APPENDIX B, COURSE REFERENCE NO. 2 A COURSE INTRODUCTION A.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS USED IN SOCIAL CHANGE

1. NORMS, FOLKWAYS, MORES AND LAWS NORMS: are rules or patterns of behavior defining what is right or proper in a given situation. They are behavioral expectations transmitted from generation to generation that members of a particular group collectively share. They are enforced by systems of rewards and punishment. FOLKWAYS: are patterns that govern most of our daily life and ordinary interaction with other people. They define what is socially acceptable and correct and are enforced informally and non deliberately. They may be arbitrary conveniences such as monetary systems, measures and weights, etc. These can be patterns of eating, dressing, cooking or celebrating birthdays. MORES: consist of major rules of conduct considered essential by society. These are obligatory and are supported by dominant values of cultures and define what is right and wrong, moral and immoral actions, thought and feelings. For example, mores include having only one husband or wife at a time, being loyal to the country, and rules of incest as a taboo. Mores like folkways are subject to change. LAWS: Some socials norms are so important that their enforcement cannot be felt to chance and are made into law. Laws are norms with several specific characteristics. 2. SYMBOLS A symbol is defined as any gesture, object, thing, or behavior that is used by member of a society to stand for or represent something. A symbol communicates information in shorthand form. It evokes feeling associated with it. For example, car, typewriter, loyalty, freedom etc. The most obvious form of symbolic communication is language. Language

symbols are learned through the process of socialization which are used throughout. 3. TECHNOLOGY It refers to information techniques, and tools used by persons to satisfy their diverse needs and desires. Technology can be material and social. The former refers to knowledge of how to establish and use things. Social technology is the knowledge about how to establish, maintain and operate the different aspects of society. For example: book keeping, income tax system, vote in elections and credit card system. 4. ROLE It refers to a set of social norms that govern a person's behavior in a society and determines his or her relationship to others. A role represents the dynamic aspect of a status. A university professor has a status and he has a role to play according to his position. 5. IDEOLOGIES: are shared beliefs about the physical, social, and metaphysical worlds. They help individuals interpret events. They also provide the rationale for particular forms of action. They can justify the status quo or demand revolution. 6. VALUES: are the underlying standards or principles by which social and individual goals are chosen. These are desirable, important and worthwhile, which explain and justify the behavior. 7. SOCIAL STRUCTURE It is the web of organized relationships among individuals and groups. Most of the social structure of a society is found in its major institutions, which are organized and established for the pursuit of activity. DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL CHANGE Over the years, social change has been defined and described by different people in different perspectives. At any rate, social change always involves change in or development of the structures that comprise our society. It could be change in the social, economic or political aspect. Further, social change is always associated with development and vice versa. Many sociologist and social scientists have attempted to categorize social change according to human relationships, organizational activities,

societal structures and functions. Below are some of the definitions of social change categorized according to different social interactions and phenomena. According to group activities Hand Gerth and C. Wright Mills (1953) "By social change we refer to whatever may happen in the course of time to the roles, the institutions, or the orders comprising a social structure, their emergence, growth and decline." (There is a difference in the way people work today; how a person rears his family, educate his children, or seeks meaning in life - compared to how our parents made a living several years ago, how they reacted to social values or to innovations). Panopio, Cordero and Raymundo (1978) "Social change can be defined in terms of the societal macrocosm. To them, social change refers to variations or modifications in the patterns of social organization, of subgroups within a society, or of the entire society itself. They specifically cited Kingsley Davis elements of social change." the development of oral and written language, and the other means of communications; modifications in technology; shifts in economic principle; the historical evolution of religious thought and political ideology; variations in musical styles and other art forms; transitions on scientific theories; and alterations in the form and rules of social interaction."

(Social change can be viewed as modifications in pattern of communication, technology, economy, religion, politics, arts science, and social structure).

According to change in the structure of society Morris Ginberg (1958) "By social change I understand a change in the social structure, for example, the size of a society, the composition or balance of its parts or the type of its organizations." (There could be changes in the size of a family; or change in the economy with the rise of big cities). Moore (1968) "Social change is the significant alteration of social structures (that is, of patterns of social action and interaction), including consequences and manifestations of such structures embodied in norms (rules of conduct), values and cultural products and symbols". Lucy Mair (1971) "Social change is the cumulative effect of individual responses to new situations. It is neither a process of acceptance or rejection of cultural traits nor of the differential adaptability of different social system." (The individual seeks new opportunities, looks for choices ha can make, finds out the reasons he has for making such choices, regardless of the society. There is no individual who makes the same kind of choice as another. Everyone makes different choices). According to change in the structure and functioning of society Allen (1971) Social change comprises modifications in social systems or subsystems in structure, functioning, or processes over some period of time. Davis (1949) "Social change means such alterations occurring organization - that is, the structure and functions of society." in social

Harry M. Johnson (1960)

"Social change is change in the structure of a social system; what has been stable or relatively unchanging changes." (When structural changes are made, the functioning of a system changes, too. For example, when organizational roles change, so does an individual's goal or drive to work more efficiently). According to change in social relationships Macver and Page (1949) "Social change mean changes in social relationship, the changing ways in which human being relate to one another." Judson R. Landis (1974) "Social change refers to change in the structure and functioning of the social relationships of a society." According to change in social structure and social relationships Ronald Edari (1976) "When we talk of social change, we mean, at the very minimum, two things: (a) the change in the constitution of social entities over time, and (b) the change in the relations among entities over time". Robert A Nisbert (1969) "Social change is a succession of difference in time within a persisting identity". Robert H. Lauer (1982) "Social change refers to alternations in social phenomena at various levels of human life from the individual to the global". (Social change means change in the structure of a society, and, therefore, the change among individuals as to how they relate to each other.)

ELEMENTS OF CHANGE According to Vago: Social change is conceptualized as the process of planned or unplanned qualitative or quantitative alterations in social

phenomena that can be depicted on a six-part continuum composed of interrelated analytic components. For the sake of simplicity, these components are called: IDENTITY: refers to a specific social phenomena undergoing change such as a definite practice, behavior, attitude, interaction, pattern, authority structure, productivity rate, voting pattern, prestige and stratification system. LEVEL: refers to location in a social system where change is taking place. There can be several levels such as individual, group, organization, institution and society. Example: Individual level - change in attitude, motivation, or aspirations. Group level - competition, conflict, unity. Organization level - changes in structure of function. Institutional level - change of status from bachelor to married life; change in education or religious practices. Social level - changes in economy or in the political system. LEVELS OF ANALYSIS IN SOCIAL CHANGE LEVELS OF ANALYSIS GLOBAL SOME REPRESENTATIVE AREAS OF STUDY SOME REPRESENTATIVE UNITS OF STUDY

CIVILIZATION CULTURE SOCIETY COMMUNITY INSTITUTIONS

Gross National Product; International organization; trade data; political international inequality alliances Life cycle of civilizations or Artistic, scientific and other other patterns of change innovations; social (e.g., evolutionary or institutions dialectical) Material culture; Technology; ideology; nonmaterial culture values Stratification system; Income, power and prestige; structure; demography; roles; migration rates; crime murder rates Stratification system; Income, power, and structure; demography; prestige; roles; population crime growth Economy; polity; religion; Family income; voting marriage and family; patterns; church education attendance; divorce rate; proportion of people with

ORGANIZATIONS

INTERACTION

INDIVIDUAL

college education Structure, interaction Roles; friendship cliques; patterns; authority administration/production structure; productivity ratio; output per worker Amount of conflict, competition, or neighboring; Types of interaction; identity of frequent and communication infrequent participants in interaction Beliefs about various Attitudes matters; aspirations

RATE OF CHANGE: (a) Can be measured by a specific set of time intervals. It could be in days, months or decades. (b) Can be designated as slow or rapid, orderly or erratic. MAGNITUDE OF CHANGE: example - Robert Dahls (1967) 3-part scheme of measuring the magnitude of political change: Incremental or marginal. There could be some kind of expansion, reduction, or modification of a certain behavior or component without changing the whole structure system. Comprehensive. Wide ranging change after the incremental stage. Revolutionary. This could be a substitution of a certain type of behavior; or rejection of the original behavior. DIRECTION OF CHANGE - refers to some future position of the entity in relation to its initial position. The types of direction are: Linear or cyclical. forward. Example: higher or lower, backward or

Values axis. Example: there is progress, or improvements or decline Quantitative. Example: fluctuation in volume or size.

CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES: Deliberately or planned. We say deliberately or planned if, for example, an invention or technology is consistent with the existing behavior; or adequate to the practical and moral requirements of the situation. Example of deliberate or planned change is shaping an attitude toward the poor; or increasing productivity; or making good education available to deserving students. Unplanned. It is the unanticipated result of planned change. An example would be unexpected managerial conflict resulting from miscommunication between management and employees. In sum, when you are involved in establishing social change, you must consider the proper identification of what is changing; what are the level, rate, magnitude, and direction of change; and what are the causes and consequences in bringing about social change and development. Social change and Cultural change The definitions discussed comprise both what is commonly identified as social, which refers mainly to actual human behavior and cultural change, which refers mainly to culturally meaningful symbols produced by human beings. The emphasis in this discussion will be on the interplay among the complex normative patterns of behavior that we call institutions, since it is these that provide much of the rationale for social control and human activities in general. This emphasis cuts across conventional distinctions between the "social" and the "cultural" aspects of social systems. Cultural change, it is true requires social actors as agents, and social change is likely to have cultural counterparts. No society is meaningful without its own culture and no culture exists without society. However, changes in certain cultural sub-system - for example, language, the arts, and perhaps theological and philosophical systems - may be viewed in virtual abstraction from concrete human, behavior. Similarly, fluctuations in the fashion of dress may be viewed as "autonomous", although it is also proper to consider such fashions as patterns of appropriate conduct in one sphere of social behavior.

No social change in a society is possible without change in the ingredients of its culture and since no culture exists without society, cultural change must be conditioned and initiated by society. Whenever we talk about change in a social system or social change, it necessarily engulfs cultural change. Customary usage of socio-cultural change or social and cultural changes are one and the same thing, at least when we are not analyzing society and culture separately. Thus, in this paper, changes in a social system are treated both social and cultural change with a single concept of social change. Classification of Social Change Different social scientists have endeavored to differentiate social change over time. Social change has reached to a stage of very wide genus of social dynamics and the social scientists are on constant search for systematization of its species for long time. While the complete taxonomy is yet to come up, the progress is encouraging. Some have tried to classify social change on the basis of instigator of change, others have done it on the basis of time dimension and level of society. Based on the source or instigator of change, social change has been categorized by Rogers as follows:

Social Change

Immanent Change

Contact Change

Selective

Directed

When the source or instigator of change is from within the social system, it is called immanent change, when the source of change is outside the social system, it is called contact change. Immanent change occurs when members of a social system, with little or no external influence, create and develop a new idea (that is, invent it) and it spreads within the system, immanent change, then is a "within-system" change phenomenon.

Contact change occurs when sources external to the social system introduce a new idea. So contact change is a between system change phenomenon. It may be either selective or directed, depending on whether the recognition of the need for change is internal or external. Selective contact change results when members of a social system are exposed to external influences and adopt or reject a new idea from that source on the basis of their needs. The exposure to innovations is spontaneous or incidental. The receivers are left to choose, interpret, and adopt or reject the new ideas. Directed contact change or planned change, are caused by outsiders who, on their own or as representatives of change agencies, seek to introduce new ideas in order to achieve goals they have defined. The innovation as well as the recognition of the need for the change, originated outside the social system. Programs of planned change occur due to dissatisfaction of change resulting from immanent and selective contact change. 1. Based on the time dimension and on the level of society, Zaltman, Kotler, and Kaufman (1972) have categorized social change as follows: Level of society Micro Time Dimension (Individual) Type 1 Short term 1. Attitude change 2. Behavior change Type 2 Life-cycle change Intermediate (Group) Type 3 1. Normative change 2. Administrative change Type 4 Organizational change Macro (Society) Type 5 Inventioninnovation Revolution Type 6 Socio-cultural evolution

Long term

The time dimension can vary from a short run of relatively few days or months to a long term of several months or years. At the micro or individual level there can be short term changes in attitude and behavior (Type 1). At the micro level there can be long-run changes in the life cycle of the individuals in a social system (Type 2).

Individuals socialized (educated) under Catholic school system will have their attitudes and behavior changed for some short period but on the long run as they internalize the code of conduct of the system their whole life cycle will also change. At the group or intermediate level of short run change, there can be normative or administrative change (Type 3). Normative changes occur when the group alters its norm temporarily to experiment with one innovation. Once they have tried it and found it useful, hopefully they will develop a more permanent positive attitude toward the practice. When the group has decided to institutionalize the change that has just occurred, this brings about changes in the statuses and roles of the group members through changing existing group norms permanently or for substantially long term thus rendering change in the whole organizational set-up. At societal or macro level of change, short term (Type 5) change is often characterized by innovations or inventions. For example, the introduction of birth control and family planning practices in a receptive society can quickly alter birth rate and population size. In the long run, this change will result major changes in the social structure of the society. The long tem ramifications are Type 6, as socio-cultural change. MODELS OF SOCIAL CHANGE According to W.E. Moore, there are many possible directions that change may take place, however, certain generalization can be established. Moore diagrammed various models (abstractions of reality that are used for analytical purposes) of change. Model 1 is the representation of the simplest model of growth - a straight line moving upward over time. Change is gradual and a continuous process. In reality, however, very few processes conform to this pattern without fluctuation. It is seldom accurate as a representation of observed changes. It does provide direction of change for certain types of phenomena. It can be used as crude indication of the average increase of productivity for an entire economy.

Model 2 is evolution by stages. This is rather a traditional way of viewing that progress is not continuous. It is a "breakthrough" occurring at times, followed by periods of stability. Based on this view, civilizations are often classified in terms of the quality of tools used, such as "Old Stone Age", "New Stone Age", "Bronze Age", and "Iron Age". Another way of referring to this stairstep stage is in terms of economic production as Walt Rostow's economic theory of development.

Model 3 represents evolution at unequal rates. Changes are not as abrupt as the stairstep model. Change is marked by irregular but gradual development and not by sharply differentiated stages. The first peak represents the Greco-Roman civilization, the second, the Renaissance, and the third, the Industrial revolution. It can also be applied to sequence of innovation and accommodation. Model 4 depicts evolution by cycles and short-term reversals. Trends are generally progressive and may have temporary retrogression. Marxists theory of history is based on this model. This is a dialectic theory of change arising from conflict between classes as representative of inconsistent interests, the top of any cycle might represent the thesis, and the bottom the antithesis; and the transitory periods when the society is on the intermediate trends line, the "synthesis".

Model 5. It shows the unity and diversity within a single notion of "branching evolution". Some civilizations regress or even die out, others remain stale for long periods, and still others make astonishingly rapid advances.

Model 6. It represents trendless cycles. Theories by Spengler and Sorokin have depicted human civilization as going through high and low periods in a regular, trendless cycle, not making any progress in the long run, but simply repeating previous periods. Peaks and valleys do not show any general upward trend.

Model 7. The logistic curve of growth, was first applied to social phenomena in the context of population growth. This model presumes that there is an abrupt change in the population's control over the environment. At first they increase fast, but growth levels off as the population approaches the maximum than can be supported by the environment.

Model 8. It represents a reverse logistic curve. Once in a while progress is represented by a downward, rather than an upward slope as, for example, in the decline in mortality rates prompted by improvement in food supply and medical technology. At first, mortality declines rapidly. If it continues to drop fast, most members of the society would soon become immortal. However, when mortality declines below a certain minimum, further decline cannot be expected, as shown in this model.

Model 9. It is the exponential rate of growth. Occasionally a social phenomenon accelerates in the same way that compound interest increases the balance in one's savings account. This model has been used in connection with innovations or technological changes based on the assumption that the more things that are available, the greater the number of possible combinations. This model also shows the unrestricted population growth.

Model 10. It is referred to as primitivism. This model is also not very optimistic about the fate of humankind. Some people consider this stage as a kind of retrogression from some past golden age. Many see this period as "decadent" and as a first step toward deterioration. This model shows a decline of civilization.

Obviously, these models are not exhaustive of the directions of social change. One may also look at the course of social change as being both cumulative and directional. This is an approach used in the study of industrialization and economic modernization. This is similar to once-to-asystem transformation. Neil J. Smelsers observations are illustrative to this process. For purposes of analyzing the relationships between economic growth and the social structure, it is possible to isolate the effects of several interrelated technical, economic, and ecological processes that accompanying development.

These may be listed as follows: 1. In the realm of technology, the chance from simple and traditional techniques toward the application and scientific knowledge. 2. In agriculture, the evolution from subsistence farming toward commercial production of agricultural goods. This means specialization in cash crops, purchase of non-agricultural products in the market, and the evident agricultural wage-labor. 3. In industry, the transition from the use of human and animal power toward industrialization power. Social - Language which has fostered all other inventions such as the alphabet, musical notes, sign languages, Morse code, systems of economy, government, property ownership and varied forms of symbolism Sources of Social Change INNOVATIONS is any thought, behavior or thing that is new because it is quantitatively different from existing forms (Barnett 1953). It involves the reinterpretation or new combinations of old culture traits or complexes, or the selection of elements from old pattern to create new patterns. Innovations in the form of inventions or discovery can be introduced through diffusion. Ex. Enrichment of rice with Vitamin A Substitution of unpolished rice for policed rice Restructuring of the barangay council from elective to appointive type DISCOVERY initial awareness of the existing but formerly unobserved relationships of elements of nature to human life (Gillin & Gillin, 1948). Discoveries provide the basic knowledge from which the cause and effect relationships of phenomena are deduced. They become the mainsprings of invention which are later diffused. Ex. Discovery of organisms and substances, diseases and their causes, the power of atom and of sources of energy INVENTIONS a new combination or a new use of existing knowledge to produce new things. They are usually the result of the ingenuity of the people with special abilities and power to select and recombine

elements from the past experiences of humankind into obviously new ways of behaving. It could be physical or social. Ex. Physical telephone, airplanes, the combined use of liquid gas engine, liquid gas tank, a running gear mechanism, an intermediate clutch, a driving shaft and a carriage body which formed the automobile Social language which has fostered all other inventions such as the alphabet, musical notes, sign languages, Morse code, systems of economy, government, property ownership and varied forms of symbolism TECHNOLOGIES spring from new mental constructs and are developed in response to a perceived need. They create new options and open new avenues for interaction and formation of new social order. Ex. Technological breakthroughs in molecular biology and genetic engineering; developments in telecommunications which pushed the world into an information driven economy. IDEOLOGIES could serve either as a barrier or facilitator to change. Ex. Capitalist ideology, religious ideologies CHALLENGE stimulates the search for new ideas. When faced with a problem, people have to find solutions to their problems. Ex. Environmental degradation has bonded people together for a clean environment by challenging the political will of institutions. Industries seek alternatives that are less disruptive to the environment; car owners shifting to the use of unleaded gas and fast food establishments shift from non-biodegradable food packs to biodegradable ones. DIFFUSION as a process also cause social change. It is a process of spreading cultural traits from group to group as a result of contact. Ex. Christianity and contact/exposure to western knowledge POPULATION CHANGES which is itself a social change also becomes a causal factor of further social change. Ex. A rapidly growing population must either migrate or improve production techniques; when a thinly populated frontier fills up with people, the hospitality pattern fades, secondary group relations multiply, institutional structure grows more elaborate.

 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions and droughts can radically alter social structures. Ex. Mt. Pinatubo eruption COLLECTIVE BAHAVIOR AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Ex. Panics, riots, protest rallies and the like can be potent sources of change; Suffrage, civil rights and feminist movements are only a few of the most influential social movements to have affected peoples lives. BARRIERS TO SOCIAL CHANGE If there are factors that contribute to social change, there are, on the other hand, certain obstacles to its occurrence. George M. Foster (1973) categorized the barriers to social changes into three: cultural, social,l and psychological. Cultural Barriers to Change Values and attitudes Values and attitudes have the following components: tradition , fatalism, cultural ethnocentrism, pride and dignity, norms of modesty, relative values, and superstitions. Tradition constitutes the stable aspect of culture as it maintains the status quo of a social group. What is good for our parent is presumed to be good for us. Thus, in our society there are already established, welltested, and ready-made modes of living, allowing only the recourse which is to adopt and accept them. To go against them can mean censure from the people who are immediately around us. This is why Filipinos tend to be authoritarian in childrearing, a practice that is identical to how their parents reared them. Fatalism seems to be a tendency more prevalent in poor countries than in highly advanced ones. Calamities like floods, typhoons and earthquakes are supposed to be God-sent; and an individual must accept them. If he is born poor, he should be contented with being so because that is his fate. Every person cannot go against such destiny, this role being predetermined even at birth. Manifested on the bahala na attitude of Filipinos who rely mainly on their destiny, fatalism is attributed to religious beliefs and sacred texts as viewed by sociologists.

 Cultural ethnocentrism is the tendency of people to disregard any innovation since they hold on tenaciously to their beliefs. To them, their beliefs are always right. This one-side viewpoint causes them to resist any kind of change. Old folks would usually quip: Luma na yan! (that is already antiquated) to any new idea no matter how novel it may be. Pride and dignity or propriety can be deterrent to progress. Change is never possible if it touches the amor propio of an individual, especially so if it will lower their stature. To cite an example, the nutritious brown rice continues to be consumed only by the poor, except that health conscious people are eating it also. Norms of modesty are usually associated with female modesty. In the oriental culture, women are pictured as demure, dainty, and helpless individuals who need much protection. They are pictured to be lacking in creativity, initiative and originality. As such, they are expected to take the backseat in any undertaking outside the home, which is probably the only place where they supreme. Relative values cannot eliminate the peoples prejudice to change. They will always judge the result of an undertaking based on their own established traditions. Thus, no matter how good the change is in terms of economic gains, people have the tendency to see certain flaws in it. Foster (1973) illustrated it as follows: Superstitions can cause people to resort to certain practices that are actually contradictory to rational steps towards development. Garcia (1971) found out in his study that even the literate, such as a group of selected science teachers coming from a highly urban school are not free from superstitions. He found out that their beliefs were varied but centered frequently on their economic wellbeing. He pointed out a sociological factor as a major cause of their adherence to these beliefs - they tend to acquire the same superstitions believed in by their parents and by their old folks. Cultural structure Cultural structure as a barrier to social change is shown in the logical incompatibility of culture traits and the unforeseen consequence of planned innovation. Logical incompatibility of culture traits can explain why individualism and high sense of independence can hardly be accepted by the conservative Filipinos since they are in direct clash with the closely-knit family and its extended ties that they have been used to. This traditional view highly cultivates the sense of dependence among the family members and, worse, the tendency of

parasitism especially on the part of grownup children, the married ones included. Similarly, the womens liberation movement and the decision based on reason rather than on age are still some of the controversial issues on the contemporary Filipino society. Motor patterns and customary body positions Each cultural group has its own motor patterns, how members move, how they hold and manipulate tools, and how they proceed in making a thing. Learning new techniques becomes harder if it involves unlearning certain skills that have been well established. Ordinarily, the novelty of an act is considered a threat to the old ways they have been accustomed to and which they find easy to do. Change in this situation is difficult if not impossible. Social Barriers to Change Group solidarity can nullify change as shown in several situations: mutual obligation within the framework of family, kin and friends; small group dynamics; public opinion; conflict, functionalism; and vested interests. Mutual obligation to certain persons arises out of loyalty and a sense of indebtedness, causing one not to change his way. Small group dynamics tends to cause one to be disinterested in change since his devotion to his circle of friends or a cooperative work group is strong. His friends and co-workers usually provide him with the much needed security and recognition. They are always available every time he needs them. Regarding opinion, one does not go against a popularly held view because he does not want to be secluded from the rest of society. In terms of conflict, a member of a society normally avoids it because he has some feeling of security and contentment. If a certain change can give him some benefits at the expense of this feeling, he is willing to dismiss the new idea or practice to avoid any feeling of guilt. Functionalism can be explained by the fact that one always sees the imperfection of any change, causing him to remain unchanged. Vested interests can make the need for change uncalled for when it is inimical to the good of some groups or individuals, usually the powerful members of the society. Loci of authority rest in powerful bodies like the family, the political structure in the government, and the unusually gifted and influential individuals. Their power is so strong that any change has become meaningless and unwanted.

 Characteristics of the social structure like the caste and class barriers make change impossible especially coming from the lower ranks. Change is only feasible if it is initiated by the higher social class since it has the authority or power. Change in this case is imposed from above and does not come from the grassroots. It does not mean, however, that social change cannot emanate from the mass base since history is replete with events showing revolutionary social movements initiated by the lowest stratum, where the greater part of the population belongs. Psychological barriers to change. George M. Foster (1973) classified the psychological barriers into two major categories, namely: different cross-cultural perception and communication problems. He cited certain components under each category. Under different cross-cultural perception are the peoples perception of the governments role and sense of purpose. When the people feel their government is sincerely working towards meeting their needs, for instance, they would naturally identify themselves with it. On the other hand, it they think the government is no longer serving their interests, they will consequently withdraw their popular support. In the latter case, the people become alienated from the government, more especially so if it is believed to be a fertile bed for graft and corruption, dishonesty, bigotry, and nepotism. Communication problems, on the other hand, include language difficulties, demonstration dangers and learning dangers. Using the situation on the perception of the governments role, all of the three components of communication problems are closely related to the situation. The growing communication gap between the government and the people continues. Demonstrations and rallies have become more frequent as they gain increasingly popular support. While the government wants the maintenance of status quo, the people clamor for change. Change seems to be also impeded by the authoritarian stance of the government through the military. Aggravating the situation are the outside infiltrators who take advantage of this critical condition. HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIOLOGY Sociology has evolved from several theories which laid the groundwork for modern sociology by calling attention to various areas of inquiry and by providing many of the concepts used as a matter of course in present day sociology. It was between 1760 and 1825 that Henri Saint Simon wrote his ideas on the science of society based on the assumption that the law of human behavior could be determined in the same manner that the law

of nature had been arrived at by astronomers, physicists, biologists, geologists, chemist and other natural scientists. The early writers believed that the power of reason could shed light on the improvement of social life and mitigate or eliminate social problems. Significant forerunners of sociology Auguste Comte (1718-1857), a native of Southern France coined the term sociology derived from the Latin word socius meaning society in interaction and the Greek word logos meaning study. Comte saw society as a process of evolution and progress. He formulated his famous law of the three states of development of human thought-theological or fictitious; metaphysical or abstract and scientific or positive. Comtes significant contribution consists primarily of his having aroused and inspired other scholars to make further pursuits in sociology. To him also goes the credit of being the father of sociology. Karl Marx (1818-1883) a German, with his friend Friedrich Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1847. The basic feature of their writings was an intense anger over the misery of the lower classes caused by the existing industrial order. Marx reiterated that political revolution was vitally significant in the evolutionary process of society, the only means whereby the improvement of social conditions could be attained. He believed that social conflicts, struggles and strifes were at the core of society and could cause social change. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) from England saw the development of society as a process of evolution with the pattern of linear ascent. Life organic evolution, the development of a society is a process of growth, increasing complexity, increasing differentiation of structure and function and increasing interdependence among the differentiated parts. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) also a French paid greater attention to the characteristics of groups particularly the cohesion of religious groups. He advanced social theory along with social methodology with his classic study on the incidence of suicide as influenced by certain social forces. Max Weber (1864-1920), a native of Germany demonstrated the crucial importance of the spiritual sphere in determining economic structure itself as put forward in his work. The Protestant Ethic

and the Spirit of Capitalism. Under his influence, sociology outgrew the controversy of rejecting deterministic theories. All efforts to explain societal change as originating in one single social factor have so utterly failed while efforts to show that a variety of factors exert some influence have proved to be so much more satisfactory that contemporary sociology has almost unanimously adopted the multifactor approach. Technological, economic, political, religious, ideological, demographic and stratification factors are all viewed as potentially independent variables which influence each other as well as the course of society. Other pioneers in sociology include William Graham Summer, Lester Ward, George Simmel, Ferdinand Toennies, Wilfredo Pareto and Karl Manheim. Summer in particular argued that state ways cannot change folkways one night, that social change comes only in its own good time and that morality cannot be legislated. Toennies concerned himself with the increase in division of labor, specialization and impersonal forms of interaction as industrialization and urbanization of societies takes place. The theories which dominated the above period were greatly influenced by the social and political upheavals which characterized European society during the Industrial Revolution and the intellectuals advocated social reform. Through the years the field of sociology grew rapidly and in the United States there was an accelerated shift from social philosophy to social science and later on the separation of sociology as a distinct discipline of social science. Sociology became an established part of course offerings in colleges and universities. Sociologist have become involved in various social research studies and introduced scientific knowledge which impacts decision and policy making. The Chicago School of Sociology produced scholars such as Robert E. Park, who pioneered in the multi disciplinarian approach and social ecology; and Charles Horton Cooley, George Herbert Mead, and W.I. Thomas, whose works emphasized the importance of social interaction in the development of human thought and action, later better known as symbolic interaction perspective.

 The 1930s ushered the field of service-related national public policy, theoretical focus on micro systems and methods of large-scale quantification. In the 1940s, sociology research flourished in Harvard and Columbia. Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), founder of the sociology department in Harvard, developed a general theory of action that analyzed social phenomena, ranging from individual behavior to the larger structure of society. Robert K. Merton (1919), known for the middle-range theory, was more concerned with linking general theory to empirical testing and developing concepts of social structures-functions, self-fulfilling prophecies, deviance, and bureaucracies. From these significant works in sociology, major theoretical perspectives have been developed to serve as guidelines with which to test behavior and hypothesis. Development is a process of social change aimed not only at raising the level of material welfare of the people but also at maximally developing their human potentials (economic, social, political, cultural, psychological and moral).

Development has the following characteristics: 1. It implies improvement, growth and change. 2. It is liberating helps people to attain knowledge and coping skills for survival. It is also humanizing. 3. Development is integral it is integrated for a more meaningful individual and societal change. 4. It is pervasive. 5. Development undergoes stages from less advanced to more advanced; movement from worst state to ideal state of affairs. 6. It is situation specific. 7. Development is not value free. 8. It is not free from politics. 9. It is not an isolated phenomenon. There are factors that enhance and restrain development Helping Factors Constraining Factors

1. People-their potentials, creativity, attitude initiative, innovativeness, etc. 2. Effective communication 3. Effective change agent 4. Functional development plan 5. Effective linkages among farmers 6. Adequate resources 7. Functional monitoring and evaluation evaluation 8. Reliance on peoples skills and competence

1.

Peoples

negative

towards change 2. Poor communication 3. Ineffective change agent 4. Dysfunctional devt. plan 5. Technology transplant 6. Inadequate resources 7. Poor monitoring and 8. More reliance on external funds/capital

DEVELOPMENT IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE Economic Growth Paradigm Dominance for the last 40 years of the paradigm in which the growth in the overall economy is believed to lead automatically to wealth trickling down to the poor. The paradigm sees development in terms of economic growth with emphasis on the rate of growth of GNP and GNP per capita. Rostows (1960) stages of development conceives development as a question of transforming traditional societies into modern ones by way of economic growth.

Lewis (1954) defines development in terms of achieving growth with an unlimited supply of labor. The same path for all development strategy is based on an oversimplification of reality without considering the actual conditions of the developing countries in terms of resources, social structure, political orientation and historical background. The economic growth paradigm followed a strategy of import substitution which countries in East Asia and Latin America followed. Trade became an important source for growth of the developing countries and opened their doors to foreign private investments and started receiving substantial aid.

 While indeed economic growth was achieved, it could not be sustained whenever the external environment became unfavorable. The strategy also did not pay much attention to the potential for internally generated economic growth. The debt crisis opened the door for the strategy of structural adjustment which put major focus on internal and external balances. The weakness of this strategy is the lack of emphasis on equity and poverty. It failed to recognize that any program for growth and adjustment must activate the potential of the rural poor rather than focusing on the non-poor and merely providing welfare support to the poor. The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) proposed an alternative framework for adjustment with transformation aimed at attaining sustained development by enabling countries to adjust to changes in their domestic and external circumstances and to restructure their economies. The goal was to transform the African economy to a production economy. The Bretton Woods institutions and the United Nations Development Programme has introduced the concept of high quality growth which maintains that growth should be equitable with particular attention to the plight of the poor and that the environment must be protected. The World Development Report of the World Bank introduced the concept of poverty reducing growth which recommends a broadbased economic growth which generates efficient income-earning opportunities for the poor and improved access to education, health care and other social services which helps the poor to take advantage of these opportunities. Challenges to the Economic Growth Paradigm Redistribution with Growth stresses that the poor are supposed to benefit from growth through economic linkages and by direct redistribution of income. Economic development was redefined in terms of reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within the context of a growing economy. The weakness of this paradigm is the limited scope of taxation and redistribution in developing countries. Basic Needs Approach made popular by International Labor Organization suggests that within the framework of the growth of GNP, appropriate measures should be taken to ensure that the basic needs

of the poor are satisfied with regards to food, clothing, shelter, etc. The limit of this approach is in terms of little or no emphasis at all in the productivity and capacity of the poor to generate surplus. In any case, the necessary allocation of resources, distribution of assets and overall policy and institutional changes were not carried out. The Integrated Rural Development Program also came into focus in the 1970s in Africa and Latin America together with programs for the generation of employment, financed primary from food aid. These challenges and the call for new economic order fair and stable prices for raw materials, free access to northern markets for industrial goods, regulation of the activities of transnational corporations, codes of conduct of the transfer of technologies and so on were superseded by the DEBT Crisis in 1982. Among the many reason for the crisis was the desire of many countries to borrow heavily against the future encouraged by the growth paradigm. Towards a New paradigm Centered on Poverty Alleviation and People Empowerment While the above concepts marked a shift in development thinking, it still requires the need to come up with a comprehensive framework for development which integrates the poor into the overall growth process expressed not in terms of what the poor should receive but rather what they can do and offer. The challenge therefore to the dominant paradigm is one which is envisioned to be a participatory and environmentally sustainable growth based on poverty alleviation. Both the poor and the non-poor are actively involved in the development process empowering them to be the primary actors and at the center of development. It espouses participatory development process where the people especially the disadvantaged influence policy formulation, control design alternatives, investment choices, management and monitoring of development interventions in their communities. The new paradigm conceives of poverty alleviation and people empowerment not just as a mechanism to get the poor to cross a given threshold of income or consumption but a sustained increase in productivity and an integration of the poor in the development process. INCORPORATING SOCIAL SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS Economics dominating the process of planned development.

 The storehouse of knowledge and knowledge generating methods amassed in the social sciences has been largely overlook. Gradual changing of the imbalance. Recognition of the social science knowledge. Repeated failure of development programs was largely because they were sociologically ill-informed and ill-conceived. This heightened interest in identifying and addressing the sociocultural variables of projects. Mid 1970s saw the reconceptualization of development policies moving away from the trickle down theories to poverty alleviation through development. Emergence of the concept of target group was brought to bear upon project strategies. Redefinition of the target group, the social actor, the beneficiaries of development. Evidence of a shift from a virtually exclusive emphasis on physical infrastructures to a recognition of social structures and social institutions as well as recognizing indigenous cultures paving the way for a people centered development.

Entrance Points for Sociological Knowledge Conventional Entrance Points Ex-post evaluation of projects to assess whether certain project has indeed accomplished its overall objectives and triggered the desired consequence or some unanticipated ones. Social impact assessment or a kind of ex ante evaluation where the social scientist examines a development project prepared by a group of other experts and is required to make a desk assessment whether the project will have a positive or adverse social repercussion.

 Generation of basic social information necessary for a project. None of the entrance points allow the sociologists to participate fully in the interdisciplinary modeling of planned rural development. It blocks out the crucial contribution that sociology has to make in the actual content and design for purposive action to bring the social actors, the people themselves into the processes and attune the other specialists, the technical and economic experts to the demands of putting people first in the development process. Going Outside of the Convention Entrance Points Essentials stages of the contributions can be matched are: Project Project Project Project Project project cycle where sociological

Identification preparation (including design) appraisal (including design correction) implementation (including monitoring) evaluation

The 1980s saw the increasing number of social science professionals publishing sociological researches which made the intrinsic value of social analysis more visible to the rest of the community. Other factors contributing powerfully to employing more behavior sciences to improve the quality of development work. Rising public concern for environmental protection, sustainable development and participation and institution building. Sharpened public criticism of development allocation wasted on half-baked programs and backfiring inept interventions. The beginning of 1990s saw the rise of the social sciences as they are better positioned to influence development interventions. Contributions of social scientists in the development process: Carriers of social analysis in the context of development programs. Examines social organizational and cultural variables either to propose models for social action or translate the lessons from past failures into improved approaches.

 Sharpens the tools of social science for inducing development THEORIES Theory is a set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of a phenomenon by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena (Kerlinger). Importance/Values of Theories 1. Theories explain phenomena. Theories about human behavior explain why people behave as they do and thus provide a scientific basis for understanding human reactions. 2. Theories are used as basis for predictions. Theories foretell what one can be expected to do under certain conditions. 3. Theories serve as a guide in the formulation of hypothesis and trains investigators to look for facts which may ordinarily not be readily apparent. 4. Theories permit research to be cumulative; that is they allow the conclusion of older studies to gain support from new research and allow older studies to provide the data for new research. 5. Theories indicate what studies are crucial and a helpful guide in the selection of research problems from among the infinitely large number of possible research areas. 6. Theories permit research to proceed systematically and allow conclusions to take a shorthand form so that they are readily communicable. 7. Potential use of theories in policy, organizational and institutional design and reform and even revolutionary transformation. THEORY AND RESEARCH The scientific norm of logical reasoning provides a link or a bridge between theory and research. In actual practice, theory and research interact through a never ending alternation of deduction and induction.

I N D U EMPIRICAL C GENERALIZATION T I O N

THEORIES

HYPOTHESIS

OBSERVATION

D E D U C T I O N

Theories generate hypothesis, hypothesis suggest observations, produce generalization and those generalization results in the modification of a theory. The modified theory then suggests modified hypothesis and a new set of observations and produces revised generalization which further modifies the theory. The relationship implies the dynamism of science and that theories are constantly changing on the basis of new discoveries. The model also indicates an alternation of deduction and induction. In induction, one starts from observed data and develops a generalization which explains the relationship between the objects observed. In deduction, one starts from generalization and applies it to a particular case. During the inductive phase, theories are developed from the analysis of research and during the deductive phase research is used to test theories. ELEMENTS OF A THEORY 1. CONCEPTS are abstract elements representing classes of phenomena within the field of study. Ex. Social status.

2. VARIABLES are the concepts empirical counterpart. Variables allow researchers to see variations in the phenomena and how it can be measured. Ex. Social status measured in terms of income (variable). 3. STATEMENTS describes relationships between concepts. There are several statements comprising a theory. Laws are universal generalization of facts on some phenomenon that have been observed. Axioms consist of a basic set of statements each independent of the others from which all other statements of the theory may be derived. Ex. In the theory of juvenile delinquency, one may begin with the axioms such as Everyone desires material comforts and the ability to obtain material comforts legally is greater for the upper class. 4. PROPOSITIONS are statements derived from axioms. From the above axiom, it can be said that: Working class youths would be more likely to break the law to gain material comforts than would upper class youths. 5. HYPOTHESIS are specified expectations about empirical reality derived from propositions. Pursuing the above examples, the hypothesis is Working class youths have higher delinquency rates than upper class youth. This hypothesis can be used or tested through research. 6. OBSERVATIONS are generally used in reference to information gathering. This may involve conducting experiments, interviewing people, looking into published reports or through hypothesis testing. LIMITATIONS OF THEORIES Theories are abstractions from realities but do not exhaust realities. Theories are historical products and history begins with a culture already there. Different traditions claimed not to have the same equal explanation of the nature of the phenomena. In any theory there is the problem of tradition centrism. A theory of change should be based on assumption of reality as process.

 Process rather than persistence is the fundamental fact of human existence. There are continuities and points of stability but social life is processed in its essence. Process is not mechanical or deterministic; there are alternative possibilities for human societies. The form of the process of change is dialectical. It incorporates the notion of contradictions both in ideas and material factors. A theory of social change should also incorporate the notion of interdependence and interrelatedness of the various levels of social reality. In the social sciences, theories do not replace each other but accumulate. While it is true that some are introduced as antithesis to previous ones, elements from all of them keep piling up to form the present patrimony of development thinking. References

a. Garcia, M.1993. Development: Its sociological dimensions. National Bookstore,

Manila, Philippines. b. Maquiso, T. R. 1997. Socio-Anthro: An introduction to sociology. Groundwater Publications and Research Corporation, Makati City, Philippines. c. Panopio, I, et al.1995. Sociology: Focus on the Philippines. Ken Incorporated.Quezon City Philippines. d. Rivera, Fermina Talens. 2003. Compilation of theories and strategies of social change.

e. Several readings from the INTERNET