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unit #3 power system control

the automatic voltage regulator

the exciter is the main component in the avr loop. it delivers the dc power to the generator field.it
must have adequate powe capacity and sufficient speed of response. the basic role of the avr is
to provide constancy of the generator terminal voltage.during normal small and slow changes in
the load. however, it is common to design the exciter with enough margin to give boosts in the
excitation level also during emergency situations.

exciter types: in older power plants, the exciter consisted of a dc generator driven by the main
generator shaft. this arrangement required the transfer of the dc power to the generator field via
slip rings and brushes.

modern exciters tend to be of either brushless or static design. a typical brushless avr loop is
shown in fig. 3.1 where the exciter consists of an inverted three phase synchronous generator.
the latter has it 3-ph armature on the rotor and its field on the stator.its ac armature voltage is
rectified in diodes mounted on the rotating shaft and then fed directly into the main genereator
field. this design eliminates the need for slip rings & brushes.

fig. 3.1 brushless avr loop

in a static avr loop , the excitation power is otained directly from the generator terminals or from
the station service bus. the ac power is rectified in thyristor bridges and fed into the main
generator field via slip rings.

exciter modelling

V
assume that would decrese. this immediately results in an increased error voltage "e" which
in turn causes increased values of vr , i.e., vf and if. the d axis generator flux increases as a result
of the boost in if thus raising the magnitude of the internal generator emf e and terminal voltage v.

∆V ref
− ∆ V = ∆e

∆v R = K A ∆e

where ka is the amplifier gain.


∆V ( s ) − ∆ V ( s ) = ∆ e( s )
ref

∆v R ( s )
GA = = KA
∆e( s )

ga is the amplifier transfer function. in reality , the amplifier will have a delay that can be
represented by a time constant ta and its transfer function is of the form

∆v R ( s ) KA
GA = =
∆e( s ) 1 + sT A

if re and le respectively represent the resistance and inductance of the exciter field , we have

d
∆v R = Re ∆ie + Le ( ∆ie )
dt
measured across the main field exciter k1 armature volts per ampere of field current ie , that is,

∆v f = K 1 ∆ie

∆v f ( s) Ke
Ge = =
∆v R ( s) 1 + sTe

where

K1
Ke =
Re

Le
Te =
Re

the time constant ta & te have values in the ranges of 0.02-0.10 sec & 0.5-1.0 sec respectively. fig.
3.2 shows a linear model of the of the avr loop.
∆V ref ∆e ∆v R ∆v F ∆V
+
∑ GA
Ge GF

-
∆V

fig.3.2 block diagram of avr loop

V
generator modelling: there is a relation between field voltage vf and the generator voltage .
the relationship depends on the generator loading. the simplest possible relationship exists at low
or zero loading in which case v equals approximately the internal emf e

∆E ( s ) ∆ V ( s ) KF
≅ =
∆v f ( s ) ∆v F ( s ) 1 + sTd' 0

ωL fa
KF =
2R f

L ff
Td' 0 =
Rf

the open loop transfer function of the loop in fig.3.2 is given by

K
G(s) =
{(1 + sTa ) (1 + sTe )(1 + sT 'do ) }

where

k= kakekf
the closed loop transfer function si given by

∆V G ( s)
=
∆V ref
1 + G(s)

static performance of the avr loop

the avr loop must (1) regulate the terminal voltage to within required static accuracy limits. (2)
have sufficient speed of response (3) be stable.
for a constant reference input , the likewise constant error must be less than some specified
percentage of the reference. we can write the static accuracy specification as follows:

P
∆e0 = ∆ V ref , 0
− ∆V 0
< ∆V ref , 0
100
for a constant input , the transfer function is obtained by setting s=0.

G (0) 1 1
∆e0 = ∆ V − ∆V = ∆V − ∆V = ∆V = ∆V
ref , 0 0 ref , 0
1 + G (0) ref , 0
1 + G (0) ref , 0
1+ K ref , 0

clearly, the static error decreases with increased loop gain. minimum gain needed to obtain a
specified accuracy

100
K> −1
P
example: if static error is sepcified to be less than 1 % , open loop gain must exceed 99.

dynamic resposne of the avr loop:

fig. 3.3 shows a plot of the root loci of the open loop transfer function g(s). three poles are
located in the left half of the complex plane
corresponding to the three poles. the pole locations are:

−1 1 1
s1 = ; s2 = − ; s3 = − '
TA Te Td 0

because td0' is comparatively large, the pole s3 is very close to origin for small gain k , a closed
loop pole is near the origin resulting in sluggish response. as the gain increases, the two of the
closed loop real poles merge. any further increase in gain results in a pair of closed loop complex
poles. this results in oscillation. for sufficiently large open loop gain k , the complex poles enter
the right half of the complex plane resulting in loss of stability.
Im

Re
s1 s3 0
s2 s
3

fig.3.3 root loci of avr without compensator.

while a large k results in a low static error , large k may result in a dynamic instability. to resolve
this conflict, we add a compensator. adding a zero in the left half of the complex plane, results in
a g(s) of the following form:

K (1 + sTc )
G(s) =
{ (1 + sT A )(1 + sTe )(1 + sT ' d 0 }
the added zero will not affect the static loop gain k and the static accuracy. if we tune the
compensator parameter tc = te, then the g(s) will simplify to

K
g(s) =
{(1 + sT )(1 + sT }
A d0
'

open loop poles are

1 1
s1 = − ; s2 = − '
TA Td 0

the root loci for the second order system is shown in fig. 3.4.

s2
Im

Re
0
s2
s1

fig.3.4 root loci for the compensated avr system.

for the second order system the closed loop response corresponds to damped oscillations even
for large k giving sufficient static accuracy at the same time.
in practice, series and feedback compensations are employed.

effects of generator loading

E≅V
the above analysis of the avr loop was based upon the assumption that which holds
true only for a lightly loaded generator. the ability of the avr loop to mantain a well regulated
terminal voltage under widely shifting load conditions is an absolute prerequisite.added load does
not change the basic features of the avr loop, but affects the values of both gain factror and time
constant.high loading will make the generator work at highr magneytic saturation levels. this
E
means smaller changes in for incremental increases in if , translating into reduction of kf. the
filed time constant will likewise decrease , as generator loading mensa closing the armature
current paths.

the circumstance permits the formation of transient stator currents , the existence of which yields
a lower effective filed inductance. the rotor -field time constant under load can be shown equal to

X d' + X ext '


Td ,load = Td 0
X d + X ext

xext is the exterior reactance viewed from generator terminals.

to express sending and receiing end voltages in terms of real and reactive powers, consider fig.
3.5. δ
P+jQ

R+jX

V
E ≈ load
E

IX
a b
δ φ
φ V
IR
I ∆V

fig. 3.5 v & e in terms of p & q

from fig. 3.5,

E 2 = (V + ∆V ) + ( δV )
2 2

∆V = ab + bc = IR cos φ + IX sin φ

δV = gd − cg = IX cos φ − IR sin φ

E 2 = (V + IR cos φ + IX sin φ ) + ( IX cos φ − IR sin φ )


2 2

P = VI cos φ ; Q = VI sin φ

P Q
I cos φ = ; I sin φ =
V V
2 2
 PR QX   PX QR 
E 2 = V + +  + − 
 V V   V V 

if

δV << V + ∆V , then

2
 PR QX 
E ≅ V +
2
+ 
 V V 

or,
PR QX
E =V + +
V V

PR + QX
E −V =
V
if r=0 ,

QX
E −V =
V
the angle of transmission is given by

 δV   PX − QR 
δ = Sin −1   = Sin −1  
 E   VE 
if r is neglected,

 PX 
δ = Sin −1  
 VE 

hence the flow of real power between 2 nodes is determined largely by the transmission angles
and the flow of reactive power is determined by the scalar voltage difference
between the two nodes.

if e is specified and v is required , the phase diagram becomes as in fig. 3.6 if it is assumed that
r=0

IX PX/E
V

I QX/E
fig.3.6 e iss pecifed & v is required, r=0

 E − QX  2  PX  2 
V =   +  
 E   E  

PX E − QX
If <<
E E ,
then,

QX
V ≅E−
E
control of voltage & reactive power

two generating stations linked by an interconnection of impedance r+jx ohms is shown in fig. 3.7.
v1 v2

V
1
P2 , Q2
P1 , Q1
R+jX

V
V1 2

local
load local
GA load
GB

fig. 3.7 two stations connected by an impedance

the rotor of a is in phase advance of b and v1> v2 we know

R P2 + XQ2 XP2 − RQ2


∆V = ; δv =
V2 V2 .

when x>> r , ∆V determines reactive power q. if machine a is in phase advance of machine b &
v1> v2 , there is flow of real power from a to b. when v1>v2 , the reactive power is transferred from
a to b. if by varying the generator excitation such that v2>v1 , the reactive power is transferred
from b to a. hence real power can be transferred from a to b and b to a by adjusting the amount of
steam admitted to the turbine and the reactive power can be sent in either direction by adjusting
the voltage magnitude. these two operations are independent of each other if x>>r and the flow of
reactive power can be studied independently of the power flow. if a scalar difference exists across
the large reactive link , the reactive power flows towards the lower voltage node. if there is
surplus reactive power at a point then voltage will raise at that point and vice versa.

if q2 =0 in addition to r=0 ,there will be no voltage drop between a and b. assuming v1 is constant,
consider the effect of keeping v2 and hence the voltage drop constant.
R P2 + XQ2
∆V = ;
V2

(∆V )V2 = RP2 + XQ2 ;

∆ V (V2 ) − RP2
∆ V (V2 ) − RP2 = XQ2 ; Q2 =
X

RP2
Q2 = K −
X
where k is a constant. if q2 does not exist naturally in the circuit, it will have to be obtained by
artificial methods such as compensators or inductors.

generation & absorption of reactive power

(1) synchronous generators can be used to generate or absorb reactive power. the ability to
supply reactive power is determined by short circuit ratio (scr) . scr= 1/synchronous reactance. in
modern machines, the value of this ratio is made low for economic reasons and hence the
inherent ability to operate at leading power factors is not large. the var capacity can be increased
by the use of continuously acting voltage regulators. an overexcited machine generates reactive
power while an underexcited machine absorps reactive power.

(2) overhead lines & transformers: when fully loaded lines absorp reactive power ,the reactive
power absorbed = i2x/ph. i is the current in amperes for a line reactance x ohms/ph. during light
loads, the shunt capacitance of longer lines may become predominant , the lines become var
generators.
transformers always absorb reactive power. for a transformer of reactance xt pu and a full load
rating of 3vi=rated, the ohmic reactance is given by
VX T
I rated .
the vars absorbed is given by

3I 2VX T 3I 2V 2 3(VA of load ) 2


VARS absorbed = = XT = XT
I rated VI rated RatedVA
(3) cables: cables are generators of reactive power owing to their high capacitance.
(4) loads: a load at 0.95 pf implies a reactive power demand of 0.33 kvar per kw of power. the
phase voltage v at a node is a function of p & q at that node.

V = φ ( P, Q )

∂V ∂V
dV = dP + dQ
∂P ∂Q
consider the network in fig. 3.8.

R+jX

V1 V

fig. 3.8 the effect of loads on reactive power

PR + QX
∆V = V1 − V =
V
or,

P=
(V1 − V )V − QX
R

∂P V1 − 2V
=
∂V R
similarly q can be expressed as

(V1 − V ) − PR
Q=
X

∂Q V1 − 2V
=
∂V X
hence,

∂V ∂V RdP + XdQ
dV = dP + dQ =
∂P ∂Q V1 − 2V

for constant v ,

RdP + XdQ = 0

or,

R
dQ = − dP
X
∂Q
normally, ∂V is the quantity of great interest. it can be found experimentally using a network
analyzer by the injection of a known quantity of vars at the node and measuring the difference in
volt produced at that node. from the results obtained,

∆Q Qafter − Qbefore
=
∆V Vafter − Vbefore

∆V should be small, a few percent of the normal voltage.

∂Q V1 − 2V
=
∂V X

∂Q
hence smaller the value of reactance associated with the node, larger the value of ∂V for a
given volt drop. when more number of lines meeting at the node the resultant will be a smaller
∂Q
reactance and hence the value of ∂V is larger. the value lies in the range 10-15 mvar per kv. for
example, if the natural volt drop at a point without
∂Q
artificial injection of reactive power is 5 kv and value of ∂V at this point is 10 mvar/kv , then to
maintain the voltage at its local value would require 5x 10=50 mvar.

further, if the 3 phases of the connector are shortcircuited at the receiving end, the current
flowing in the line is equal to v1 /x amperes. with the system at no load , v=v1. hence

∂Q V1 − 2V − V1
= = amp
∂V X X

∂Q
hence the magnitude of ∂V is equal to the short circuit current. .

methods of voltage control

injection of reactive power: this is the most fundamental method but in transmission system, it
lacks the flexibility and economy of transformer tap changing.
hence it is used in schemes where transformer alone cannot suffice. capacitance is required for
power factor correction of loads. let the tariff rate be rs. (axkva+bxkwh). a load of p1 kw at a pf of
φ1 lagging is improved to a pf of φ 2 lagging with introduction of capacitors.

 P P1 
savings = A 1 −  − C [ P1 tan φ1 − P1 tan φ 2 ]
 cos φ1 cos φ 2 
c corresponds to interest and depreciation of the capacitance installation per kvar.for savings to
be maximum,

d ( savings)
=0
dφ 2

that is,

AP1 sec φ2 tan φ2 = CP1 sec 2 φ2


or,
C
sin φ 2 =
A
the improvement of load pf will alleviate the whole problem of var flow in the transmission system.
general methods of injection are:-

1. static shunt capacitors 2. static series capacitors 3. static shunt reactors 4. synchronous
components

the other methods of voltage control are : 5. tap changing transformers 6. booster transformers 7.
regulating transformers 8. static var compensators.

1. shunt capacitors: the function is to supply lagging kvars to the system at the point where they
are connected. it has the same effect as an overexcited synchronous condenser. this is the
cheapest means of reactive power supply. this is used for pf correction at the load terminals of
low voltage as shown in fig. 3.9.

R+jX
E V
G M

fig. 3.9 shunt capacitor compensation

when the voltage falls, reactive power produced by the shunt capacitor falls , at light loads the
capacitor output is larger and the voltage tends to rise to excessive levels. the voltage control is
not smooth with shunt capacitors. the following are the reasons for the application of shunt
capacitors: 1). increases volt level at the load 2) reduces lagging component of circuit current 3)
2
improves voltage regulation if the capacitors units are properly switched. 4) reduces I R power
loss and i2x loss in the system because of reduction in current 5) increases pf of source
generators 6).decreases kva loading on the source generators & circuits to relieave an
overloaded condition or release capacity for additional growth. 7) reduces investment in system
facilities per kw of load supplied.

2. series capacitors : it is connected in series with the line and is used to reduce inductive
reactance between supply point and load. one major drawback with series capacitor is the high
overvoltage produced when short circuit current flows through it and special protective devices
are incorporated.

VS C
X
VR

VS
IX
I
Load
V R'
VC
VR

I
VC

fig. 3.10 series capacitor compensation

series capacitors are used to compensate the effect of series reactance. the reactance of the line
is reduced from x to x-xc. the voltage drop is therefore reduced by compensating the inductive
reactance of the line.the compensating factor k= xc / x . for x=xc , full compensation is achieved.
for xc=0, compensation is zero.

relative merits of series & shunt capacitors: 1. if the load var requirement is small , series
capacitors are of little use. 2. with series capacitors, the reduction in line current is small, hence if
thermal considerations limit the current, little advantage is obtained and shunt compensation
should be used 3. if voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are effective; also voltage
fluctuation due to arc furnace load etc., are evened out.4.if the total line reactance is high , series
capacitors are very effective and stability is improved.

3.shunt reactors: shunt reactors are provided at sending end and receiving end of long distance
high voltage (ehv & vhv) transmission lines when the lines are lightly loaded and the line voltage
increases to ecessive values due to the charging current. the current taken by the reactors is in
phase opposition to the current due to line capacitance. the leading current due to line
capacitance is thus cancelled out by the lagging current taken by reactors. the capacitors may be
regarded as a source of generating kvar while the reactors can be regarded as kvar consuming
devices. the reactors improve the system stability.an airgap is provided within the reactor core to
prevent magnetic saturation. this increases the core vibration and noise. shunt reactors are
conneced tot eh tertiary winding of teh powr transformers at teh generating or receiving ends of
the line(see fig. 3.11)
transmission line

shunt reactors

fig.3.11 shunt reactors

4. synchronoous components:

the synchronous compensator (see fig.3.12) is the synchronous motor. running without
mechanical load. and depending on the value of excitation , can absorb or generate reactive
power. when used with vr , the compensator can automatically run overexcited at times of high
loads and under excited at light loads. the compensator is run up as an induction motor and then
synchronised . the great advantage is the flexibility of operation for all load conditions. the cost of
installation is high.

275 kV

415 V supply
earthing transformer
To AVR to AVR

11kV ≈

CT synchronous
condenser

66 kV
fig. 3.12 synchronous condenser connected to tertiary winding of main transformer

comparison of capacitors & synchronous condensors/compensators:

1. synchronous condenser is capable of supplying kvars equal to its rating to the system as well
as absorbing them to an extent equal to 50 % of its rating.
2. the fitness of control of the synchronous condensers cannot be duplicated by the capacitors.
3. an instantaneous drop in terminal volt increases the kvar supplied to the system in the case of
synchronous condensers whereas in the case of capacitors , the kvars supplied to the system
decreases . i,.e synchronous condensers have greater stabilising effect.
4. the losses of synchronous condensers are much higher that those of capacitors.
5.the const of synchronous condensers is high compared to the cost of equivalent capacitors.
6. kvar rating of capacitor installation can be increased or decreased depending on the load
requirement. this is not possible in the case of synchronous condensers.
7. a failure of a single fused unit in a bank of capacitors affects only that unit and does not affect
the operation of the entire bank. a failure in the condenser removes the entire ability to produce
kvar. but failure of synchronous condenser is less likely to occur than failure of single unit in a
bank of capacitors.

5. tap changing transformers ; the voltage control of transmission & distribution systems is
obtained by tap changings. tap changers are either on-load or off-load changers. the turns ratio of
tansformer and hence volt ratio and secondary volt is changed and voltage control is obtained. it
is the most widely used method of controlling voltages at various levels. volt control of the range
± 16 % can be achieved by tap changing transformers.

1: ts tr:1

fig. 3.13 tap changing transformers

referring to fig.3.13, let ts & tr be fractions of nominal tranformation ratios i.e., tap ratio/ nomional
ratio. e.g, a tranformer of nominal ratio 6.6 kv to 33 kv , when tapped to give 6.6 to 36 kv has a ts
= 36/33= 1.09. v1 and v2 are the nominal voltages at teh ends of tehline and the actual voltages
tsv1 and tr v2. it is required to determine tap changing ratios tr & ts to completely compensate the
line , i.e., v1= v2 . the product tr ts may be made unity so that the overall volt level remains in the
same order and that minimum no. of taps on both trasnformers is required.

V1 = t sVs
V2 = trVr

t sVs = trVr + IZ

we know
PR + QX
∆V =
V

PR + QX
IZ ≅ ∆V =
V
hence,

PR + QX
t sVs = trVr +
t rVr

Vr ( PR + QX )
ts = tr +
Vs VrVs tr
t r t s = 1. then,
put

Vr ( PR + QX )t s
ts = +
Vs t s VrVs

Vr PR + QX 2
ts 2 = + ts
Vs VsVr
or,

 PR + QX  Vr
t s 2 1 − =V
 V V
s r  s

for complete compensation vs=vr. hence ts can be found.

effect of tap changing on current & voltage drop :


consdier fig. 3,.14 with a tap changing transformer.

I 100A
ZL

V=constant
fig.3.14 effect of tap changing on current

the transformer does not improve the var flow position and also the current in the line is increased
if the ratio is increased. initially, the current is 100 awith ratio 1:1. after a tap change to as tap
ratio of 1.1 , the current is 100x1.1 =110 a. the voltage drop in z is 1.1 times the original value.
hence the secondary volt increase is offset by the
increased drop in the line.if the line impedanxce is high , it is possible for the volt drop to be too
large for the transformers to maintain voltages with the tap change available. hence combined
use of tap changing transformer and reactive popwer compensation can be employed as shown
in fig. 3.15.

V1 V2
P S

fig. 3.15 combined tap changing trasnformer and reactive compensation

the tertiary winding (t) of a 3-winding transforme is connected to a synchronous compensator(c).


for a given load condition, it is proposed to find the necessary transformation ratios with some
output of the compensator. the transformer is represented by the equivalent star connection (see
fig. 3.16). vn is the phase voltage of the star point of the equivalent circui. resistance and losses
are neglected. the allowable ranges of volt for v1 & v2 are specified and the values of p2 , q2, p3 =0
and q3 are given.
P2 , Q2 T12
V1
Vn V2
XP XS

XT

P3 = 0, Q3
T23

V3

≈ C

fig.3.16 equivalent circuit of fig. 3.15

X P (Q2 / 3) X P Q2
V1 − Vn = ∆V = =
Vn 3V L
similarly,

X P P2
δV =
3V L

2 2
 X p Q2   X P P2 
V1 = (Vn + ∆V ) + (δV ) = Vn +
2 2
 +
2

 3VL   3V L 

or

( 2
)
a 2 + a 2 X p Q2 − V1L + ( X P P2 ) 2 + ( X P Q2 ) 2 = 0

where a=vl2; V1L = 3V1

{V }
2
2 V − 2 X P Q2 1 2 2 2 2
VL = 1L ± 1L (V1L − 4 X P Q2 ) − 4 X P P2
2 2
once vl is found , the transformation ratio is easily found.

off-circuit tap changing: this operation is manually executed by substation operator. occassional
adjustment of volt ratio can be made by off circuit tap changing . these adjustments are usually
for seasonal load variations of special operating requirement of local substation. typical range of
the off circuit tap changer are +/- 12.5 % variation in 5-7 steps. daily and short time volt control is
not possible by off circuit tap switch.

on-load tap changers(oltc) : the daily volt variation due to changing load and short period volt
variation are controlled by on-load tap changers automatically.oltc is also useful in industrial
applications where voltage is variable.the voltb ratio of a transformer can be varied by about +/-
16 %. a tap changer is provided on a transformer for maintaining specified outgoing volt where
the incoming volt is subjected to volt variations. the tap changer is mounted in/on the transformer
tank. it comprises a motor driven mechanism and associated control circuit for starting and
stopping the motor. the motor can be run in the direction for a 'raise' tap changer or in the reverse
direction for 'lower' tap changer.

in order to initiate the tap changing, the line/bus volt is sensed from secondary of a pt by volt
sensitive relay. the volt sensitive relay has two pairs of contacts for 'raise' and 'lower' . a time
delay element is provided within the volt sensitive relay or in its circuit seprately. this time delay
relay prevents tap changing operation during transient voltages and hunting of tap changers.time
delay can be adjusted between 10-60 sec or more. a linre drop compensator is provided within
control circuit used for regulating transmission line voltages.

when the line voltage varies beyond certain set value, the voltage sensitive relay connected in the
secondary circuit of pt is actuated either to close 'raise' contacts or 'lower' contacts. the motor
stops automatically after changing the tap as the unit switch provided in the mechanism operates.

the volt drop in line drop compensator (ldc) is proportional to the volt drop in transmission line. the
volt drop across the r-l of ldc is injected into main regulating volt coil circuit. therfore, the operation
of volt regulating relay is in accordance with the requirements of the volt drop in the transmission
line.therefore, the tap cahnging is obtained as per the transmission line requirements of chnaging
load currents and reactive drop in the line. thus tap changing by oltc provides automatic
regulation of bus bar volt.

booster transformer: (see fig.3.17)

line

booster

fig.3.17 booster transformer

it may be desitrable to increase the volt at an intermediate point in a line rather than at the ends
of the line as with tap changing trasnformers, on technical and economic grounds or the system
may not like the expense of tap changing.the booster can be crought into teh circuit by the closing
of the relay b and opening of the relay a or vice versa. the mechanism by whihc the relays are
opreated can be controlled either from a chnage in volt or change in current. the change in curent
is more sensitive because from noload to full looad represents a 100% change in volt. this
boostrer gives an in-phase bost similar to tap changing transformer. an advantage is that the
rating of booster is the product of the current and the injected volt and hence is only about 10 %
of that of a main transformer. thye are often used in distribution feeders where the cost of tap
changing transformers is not warranted.

regulating tranformers (see fig.3.18);

∆Van
Van + ∆Van

fig. 3.18 regulating transformer

a trasnformer which is designed for a small adjustment of volt instead of changing the volt levels
is called regulsting transformer for control o0f volt magnitude. it consists of 2 parts (i) 3 phase
auto trasnformer called exciting transformer (ii) series transformer. the volt tapped from the outer
transformer is applied to the series transformer placed in teh network where we want top add the
volt ∆V . the magnitude ∆V is dependent on the tap changer position of the autotransformer.
with the help of this transformer
, we can control the flow of reactive power in teh circuit in question. regulating transformer can
also be used for phase angle control and hence to control the real power flow in the line.

static var compensators (svc)

svc are located in receiving substations and distribution substations for smoth and step less
variation of compensation of reactive power injected into line, by shunt capacitor and shunt
reactors. the main featues are: 1) thyristorised 2) capacitance briought into circuit during heavy
or low pf loads 3) inductrors brought into circuit during low loads to reduce receiving end volt. fig.
3.19 shows a schematic diagram of svc.
HV bus

AVR

PT

LV bus thyristor
control

thyristor
firing
TCR circuit
TSC TSC TSC

fig. 3.19 schematic of svc

the installation of svcs at suitable points of a transmission system can maintain specific volt
profile and can limit the volt and frequency deviation under disturbances. further, the transient
stability can be improved and te system transmission capacity can be increased both under
operating and fault conditions . svc method of reactive popwer control is fast, continuous, has
little loss, and requires less maintenance. they are optimum to remain in thenetwork in the case
faults. the following parameters should be well defiend for a successful design of svc system: (i)
the operating range, production & absorption of q, vi characteristics & control (ii) the required
resposne
(iii) the poerformance in the case of overvoltages (iv) the conditions for the operation such as
harmnonic effect, frequency range, overvoltages etc. the static var compensator is an integrated
system of static electric components (e.g. capacitors, reactors, trasnformers, switches ) combined
to provide rapid continuously controllable shunt reactive power compensation. the steady state
characteristic of svc is shown in fig.3.20.
V linear control range

Vref

Capacitive VAR inductive VAR

fig. 3.20 steady characteristic of svc

fig.3.20 shows a typical control characteristic for an svc responding to the bus voltage changes.
for bus voltage changes about the svc controller set point vref , svc output is regulated within the
linear control range to provide inductive compensation for volt rises and capacitive compensation
for volt drops. fig.3.21 shows the effect of changing the conductance angle from 180 deg to a
smaller value . the current flowing in the inductance would be different in each 1/2 cycle varying
with the conduction angle such that each successive half cycle is a smaller segment of a sine
wave. the fundamental compenent of an inductive current is thus reduced in each case. quick
control can be exercised withtin one half cycle, just by giving a proper step input to the firing
angle control.

applied voltage
reactor current (decreasing conductance angle)

fig.3.21 effect of conduction angle on reactor current

the block diagram of svc is shown in fig. 3.22.


Bc V1
BL

Vref ∆I 1 ∆V2 +
+
AVR FAR SVC + ZS +
-

transducer

fig.3.22 block diagram of svc

the net change in the reactor current drawn due to the static var compensator supply of current
∆V2
Zs =
through the system impedance
∆I 1

is ∆I 1 . following an instantaneous change in firing angle, the admittance bl of inductor and


therefore the curent i1 will settle down to a new value of about one cycle or less. the impedance zs
is the entire system impedance viewed by the compensator. the thyristor controlled reactor is
represented by

e sT1
GR (s) =
1 + sT2

t1 and t2 are of the order of 1ms & 4 ms respectively. for practical purposes, teh compensator can
be assumed to have pure gains of unity. avr can be represented by

K (1 + T4 s)
Gv ( s ) =
{ (1 + T3 s)(1 + T5 s)}
whrere t3 is of the order of 50-150 ms. the compensator block diagram for dynamic studies is
shown in fig. 3.23.
Vref

Gv (s )

G R (s)

α0

α max = 180  α min = 0 


f (α )

E

I,V jX

fig. 3.23 compensator block diagram for dynamic studies

system level voltage control

the control of volt levels ias accomplished by controlling the production , absorption and flow of
reactive ppower at all levels in the system. the generator units provide the basic means of volt
control; the avrs control filed excitationto maintain a scheduled volt level at teh terminals of the
generators. additional means are usually required to control volt through out the system.

the devices used for this purpose are:- 1) source of reactive power such as shunt reactors ,
synchrnous condensers, static var compensators, line reaxctance compensators (series
capacitors) and regulating transformers (tap changing transformers, boosters ). shunt
fcapacitors and reactors and series capacitors provide passive compensation. they are either
permanently connected to the transmission and distribution system or switched. thye contribute to
volt control by modifying the network characteristics. synchronous condensers and svcs provide
active compensation, the q absorbed/ supplied by them is automaticaly adjusted so as to
maintain voltages of the buses to whihc they are connected. together with the generating units ,
they establish voltages at specific points in the system. voltages at other locations in the system
are determined by active and reactive power flows through various circuit elements including the
passive compensating devices.

methods of steady state volt control in electric power systems:in the following the following are
discussed:
a)method b)location & nature c) description and remarks

1 a) automatic voltage regulators & excitation control of synchronous generators 1b) used for
synchronous generators in generator station control room. avrs are part of excitation system. 1c)
generators supply active and reactive power . avr maintains constant terminal volt of generators.
change in the dc excitation current changes q supplied by geenrators ; unsatble for leading pf
loads.

2a) on-load tap changers or off- circuit switches with power transformers 2b) fitted with
transformers -off circuit switch at generating end and for seasonal volt variations;
on-load tap cahngers at receiving and distribution substations near laod points 2c) simple and
most common method of changing secondary voltage of transformers of given primary volt
vcariation of +/- 16 % possible

3a) shunt reactros 3b) sending end and receiving end substatuion for long transmission line or in
intermediate swiching locations 3c) compensate the shunt capacitance of long transmisssion
lines during low loads or no loads to reduce receiving end volt (to cancel ferranti effect) . shunt
reactors are generally connected to line bus without any circuit breaker for switching.

4a) synchronous condensers ; 4b) receiving substation 4c) variable reactive power by excitation
control; now almost obsolete.

5a) shunt capacitors 5b) receiving end substations , distribution substation, factory substations,
near group loads, near individual loads, switched bank or thyristor controleld capacitors 5c)
switched-in type or static or fixed type (for motors) switched in during heavy low pf loads to
improve pf, improve volt; saves energy due to reduced line losses.

6a) static var sources 6b) receiving, intermediate and distribution substations for smooth and step
less variation of compensation of q injected into line 6c) should be switched off during normal volt;
thyristor controlled; capacitance brought into circuit during heavy or low pf ; inductors brought into
circuit during low lods to reduce receiving end volt.

7a) series capacitors 7b) usually at each end of long lines to compensate for inductive reactive
power requirements of transmission lines 7c) usually about 50% of line inductance is
compensated. this improves volt and stabiity.

8a) controllable series capacitors(csc) flexible ac transmission (fact) 8b) intermediate substations
of long transmission lines ; recently developed using thyristor switch with series capacitors 8c)
provides variable series compensators therby powr flow through the tie line can be controlled.

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