Lecture #2

September 5 , 2000

HW#1 is due Thursday, September 7, 2000

Home work will be collected at the lecture. Please write your section number on your homework

Review of Lecture 1

Voltage Current

v(t) dq i (t) = dt

Power

P (t) = i (t) v(t)

Laws of Nature used in Electrical Engineering

Conservation of Charge Continuity of Current Conservation of Energy

Total charge in a closed system is constant.

- +- + + + -++ - - + - +- + - + -+ + + + - -+ + - -+ + + + + + - +- + -

Conservation of charge

Total current through a closed surface is zero.

Continuity of current

Conservation of Energy Potential difference between two points is independent of the path*.

V1

V2

E dl = 0
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* For

static potentials

We will use these laws later to develop mathematical models for circuits
Conservation of Charge Continuity of Current Conservation of Energy

It is essential to specify reference directions for current and voltage

i(t) + V(t) -

Voltage and current are algebraic quantities and the signs are critical.

Basic circuit components and terminal relations

Terminal relations

Resistor

v = i R

Ohm's law

Capacitor

= C dv i dt v =L di dt

or

1 v = i( t ' )dt ' C

Inductor

Resistors

Resistors obey Ohms law.

i(t)
+

v(t)
_

v (t) = i (t) R
Terminal relation for resistor

Note the convention on reference directions: For passive elements, current flows from positive to negative in the device

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Ohms law in action

In a resistor, voltage is directly proportional to current
v(t) = i ( t ) R

V
2 1

Consider R = 2 k
1

i(t)
1 2 3

i (mA)

v(t)
_
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Resistance can be readily calculated for geometric figures with constant cross-section
L
A

= Conductivity ( m )1 L = Length of the cylinder ( m ) A = Area of the cylinder ( m2 )

L R = A

The units of resistance is Ohm ().

12

Copper wires have very low resistance

= 5.8 107( m)-1 L 0.3 m

A 10 -6 m2

L R= A

R 5.17 m

13

Capacitors

14

Capacitors are common energy storage devices

Danger High Voltage 10 F 100kV
1F

440pF

C = 10 F V = 100 kV

q Cv

q = 1 Coulomb
15

In a capacitor current varies with the derivative of voltage

i(t) + v(t) _ C

q (t) C v (t)
dq i = dt

i (t )

dv = C dt

Note reference directions Capacitance is constant

i(t )

dv (t ) = C dt
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In a capacitor voltage is proportional to integral of the current

i(t) + v(t) _ C

i (t )

dv (t ) =C dt
t

1 v (t ) = C

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i ( t ) d t

Given a voltage variation on a capacitor, we can readily calculate the current

For example: C = 10 F, V=10 e -1000 t Volts

Find i(t)

d v (t ) i (t ) = C dt
Answer: I (t) = 10-5 (-1000) 10 e -1000 t A =10 e -1000 t mA

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Capacitance can be readily calculated for geometric figures with constant cross-section The unit of capacitance is farad (F).
A d

C = A d
is the dielectric constant, = r r = relative dielectric constant o = 8.85 * 10-12 Farads / meter
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Calculating the capacitance:

An example: Ceramic capacitor

???F

A C= d A ~ 5 10-5 m2 d ~ 2 mm

= r r 2000 (Strontium
Titanate)

o = 8.85 * 10-12 F / m

C ~ 440 pF
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In a capacitor current varies with the derivative of voltage

q Cv i(t)
+

v(t)
_

i(t )

dv (t ) = C dt

Note reference directions

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Current in a capacitor can be calculated from the voltage

i(t)
+

Example: C=10 F v(t) = 1000 cos (120 t) Volts 10 F

1000 V

v(t)
_

t
-1000 V

What is i(t) ?
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Calculating i(t)

i(t)
C=10 F,

dv (t ) = C dt
Amperes

v(t) = 1000 cos (120 t) Volts

i(t) = -1.2 sin (120 t) i

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In a capacitor, voltage is proportional to integral of the current

i(t)
+

i (t )
C

dv (t ) =C dt
t

v(t)
_

1 v (t ) = C

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i ( t ) d t

Example Calculate v(t) given a current i(t)

i(t)
+

v(t)
_

= 1 F
t=0 t

i(t)

10 A

t = 2 sec

1 v(t ) = C

i ( t ) d t
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Calculating v(t)

v(t )
i(t)
+

1 = C

i ( t ) d t
v(t) i(t)

v(t)
_

C =1 F
10 A

20 V

t=0

t = 2 sec
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Inductors

27

A coil is an inductor

28

Current creates magnetic flux in an inductor

B
S Current

B ds
s

Magnetic flux

Magnetic flux density

29

Flux linkage is equal to number of turns times flux

B
Current S

N turns

B ds
s

= N
Flux Linkage Number of turns
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Flux linkage is equal to current times inductance

i(t)
+

v(t)
_

(t) = Li(t)
Flux Linkage Inductance Unit of inductance is Henry
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Joseph Henry
Henry, Joseph (1797-1878), the leading American scientist after Benjamin Franklin until Willard Gibbs, was a professor at Princeton from 1832 to 1846. His chief scientific contributions were in the field of electromagnetism, where he discovered the phenomenon of selfinductance. The unit of inductance, called ``the henry,'' immortalizes his name. Henry is also remembered as the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, where he made extraordinary contributions to the organization and development of American science. His statue stands in front of the Smithsonian Castle in Washington DC

32

Compare capacitance and inductance

q C=v L= i

charge voltage

flux linkage current

33

Inductance can be readily calculated for a long solenoid

0N A L= d

No magnetic core
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Calculation of inductance:

0N A L= d d
0 = 4 10 7 enry/meter d = 0.1 m , N= 100 A = 10-4 m2

No magnetic core

L = 12.6 H

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Faradays law

+ v(t) _

d (t) v(t) = dt
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In an inductor, voltage is proportional to the derivative of current

i(t)
+

v(t)
_

d (t) v(t) = dt

Note reference directions

= Li(t)

di(t) v(t) = L dt
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Numerical example:
i(t)
+

i(t) = 5 t e-1000t
L=10 mH i
1 2

Amps

v(t)
_

00

10

Time (msec)
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Calculation of voltage i(t)

+

i(t) = 5 t e-1000t
L=10 mH

v(t)
_

v(t) = Ldi(t) dt

v(t) = 50 e-1000t (1 - 1000t) mV v 50 40

mV 30
20 10 0 -10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

time (msec)
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Rapid change in the current in an inductor produces high voltage

i(t)
i(t)
+ t=0

10 A
t=0

v(t)
_

L= 10 H

= L di(t) = ? v(t) dt

v(t)

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Current in an inductor can not change instantaneously

i(t)

10 A

i(t) = ? dt i (t) = dt

t=0

Expanding the time scale 10 A -10 A

10-8s

= -109 A/s

t=0 t= 10 ns

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Rapid change of the current in an inductor produces high voltage

i(t)
+

t=0

v(t)

= L di(t) dt

v(t)
_

L= 10 H

During opening time of the switch

v(t) = -10-5 H 109 A/s = -10 kV

0 < t < 10 ns
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In an inductor, current is proportional to integral of the voltage

= L di(t) v(t) dt
t

i( t ) =

1 L

v ( t ) d t
43

Summary of terminal relations for passive circuit elements

Resistor

v = i R dv i=C dt v = Ldi dt
44

Capacitor

Inductor

Discussion of power dissipation and energy storage

45

Power is dissipated in a resistor

i(t)
+

v(t)
_

p (t) = v (t) i ( t ) v (t) = i ( t ) R v

2

p( t) = i

(t )

R =

(t )

Depends only on instantaneous voltage or current. No memory of the past Resistors do not store energy
46

Numerical example

i
+

9V

v
_

1 k

Power dissipated in the resistor: P = V2/R = 92/1000 =81 mW

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Loss in a power line is important

i v

Customers Power station

48

Circuit model for power transmission line

i
Power generation
+

R Power consumption

v
_

Power loss = i 2 R
49

Numerical example: power transmission over 10 km

L=10 km A=3 10-5 m2 (1/4 inch diameter wire) = 5.8 107 m (Copper ) Consider P = 10 MW, if V=35 kV Power loss = i2 R = 470 kW

L R= =5.7 A
----> i = 285A (4.7%)

What would happen if we used lower voltage to deliver the power?

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