu for her understanding and patient
throughout the writing of this monograph.

Keh-Ning Huang
National Taiwan University
September 29, 2011

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CONTENTS
PREFACE
CONTENTS

iii
v

CHAPTER 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

NOTATIONS AND CONSTANTS

1
Mathematical Symbols......................................................... 3
List of Functions..................................................................... 6
Physical Constants................................................................. 8
Prime Numbers....................................................................... 9
Greek Alphabets..................................................................... 10

CHAPTER 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6

THEORY OF SETS
11
Set............................................................................................... 13
Specific Sets.............................................................................. 13
Relations between Sets......................................................... 14
Countability of Sets............................................................... 15
Class of sets.............................................................................. 16
Ordered Set.............................................................................. 17

CHAPTER 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

POINT SET THEORY

19
Distance and Metric Space................................................. 21
Properties of a Metric Space.............................................. 21
Closed Set and Open Set..................................................... 22
Complete Separable Metric Space................................... 23
Three-Dimensional Metric Space.................................... 24

CHAPTER 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

NUMBER SYSTEMS
27
The Real Number System................................................... 29
Boundedness of a Set of Real Number........................... 30
Theorems for the Real Number System......................... 32
Specific Sets of Real Numbers........................................... 33
Decimal Representation of Real Numbers.................... 34
Number Systems..................................................................... 35

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CHAPTER 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8

ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
37
Factorials.................................................................................. 41
Multinomials............................................................................ 41
Means of a Set of Real Numbers...................................... 43
Inequalities of a Set of Real Numbers............................ 44
Polynomials.............................................................................. 45
Algebraic Equations............................................................. 46
Algebraic Equations with Real Coefficients................ 47
Mathematical induction....................................................... 49

CHAPTER 6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10

ELEMENTARY CALCULUS
51
Extended Real Number System........................................ 55
Function..................................................................................... 56
Limit Processes....................................................................... 57
Continuity and Differentiation......................................... 61
Sequence.................................................................................... 63
Series........................................................................................... 65
Power Series............................................................................. 68
Taylor's Series......................................................................... 72
Integration................................................................................ 73
Definite Integrals................................................................... 76

CHAPTER 7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6

VECTOR ANALYSIS
79
Vectors....................................................................................... 81
Products of Vectors............................................................... 82
Differentiation of Vectors................................................... 83
Vector Identities..................................................................... 85
Differential Vector Identities............................................. 86
Integral Vector Identities.................................................... 89

CHAPTER 8

CONVERGENCE OF A SEQUENCE OF
91
FUNCTIONS
Pointwise Convergence of a Sequence of Functions. 93
Uniform Convergence of a Sequence of Functions.... 96

8.1
8.2

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8.3
8.4
8.5
CHAPTER 9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6

Conditions for Uniform Convergence............................ 99

Uniform Convergence and Differentiation of a
Sequence of Functions.......................................................... 99
Mean Convergence of a Sequence of Functions........100
DIFFERENTIABILITY AND ANALYTICITY
103
OF FUNCTIONS
Euclidean Space................................................................. 105
Differentiability of Functions....................................... 105
Derivatives of Functions................................................. 106
Analytic Functions of a Real Variable...................... 109
Infinitely Differentiable Functions............................. 110
Analytic Functions of a Complex Variable.............. 110

CHAPTER 10
10.1
10.2
10.3

FOURIER ANALYSIS
111
Periodic Functions......................................................... 113
Orthogonal Functions................................................... 113
Fourier Series.................................................................. 114

CHAPTER 11
11.1
11.2

CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS
117
Variational Integral....................................................... 119
Variational Principle for One-Dependent and
120
One-Independent Variables ........................................
Variational Principle for n-Dependent and
125
One-Independent Variables ........................................

11.3

CHAPTER 12
12.1
12.2

DETERMINANTS
127
Determinant...................................................................... 129
Minor and Cofactor of a Determinant................... 130

CHAPTER 13
13.1
13.2
13.3

MATRICES
131
Matrix................................................................................. 133
Combination Matrices.................................................. 134
Inner Product and Outer Product of Column
Matrices............................................................................. 136

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13.4
13.5

Specific Matrices............................................................ 137

Algebraic Relationships of Matrices....................... 138

CHAPTER 14
14.1

GROUPS
141
Group.................................................................................. 143

CHAPTER 15
15.1
15.2
15.3

ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 145

nth-Order Ordinary Differential Equation.......... 149
Linear Differential Equation..................................... 150
Ordinary and Singular Points of a Differential
152
Equation...........................................................................
Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions.................. 153
Linear Independence of Solutions............................ 155
General Solution of a Linear Differential
Equation............................................................................ 157
Homogeneous First-Order Linear Differential
Equation............................................................................ 157
Nonhomogeneous First-Order Linear
Differential Equation.................................................... 158
Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation
with Constant Coefficients.......................................... 160
Homogeneous Differential Equations with
Analytic Coefficients..................................................... 162
Homogeneous Second-Order Linear
Differential Equations with Regular
Singularities...................................................................... 164
General Methods for Solving Differential
Equations........................................................................... 165

15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9
15.10
15.11

15.12

CHAPTER 16
16.1
16.2
16.3

PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

169
Partial Differential Equation..................................... 171
Partial vs. Ordinary Differential Equations......... 172
First-Order Linear Partial Differential
Equation............................................................................ 173

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16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7

Second-Order Linear Partial Differential

Equation............................................................................ 174
Potential Equation......................................................... 176
Wave Equation................................................................ 176
Heat Equation.................................................................. 177

CHAPTER 17
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
17.9
17.10
17.11
17.12
17.13

COMPLEX-VALUED FUNCTIONS
179
Complex Variable.......................................................... 183
Regions in the z-Plane................................................... 185
Function of Complex Variables................................ 187
Elementary Functions of a Complex Variable z 189
Analyticity of Functions of a Complex Variable 192
Singularities and Zeros................................................ 195
Contour Integrals........................................................... 196
Convergence of Power Series..................................... 199
Taylor Series and Laurent Series Expansions..... 200
Residues............................................................................. 202
Multiple-Valued Functions......................................... 203
Analytic Continuation.................................................. 205
Dispersion Relations...................................................... 207

CHAPTER 18
18.1
18.2
18.3

GAMMA AND POLYGAMMA FUNCTIONS 211

Gamma Function............................................................ 213
Digamma Function........................................................ 216
Polygamma Functions.................................................. 217

CHAPTER 19
19.1
19.2
19.3

HYPERGEOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
219
Hypergeometric Function........................................... 221
Hypergeometric Equation........................................... 224
Generalized Hypergeometric Function.................. 225

CHAPTER 20

CONFLUENT HYPERGEOMETRIC
229
FUNCTIONS
Confluent Hypergeometric Function...................... 231

20.1

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20.2
20.3
20.4

Degenerate Hypergeometric Functions.................. 233

Confluent Hypergeometric Equation...................... 236
Other Functions in terms of the Confluent
Hypergeometric Function........................................... 237

CHAPTER 21
21.1
21.2

WHITTAKER FUNCTIONS
239
Whittaker Functions..................................................... 241
Whittaker Equation....................................................... 244

CHAPTER 22
22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5
22.6

BESSEL FUNCTIONS
245
The Bessel Function....................................................... 247
The Neumann Function............................................... 248
The Hankel Functions................................................... 249
Bessel Equation............................................................... 249
General Properties of Bessel Functions................. 250
Bessel-Fourier Expansion Series.............................. 252

CHAPTER 23
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
23.5

SPHERICAL BESSEL FUNCTION

255
The Spherical Bessel Function.................................. 257
The Spherical Neumann Function........................... 257
The Spherical Hankel Functions.............................. 258
Spherical Bessel Equation........................................... 258
General Properties of Spherical Bessel
Functions........................................................................... 258

CHAPTER 24
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
24.5

LAGUERRE FUNCTIONS
265
Laguerre Function......................................................... 267
Laguerre Polynomial.................................................... 267
Laguerre Equation......................................................... 268
Associated Laguerre Function................................... 268
Associated Laguerre Polynomial.............................. 269

CHAPTER 25
25.1
25.2

HERMITE POLYNOMIALS
273
Hermite Polynomial....................................................... 275
Hermite Equation........................................................... 276

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25.3
25.4
CHAPTER 26
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4
26.5

Hermite Polynomials of a Real Variable............... 277

Oscillator Functions...................................................... 278

26.6
26.7

LEGENDRE FUNCTIONS
281
Legendre Function of the First Kind...................... 283
Legendre Polynomial.................................................... 283
Legendre Function of the Second Kind.................. 285
Legendre Equation........................................................ 285
Associated Legendre Functions of the First and
Second Kinds................................................................... 286
Associated Legendre Polynomial.............................. 286
Associated Legendre Equation.................................. 288

CHAPTER 27
27.1
27.2

SPHERICAL HARMONICS
289
Spherical Harmonics..................................................... 291
Angular Momentum Operator.................................. 293

CHAPTER 28
28.1
28.2

RIEMANN EQUATION
295
Riemann Equation......................................................... 297
Special Cases of the Riemann Equation................. 298

CHAPTER 29

29.1
29.2
29.3
29.4
29.5

EIGENVALUE PROBLEMS OF
301
SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL
OPERATORS
Self-Adjoint Differential Operators........................ 303
Sturm-Liouville Operator........................................... 303
Sturm-Liouville Equation........................................... 305
Regular Sturm-Liouville Problem........................... 306
Boundary Conditions.................................................... 310

CHAPTER 30
30.1
30.2
30.3

GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
311
Boundary Conditions.................................................... 313
Boundary-Value Problems.......................................... 314
Green-Function Techniques....................................... 315

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CHAPTER 31
31.1
31.2
31.3

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY OF SPACES

319
Scalar Field....................................................................... 321
Cartesian Space............................................................... 321
Euclidean Space.............................................................. 324

CHAPTER 32
32.1
32.2
32.3
32.4
32.5
32.6
32.7
32.8
32.9

LINEAR VECTOR SPACES

325
Linear Vector Space...................................................... 329
Metric Linear Vector Space....................................... 330
Orthonormal Basis......................................................... 332
Complete Linear Vector Space................................. 333
Subspace............................................................................ 334
Orthogornal Subspaces................................................ 335
Hilbert Spaces.................................................................. 336
Linear Functional........................................................... 336
Dual Space........................................................................ 337

CHAPTER 33

OPERATORS IN A LINEAR VECTOR

341
SPACE
Operators.......................................................................... 345
Operator Algebra........................................................... 345
Outer Products as Operators..................................... 346
Operator Equation......................................................... 348
Inverses of an Operator............................................... 349
Linear and Antilinear Operators............................. 350
Boundedness and Continuity of Operators.......... 352
Self-Adjoint Operators................................................. 353
Unitary and Antiunitary Operators........................ 355
Eigenvectors of an Operator...................................... 356
Simutaneous Eigenvectors of Operators............... 358
Spectral Theory............................................................... 359

33.1
33.2
33.3
33.4
33.5
33.6
33.7
33.8
33.9
33.10
33.11
33.12
CHAPTER 34
34.1

REPRESENTATIONS OF A LINEAR
363
VECTOR SPACE
Matrix Representation................................................. 365

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34.2
34.3
CHAPTER 35
35.1
35.2
35.3

Position Representation............................................... 368

Momentum Representation........................................ 372

35.4

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
373
Coordinate Systems on a Line................................... 375
Coordinate Systems on a Plane................................. 375
Coordinate Systems in a Three-Dimensional
Space................................................................................... 376
Cartesian Coordinate System.................................... 377

CHAPTER 36
36.1
36.2
36.3
36.4
36.5

TENSOR ANALYSIS
379
Tensor................................................................................. 381
Contraction of two Tensors........................................ 382
Metric Tensor.................................................................. 383
Euclidean Geometry...................................................... 384
Minkowski Space............................................................ 384

CHAPTER 37
37.1
37.2
37.3
37.4
37.5
37.6
37.7
37.8
37.9
37.10
37.11

THEORY OF PROBABILITY
387
Measure.............................................................................. 389
Set Function...................................................................... 389
Notion of Probability.................................................... 390
Probability Space........................................................... 391
Random Variable of Probability.............................. 392
Distribution Functions.................................................. 394
Discrete Distribution..................................................... 396
Continuous Distribution.............................................. 397
Mixed Distribution......................................................... 398
Moments and Central-Moments............................... 399
Distributions of n-Dimensional Random
Variables............................................................................ 400

CHAPTER 38
38.1
38.2

ANGULAR-MOMENTUM EIGENSTATES
401
Angular Momentum...................................................... 403
Ladder Operators of the Angular Momentum.... 404

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38.3
CHAPTER 39
39.1
39.2
39.3
39.4
39.5
39.6
CHAPTER 40
40.1
40.2
40.3
40.4
40.5

Simultaneous Eigenstates of {J 2 , J z } ..................... 404

CLEBSH-GORDAN COEFFICIENTS
407
Clebsh-Gordan Coefficient......................................... 411
Recursion Relations of C-G Coefficients with
J-Numbers Unchanged................................................. 413
Recursion Relations of C-G Coefficients with
J-Numbers Changed...................................................... 414
The T Coefficient............................................................ 421
Algebraic Expressions of T Coefficients................ 422
Algebraic Expressions of C-G Coefficients........... 425
WIGNER 3-j SYMBOLS
447
Wigner 3-j Symbol......................................................... 449
Regge Symbol.................................................................. 452
The 3-jm Symbol............................................................. 454
Recursion Relations of Wigner 3-j Symbols
with J-Numbers Unchanged...................................... 456
Recursion Relations of Wigner 3-j Symbols
with J-Numbers Changed........................................... 458

CHAPTER 41
41.1
41.2
41.3

THE 3n-j SYMBOLS

465
The 3-j Symbol................................................................. 467
The 6-j Symbol................................................................. 467
The 9-j Symbol................................................................. 473

CHAPTER 42
42.1
42.2
42.3

THE 3-kn SYMBOLS

479
The 3-kn Symbol............................................................. 481
Recursion Relations of the 3-kn Symbol................ 484
Algebraic Expressions of the 3-kn Symbol........... 484

CHAPTER 43
43.1

THE SQUARE SYMBOLS

489
Square Symbol................................................................ 493

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43.2
43.3
43.4
43.5

Symmetries of the S Symbol as an Algebraic

Expression......................................................................... 499
Algebraic Expressions of the T Coefficient........... 501
Recursion Relations of the S Symbol...................... 509
Algebraic Expressions of the S Symbol.................. 510

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................... 531

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1
Notations and Constants

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Chapter 1

Notations and Constants

1.1 MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS

A. Factorial
B. Double Factorial
C. Pochhammer Coefficient
D. Binomial Coefficient
E. Quasi-Power
F. Hankel Coefficient
G. Symbols for Complex Variables
H. Miscellaneous Notations
I. Phrases
1.2 LIST OF FUNCTIONS
1.3 PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
1.4 PRIME NUMBERS
1.5 GREEK ALPHABETS

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1.1

Mathematical Symbols

1.1 MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS

All constants and variables are assumed to be complex unless otherwise
stated.
A. Factorial:
n ! ( n + 1) ,

n = 0 ,1, 2 ,L

0 ! = (1) = 1
n ! = 1 2 L n ,

n = 1, 2 ,L

(z ) the Gamma function.

B. Double Factorial:
( 2n ) !! 2 n ( n + 1) ,

n = 0 , 1, 2 , L

0 !! = 1
( 2n ) !! = 2 4 6 L ( 2n ) ,

( 2n 1) !!

2 n ( n + 12 ) ,

n = 1, 2 , L

n = 0 , 1, 2 , L

( 1) !! = 1
( 2n 1) !! = 1 3 5 L ( 2n 1) , n = 1 , 2 , L
C. Pochhammer Coefficient:

( z + n)
n = 0 ,1, 2 ,L
,
z (z)
( )0 = 1
( )2 = ( + 1)

( ) n lim

( )1 =

( )3 = ( + 1) ( + 2)

( ) n = ( + 1) L ( + n 1) ,

n =1, 2 ,L

D. Binomial Coefficient:

( z + 1)
,
lim
n z ( n + 1) ( z + 1 n )

=1
0

n = 0 ,1, 2 ,L

=
1

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Chapter 1

Notations and Constants

( 1) ( 2)
=
3 2 1
3

( 1)
=
2 1
2

1
= ( 1) L ( n + 1) ,
n n!

N
=0 ,
n
=

n = 1, 2 ,L

for integer N < n .

N!
,
( N n )! n !

for integer N n .

E. Quasi-Power:
For notational convenience, we shall define the quasi-power as

[ ]n lim

= n! ,
( z + 1 n)
n

[ ] 0 = 1

[ ] 2 = ( 1)

[ ]1 =

[ ] 3 = ( 1) ( 2 )

( z + 1)

[ ]n = ( 1) L ( n + 1) ,

[ N ]n = 0 ,
N!
=
,
( N n )!

n = 0 ,1, 2 ,L

n = 1, 2 ,L

for integer N < n .

for integer N n .

This notation is related to the Pochhammer coefficient as

[ ]n = ( n + 1) n = ( ) n ( ) n

We also adopt the notations

[( a )( b)( c ) L ]n [a ]n [b]n [c]n L
n

[( a ) ( b)]n

( ) k k [a ]n k [b]k

k =0

Note that in general

[( a )( b)]n [a b]n = ( a b)( a b 1) L ( a b n + 1)
[( a ) + ( b)]n [a + b]n ( a + b)( a + b 1) L ( a + b n + 1)
where the parenthesized ( a ) and ( b) indicate that the quasi-powers of the
arguments a and b are to be taken individually, and that the quasi-binomial
expansion is to be taken before the addition of a and b. For example,
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1.1

Mathematical Symbols

[( a ) ( b ) ( c )]2 = [a ]2 2 [a ]1[( b )( c )]1 + [( b ) ( c )]2

= [a ]2 2 [a ]1[b]1 [c ]1 + [b]2 [c ]2
[( a ) ( bc )]2 = [a ]2 2 [a ]1[bc ]1 + [bc ]2 [( a ) ( b ) ( c )]2

F. Hankel Coefficient:

( , n ) lim

( z + 12 + n )
( n + 1) ( z + 12 n )

n = 0 ,1, 2 ,L

( , 0) = 1

( , 2) =

1
21

( , 1) = ( 2 14 )

( , 3) =

1
321

( , n ) =

( 2 14 ) ( 2 34 )
2

( 2 14 )( 2 34 )( 2 54 )

2
1
( 2 n 1) 2
( 2 14 )( 2 34 ) L ( 2 4 ) ,
n!

n = 1, 2 ,L

G. Symbols for Complex Variables:

(i) | z |

Absolute value of z

(ii) z

Complex conjugate of z

(iii) Re ( z )
(iv) Im ( z )

Real part of z
Imaginary part of z

(v) arg ( z )
(vi) Arg ( z )

Argument, or phase, of z

(vii) Log ( z )

Principal value of log ( z )

Principal value of the argument of z

H. Miscellaneous Notations:

(i) max ( p , q )

Maximum of the real numbers p and q

(ii) min ( p , q )

Minimum of the real numbers p and q

(iii) sign ( x )

Sign of the real number x

(iv) | x |

Absolute value of the real number x

(v) [ x ]

Greatest integer less than or equal to the real

number x

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Chapter 1

Notations and Constants

(vi) O [ f ( x ) ]

Order of f ( x ) as a function of the real variable x

when x approaches a limiting value x 0 .
Let f ( x ) and g ( x ) be two real-valued
functions, and f ( x ) is non-negative. We write
g( x ) = O [ f ( x ) ]

as

x x0

if there exists a positive constant M such that

| g ( x )| M f ( x )
in a sufficiently small neighborhood of x = x 0 .
(vii) a n ~ b n

The real number a n is asymptotically equal to the

real number b n , or
lim

I.

an
bn

=1

Phrases

(i) A B means A is defined to be B. or A is a

shorthand notation for B.
(ii) on the interval I in the interval I on the set I of points
(iii) is said to be L if is L if and only if
(iv) is a member of is an element of belongs to is in
(v) positive a a > 0 , not including a = 0

1.2 LIST OF FUNCTIONS

2
p

Notation
B( a , b )

Beta function

erf (x)

error function

hypergeometric function

19

generalized hypergeometric function

19

(z )

Gamma function

18

H n ( z)

Hermite polynomial function

25

F1 (a, b; c; z )

Fq (a1 K a p ; c1 K cq ; z )

Name

chapter

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1.2

List of Functions

H(1) ( z ) , H( 2) ( z )

Hankel functions
of the first and second kinds

22

h (1) ( z ), h ( 2) ( z )

spherical Hankel functions

of the first and second kinds

23

J ( z )

Bessel function

22

jl ( z )

spherical Bessel function

23

L ( z )

Laguerre function

24

Ln ( z )

Laguerre polynomial function

24

L( ) ( z )

associated Laguerre function

24

L( k ) ( z )

associated Laguerre polynomial function

24

confluent hypergeometric function

20

Whittaker functions
of the first and second kinds

21

N ( z )

Neumann function or Weber function

22

nl ( z )

spherical Neumann function

23

Legendre functions
of the first and second kinds

26

Legendre function

26

associated Laguerre function

of the first and second kinds

24

associated Legendre polynomial function

26

spherical harmonic function

27

n ( z )

oscillator function

25

(z )

digamma function

18

polygamma function

18

M (a, c, z ) 1F1 (a; c; z )

M ( z ), W ( z )

P ( z ), Q ( z )

Pl ( z )
P ( z ), Q ( z )

Plm (z )

lm ( , )

(n) ( z)

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Chapter 1

Notations and Constants

1.3 PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

Physical quantity

speed of light
in vacuum

Symbol

gravitational constant G

Value
2.997 924 58 1010 cm sec 1 (exact)

6.673 84(80) 10 8 cm3 g 1 sec 2

Planck constant

h h / 2

1.054 571 726(47) 10 27 erg sec

Planck mass

mP h c / G

2.176 51(13) 10 5 g

Planck length

l P h / mP c

1.616 199(97) 10 33 cm

Planck time

t P l P / c h / mP c 2 5.391 06(32) 10 44 sec

Avogadro constant

NA

6.022 141 29(27) 10 23 mole 1

Boltzmann constant

1.380 648 8(13) 10 16 erg K 1

electron charge

e
me

4.803 204 25(10) 10 10 esu

me c 2

9.109 382 91(40) 10 28 g 10 27 g

0.510 998 928(11) MeV

mp

1.672 621 777(74) 10 24 g 10 24 g

m pc 2

938.272 046(21) MeV 1836 me c 2

mn

1.674 927 351(74) 10 24 g 10 24 g

neutron mass

mn c 2

1.505 349 631(66) MeV 1839 me c 2

atomic-mass unit

u mC12 / 12

1.660 538 782(83) 10 24 g 1823 me

electron mass

proton mass

fine-structure constant e 2 / hc

1/137.035 999 074(44)

Rydberg constant

R 2 me c / 4 h

109 737 .315 685 39(55) cm 1 = / 4 a0

Bohr radius

a0 h 2 / me e 2

0.529 177 210 92(17) 10 9 cm 0.53 A

Compton wavelength

e h / me c

3.861 592 680 0(25) 10 13 cm a0

electron
classical-radius

re e 2 / me c 2

2.817 940 326 7(27) 10 13 cm 2 a0

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1.3

Physical Constants

1 nm = 107 cm = 10 A

nanometer :

atomic size :

1 A = 108 cm

nuclear size :

1 fm = 10 13 cm = 10 5 A

1 year = 365.2422 days 107 sec

355 22
= 3.141 592 653 589 793

112
7
1264 19

e = 2.718 281 828 459 045

465
7

1 MeV = 1.602 189 2(46) 10 8 erg

1.4 PRIME NUMBERS

2
3
5
7
11

101
103
107
109
113

233
239
241
251
257

383
389
397
401
409

547
557
563
569
571

701
709
719
727
733

877
881
883
887
907

1049
1051
1061
1063
1069

1229
1231
1237
1249
1259

1429
1433
1439
1447
1451

13
17
19
23
29

127
131
137
139
149

263
269
271
277
281

419
421
431
433
439

577
587
593
599
601

739
743
751
757
761

911
919
929
937
941

1087
1091
1093
1097
1103

1277
1279
1283
1289
1291

1453
1459
1471
1481
1483

31
37
41
43
47

151
157
163
167
173

283
293
307
311
313

443
449
457
461
463

607
613
617
619
631

769
773
787
797
809

947
953
967
971
977

1109
1117
1123
1129
1151

1297
1301
1303
1307
1319

1487
1489
1493
1499
1511

53
59
61
67
71

179
181
191
193
197

317
331
337
347
349

467
479
487
491
499

641
643
647
653
659

811
821
823
827
829

983
991
997
1009
1013

1153
1163
1171
1181
1187

1321
1327
1361
1367
1373

1523
1531
1543
1549
1553

73
79
83
89
97

199
211
223
227
229

353
359
367
373
379

503
509
521
523
541

661
673
677
683
691

839
853
857
859
863

1019
1021
1031
1033
1039

1193
1201
1213
1217
1223

1381
1399
1409
1423
1427

1559
1567
1571
1579
1583

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10

Chapter 1

Notations and Constants

1.5 Greek Alphabets

upper case

lower case

name

alpha

[lf]

beta

[bet], [bit]

pronunciation

gamma

[gm]

delta

[dGlt]

epsilon

[Gpsln], [GpslAn, Gpsaln]

zeta

[zet], [zit]

eta

[et], [it]

theta

[et], [it]

iota

[aot]

kappa

[kp]

lambda

[lmd]

mu

[mju], [mu]

nu

[nju], [nu]

xi

[za], [sa, gza, ksa, gzi, ksi]

omicron

pi

[pa]

rho

[ro]

sigma

[sgm]

tau

[tau], [tC]

upsilon

phi

[fa]

khi

[ka]

psi

[sa], [psa]

omega

[omakrn], [omkrAn, AmkrAn]

[jupsln], [jupsln]

[omig], [omGg, omeg, omg]

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11

2
Theory of Sets
A working knowledge of the basic concepts and notations of set theory is
summarized.

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12

Chapter 2

Theory of Sets

2.1 SET
A. Definition
B. Examples
2.2 SPECIFIC SETS
A. Empty Set
B. Singleton
C. Union of A and B
D. Intersection of A and B
E. Complement of A Relative to B
F. Universal Set
G. Complement of A
H. Power Set of A
2.3 RELATIONS BETWEEN SETS
A. Equivalence of A and B
B. Cardinal Number
C. Equality of A and B
D. Subset and Superset
E. Proper Subset
F. Disjoint
2.4 COUNTABILITY OF SETS
A. Finite Set
B. Infinite Set
C. Countable Set
D. Examples
2.5 CLASS OF SETS
A. Boolean Ring of Sets
B. Boolean Algebra of Sets
2.6 ORDERED SET
A. Ordered Set
B. First Element of an Ordered Set
C. Well-Ordered Set
D. Well-Ordering Theorem

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2.1

Set

13

2.1 SET
A. Definition
A set is a collection of definite, distinct objects of our perception or our
thought, which are called elements of the set.
We shall denote elements of a set by lower-case letters, a , b , c , L ,
and denote sets by capital letters, A , B , C , L .
B. Examples
(i) The set of all 46 students in the Quantum Mechanics class.
(ii) The set of all natural numbers {1, 2 , 3 , L} .
(iii) The set of all real numbers.
(iv) The set of all real continuous functions ( x ) on x [0 , 1] .
(v) The set of all real functions F ( x ) on x [0 , 1] .

2.2 SPECIFIC SETS

A. Empty Set
The set which contains no elements,

B. Singleton
A set consisting of exactly one element.
C. Union of A and B
The set of all elements which are either in set A or in set B or in both,
A B
D. Intersection of A and B
The set of all elements common to both set A and set B,
A B
E. Complement of A Relative to B
The set of all elements of set B which are not in set A,
B A

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14

Chapter 2

Theory of Sets

F. Universal Set
In many applications of set theory, we shall have a fixed set S given in
advance, and we shall be concerned only with subsets of this given set.
This underlying set will be referred to as the universal set of this particular
application and denoted by
S
G. Complement of A
The set of all elements of the universal set S which are not in set A,

Ac S A
H. Power Set of A
The set of all subsets of A,
P( A)
If the set A has n elements, then its power set P( A) has 2 n
elements.

2.3 RELATIONS BETWEEN SETS

A. Equivalence of A and B
Set A and set B are said to be equivalent if there exists a one-to-one
correspondence between elements of A and elements of B:
A~ B
The one-to-one correspondence between two equivalent sets can
sometimes be established by a geometrical mapping or by a functional
relation. For example, the correspondence between a point P in the set of
points (other than O) on a circle C and a point P in the set of points on a
straight line L can be given by the radial mapping from point O on the top of
the circle, as shown below.

C
P

P'

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2.3

Relations Between Sets

15

As another example, the correspondence between an element a of set

A = {1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 } and an element b of A = { 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 ,11} can be given by
the equation 2 a + 1 = b .
The property of equivalence is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive:
(i) A ~ A
(ii) If A ~ B , then B ~ A
(iii) If A ~ B and B ~ C , then A ~ C .
B. Cardinal Number
The common property of all mutually equivalent sets is the cardinal
number of each set, i.e., the number of elements in each set.
C. Equality of A and B
Set A and set B are said to be equal, or identical, if they consist of exactly
the same elements:
A= B
D. Subset and Superset
Set A is a subset of set B if every element of A also belongs to B:
A B

in which case set B is a superset to set A.

E. Proper Subset
Set A is a proper subset of set B if A B and A B :
A B

F. Disjoint
Set A and set B are said to be disjoint if they do not have elements in
common:
A B =

2.4 COUNTABILITY OF SETS

A. Finite Set
A set is said to be a finite set if the number of elements in the set is finite,
i.e., the cardinal number of the set is a natural number.

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16

Chapter 2

Theory of Sets

B. Infinite Set
A set is said to be an infinite set if there are infinitely many elements in the
set.
C. Countable Set
If the elements of a set A can be ordered in a sequence and counted or
enumerated one-by-one successively, then set A is said to be a countable or
denumerable, otherwise it is said to be uncountable or non-denumerable.
All finite sets are countable, while an infinite set may or may not be
countable.
D. Examples
(i) The set of all 46 students in the Quantum Mechanics class is finite
and countable with the cardinal number 46.
(ii) The set of all natural numbers is infinite but countable with the

cardinal number a .
(iii) The set of all real numbers is infinite and uncountable with the
cardinal number c .
(iv) The set of all real continuous functions ( x ) on x [0 , 1] is
infinite and uncountable with the cardinal number c .
(v) The set of all real functions F ( x ) on x [0 , 1] is infinite and
uncountable with the cardinal number f .
We note that f > c > a > N (any finite number).

2.5 CLASS OF SETS

A. Boolean Ring of Sets

A nonempty class R of sets is called a Boolean ring, or simply a ring, if for

every A and B in R we have
A B R

and

A B R

It is important to note that every Boolean ring of sets always contains the
empty set .
B. Boolean Algebra of Sets

A nonempty class B of subsets of the universal set S is called a Boolean

algebra if for every A and B in B we have
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2.5

A B B

and

Class of Sets

17

Ac B

where Ac = S A is the complement of A.

Notice that because of the identity
A B = A B c = ( Ac B ) c

every Boolean algebra is automatically a Boolean ring, but every Boolean

ring is not necessarily a Boolean algebra. A Boolean algebra is a Boolean
ring which also contains the universal set S. As a consequence, the
smallest Boolean algebra is the class
B = { , S }


0

The largest Boolean algebra B1 consists of all subsets of S. Every Boolean

algebra B consisting of subsets of S must satisfy the inclusion relation

B 0 B B1

2.6 ORDERED SET

A. Ordered Set
An ordered set A is a set in which there is defined an ordering relation " p
(precedes)" satisfying the postulates:
(i) For any elements a and b in set A, either a = b , a p b , or b p a .
(ii) If a p b and b p c , then a p c .
For notational convenience, the ordering relation " f (comes after)" may be
defined similarly.
B. First Element of an Ordered Set
A nonempty ordered set has a first element x 1 if for every other element y

in the set the relation x 1 p y is true.

C. Well-Ordered Set
A nonempty ordered set is said to be well-ordered if itself, and every one of
its non-empty subsets, contains a first element.
D. Well-Ordering Theorem
Every set can be well-ordered.
The well-ordering theorem is equivalent to the axiom of choice, and to Zorn's
lemma, on which we will not elaborate.

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18

Chapter 2

Theory of Sets

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19

3
Point Set Theory
The elements of the ordered point set to be discussed here will be referred to as
points. The nature of the set will vary from one discussion to another so that "point"
will not necessarily have the same meaning here that it does in elementary geometry.
We shall use sets of numbers, sets of functions, and many other things, in addition to
genuine geometrical point sets. We can think of the sets to be such as lattice points or
all points of a line segment, of a straight line, on a plane, or in a cube. For example,
the straight line as a number scale may represents a similarity mapping of the ordered
set of real numbers on the points of this scale. A more general ordered set will be the
set of all points in a 3-dimensional Cartesian space, which represents the coordinates
of a particle in the 3-dimensional position space.

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20

Chapter 3

Point Set Theory

3.1 DISTANCE AND METRIC SPACE

A. Distance Function
B. Metric Space
C. Theorem
3.2 PROPERTIES OF A METRIC SPACE
A. Neighborhood of x
B. Accumulation Point of a Set in a Metric Space
3.3 CLOSED SET AND OPEN SET
A. Derived Set of a Set
B. Closure of a Set
C. Interior Point of a Set
D. Interior of a Set
E. Closed Set
F. Open Set
G. Theorem
H. Covering of a Set
3.4 COMPLETE SEPARABLE METRIC SPACE
A. Dense Set A in the Set B
B. Separable Space
C. Cauchy Sequence
D. Complete Metric Space
E. Theorem
3.5 THREE-DIMENSIONAL METRIC SPACE
A. Solid
B. Bounded Solid
C. Square Prism
D. Congruence
E. Volume
F. Measurable Set

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