Safety considerations technology Safety considerations

Understanding the bolted joint

Bolted joints are often the weakest link in any process plant piping systems. Understanding their design and application could solve flange leakage problems and avoid costly shutdowns. At the same time, frequently a bolted joint is the best choice to apply a desired clamp load to assemble a joint at low cost, with the option to disassemble it, if and when necessary.
urthermore, the simplicity of its mechanism of developing and maintaining the desired clamp force made it very popular and it has become one of the most accepted engineering products. Based on the service loads, bolted joints can be divided into two types: TENSILE JOINT- Here the bolts are loaded parallel to the bolt axis. For example connection of two flanges of a pressure vessel constitute a tensile joint. SHEAR JOINT - Here the bolts are loaded predominantly perpendicular to the bolt axis. For example the connection of a beam to a column can be considered as a shear joint. Here the body of the bolt touches the joining members. In a shear joint the bolt acts as a shear pin. Here the bolt does not need to maintain a specific tensile load. In this case the tensile load is applied only to prevent the nut from loosening. But in a tensile joint a minimum bolt preload need to be maintained.

The three basic components in a bolted joint are the bolt, nut and washer. Factors of interest during selection of bolts are :

Figure 1 : A typical bolted joint

Tensile Area: The threaded portion of a bolt can be characterised by two dimensions, the major diameter and the pitch diameter. The major diameter is the diameter measured across the outmost parts of the threads. The pitch diameter is the diameter measured halfway between the highest and the lowest point on the threads. A bolt subjected to a tensile load behaves as if its cross section has a diameter of effectively the average of the major and pitch diameter. Strength and Grade of bolt: Bolt grades depend on the bolt materials, heat treatment etc., which lead to different strengths. Different grades of bolts have specific head markings on them to allow for easier sorting/identification of the bolts estimated strength. A measure of a bolts strength is its proof strength. The proof strength of a bolt is the maximum tensile load a bolt can withstand without incurring permanent deformation. Proof strength is slightly less than the yield stress (about 96%) of the material due to stress concentration in the threads. The strength of many standard metric threaded fasteners is specified according to an ISO standard. The strength of a bolt is specified using a two digit grading system. The grade is

called a property class. A property class designation for bolts consists of two numbers separated by a decimal point. The number before the decimal point is one-hundredth of the nominal tensile strength of the bolt in N/mm2. The number after the decimal point is 10 times that of the ratio between the nominal yield stress and nominal tensile stress. Consider a bolt having property class - 5.8 Nominal tensile strength = 5*100 = 500 N/mm2 Yield stress = 5*8*10 = 400 N/mm2 Threads per inch: This is the number of threads per inch on the bolt. This figure is important when calculating how many turns of the nut on the bolt will be required to clamp the member or when determining how much of the thread will extend beyond the nut when clamped. Nuts and bolts are not perfectly rigid but stretch slightly under load. The distribution of stress on threads is not uniform. In fact the first thread takes a third of the load, the first three threads, takes three quarters of the load and the first six threads takes essentially the whole load. It is important to note that three full threads are all that are required to develop the full bolt strength. There is therefore little point in having more than six threads. Nuts are usually stronger than the bolts they are on; which is to say

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that the bolt will usually break before the nut strips. It is often said that two full threads must be exposed above a nut, the reason being the first two threads of a bolt are often poorly formed, and my not engage the nut properly. If they are not doing their share, the other threads in the nut will be overloaded and the nut may strip. When the nut is in compression, the threads of the nut tends to move close together. But it presents sharing of the loads as assumed above. The first thread takes maximum load. This tendency may be partially corrected by proportioning the nut, so as to cause more deformation to exist at the bottom. The figure below ( Fig 2 ) shows two nut designs in which material have been removed from the lower portion of the nut in order to equalise stress distribution.

the load over the washer area instead of just the bolt head area. For softer materials this is critical because the bolt head or nut might start to sink into the member surface before an adequate preload is reached. Vibration: Washers help prevent nuts and bolts from coming loose during operation of the joint, especially when vibration is present. Tightening : Washers make it easier to tighten a bolt and nut joint by preventing the nut, or bolt, from turning when the other part is being turned. Strength: Although really only an issue when high strength joints are being used, washers help prevent damage to the nut and bolt from any burrs that might exist from the drilling of the holes. Burrs on the surface can cause failure when high stresses are imposed on the joint.

x = Fl / AE Where X = deflection, inches F = Force, lbf A = Area, in2 E = Modulus of Elasticity, Psi. l = length of bar, inches Stiffness constant k = F/x = AE/l , lbf/in For determining the stiffness of a bolt, Area is based on the nominal diameter, grip (l) the total thickness of the parts which have been fastened together, is considered. If there are more than one member in the grip the total spring rate is 1/Km = 1/K1 + 1/K2 + The figure below is a plot of force deflection characteristics. The line Km is the stiffness of the members. Any force, such as the preload Fi will cause a compressive deformation X in the members. The same force will cause a tensile deformation Y in the bolt. The line Kb is the stiffness of the bolt. The more rigid a member, the steeper is its Force displacement curve, because it takes a longer force to produce a particular deformation. Usually the connected members are more rigid than the bolts. So slope of Km is higher than that of Kb. When an external load is applied , X is reduced by the amount X and Y is increased by the same amount. Y. Thus the load on the bolt increases and the load on the members decreases.

Factors affecting bolted joint performance

Figure 2

Another factor which acts to reduce the tendency of the bottom thread to take the entire load is that the wedging action of the threads tend to spread, or dilate the nut. These conditions point to the fact that when preloading is desired, careful attention should be given to the nut material. Selecting a soft nut ensures plastic yielding, which will enable the nut threads to divide the load more evenly. It is preferable that the threads of a bolted joint do not fail before the bolt itself fails in tension. Thus heat treated nuts and hardened washers are used if the parts being connected are not harder than are required for high strength bolts. The reasons for using washers : Bearing stress : Using a washer reduces the bearing stress on the member surface by distributing

A joint is illustrated in Figure1 in which the bolt has been tightened to produce an initial tensile preload Fi, after which the external tensile load P is applied. The effect of the preload is to place the parts in compression for better resistance to the external tensile load and to create friction between the parts to resist any shear load. The shear load does not affect the final bolt tension, and we shall ignore this load for now. Let us visualise the tension loaded bolted joint. The following nomenclature is used : P = total external load on bolted assembly. Fi = preload on bolt due to tightening before P is applied. Pb = portion of P taken by bolt. Pm = portion of P taken by members. Fb = resultant bolt load Fm = resultant load on members. The deflection of a bar in simple tension or compression is :

Figure 3: Bolt preload analysis

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Safety considerations

Now when the external load P is applied on the preloaded assembly, there is a change in deformation of the bolt and also in the deformation of the connected members. The bolt initially in tension gets longer. The increase in deformation. X = Pb / Kb The connected members have initial compression due to the preload. When the external load is applied, this compression will decrease. The decrease in deformation of members is: Y = Pm / Km Assuming the members have not separated, the increase in deformation of bolt must be equal to the decrease in deformation of members. So Pb / Kb = Pm / Km Since P = Pb + Pm Pb = (Kb/Km) * Pm = (Kb/Km)(P-Pb) So Pb = Kb *P/(Kb +Km) So the resultant load on the bolt is Fb = Pb+Fi = Kb *P/(Kb +Km) + Fi In the same manner, the resultant compression of the connected member is Fm = Km *P/(Kb +Km) - Fi Now we see that if the stiffness of the bolt Kb is very large compared to Km, the total load Fb approaches to Fi + P. If Kb is very small compared to Km the total load approaches to Fi. Therefore the actual load is always between initial tension and the sum of initial tension plus the external load. So if all parts are elastic, any external load, no matter how small results in an increased load on the bolt - i.e., a component of the applied load is contributing to in-

crease the tension of the bolt. In practice Km is larger than Kb and hence the increase in bolt tension will be less than the decrease in the clamping force. Therefore Km/ Kb has a significant impact on the performance of the joint. This determines the contribution of applied load to the bolt load. The larger this factor, the smaller is the effect on the bolt. This implies that thinner and longer bolts are better. However the load carrying capacity of a bolt is proportional to the square of the bolt diameter and therefore a reduction in diameter will have some negative effects. Nonetheless, a larger number of small diameter bolts are better than a small number of larger diameter bolts. The benefit of high preload is leakage in a pipe joint is reduced and fastener loosening is minimised. As a rule of thumb, bolt preload should be 70% to 80% of the proof load of the bolt Also it should exceed the maximum load in the system by 15%.

which in turn leads to early bolt failure. Over-torquing runs the risk of shearing the fastener head off or even actually exceeding the yield point of the fastener. There is a relationship between torque and tension, but it is highly variable and must be used with caution. T= K*P*D

Where = torque = coefficient of friction (nut factor) D = bolt nominal diameter P = bolt desired tensile load ( usually 70% of yield stress) T K The variables in the torque- tension relationship include lubrication, thread fit, tension in the bolt, bolt diameter and bolt grade. K K = 0.2 for plain finished bolts = 0.1 for waxed or highly lubricated bolts Several factors affect how much tension occurs when a given amount of tightening torque is applied. It takes more force to tighten a 3/4 bolt than to tighten a 3/8 bolt because it is larger in diameter. It takes more force to stretch an SAE grade 8 bolt than to stretch an SAE grade 5 bolt because of greater material strength. The nut factor or coefficient of friction also plays an important role. The harder and smoother bolting surfaces such as threads and bearing surfaces require less torque to stretch a bolt than do softer, rougher and stickier surfaces. Surface finish of a bolt plays a determinant role on the clamping load. Lubricated and plated bolts should be torqued to a lower value. If you start lubricating the bolts to make assembly easier but maintain the same torque as was used when they were plain finished, then the bolt will break.

Torque
The most important term used when installing a bolted joint is the torque .Approximately 50% of the applied torque is wasted in overcoming the mating friction under the head, 40% friction wasted in overcoming resistance to threads and only 10% of the total torque exerted is used to produce tension in the bolt. As tightening proceeds a maximum torque value will be attained, followed by a sharp decrease in torque as additional turning is attempted. The decrease in torque is an indication of loss of tightness and the maximum bolt strength is exceeded. It is extremely important to properly torque the bolted joint to the correct level. To under-torque a fastener is just as bad as to over-torque it. If the fastener is under-torqued, that will cause it to cycle many more times than normal and eventually shorten the fatigue life drastically,

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Safety considerations

Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion: Galvanic corrosion is set up when two dissimilar metals are in the presence of an electrolyte, such as moisture. A galvanic cell is created and the most active (anode) of the two materials is eroded and deposited on the least active (cathode). Because the anode is eroded in a galvanic cell, it should be the larger mass in the cell. Therefore it is not advisable to use carbon steel fasteners in a stainless steel or copper assembly. But stainless steel fasteners can be used in carbon steel assemblies, since carbon steel mass is the anode. Stress corrosion: Stress corrosion occurs when a tensilestressed part placed in a corrosive environment. A ductile material will fail at a stress much lower than its yield stress because of surface imperfections created by a corrosive environment. In general, the lower the ductility the more susceptible it is to stress corrosion cracking. There are materials which are less sensitive to stress corrosion. For example A286 is not susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. Hydrogen embrittlement: Hydrogen embrittlement occurs whenever there is free hydrogen in close association with the material. Since most plating processes are electrolytic bath type, free hydrogen is present. Hydrogen reacts with the carbon in steel to form methane gas which can lead to crack development and strength reduction. Hydrogen can also react with alloying elements such as titanium to form hydrides. Because the hydrides are not as strong as the parent alloy, they reduce the overall strength of the metal.

studies of this phenomena indicate that the top face of the nut contracts in a diametral direction while its bearing surface expands. The net effect of this dilation is to reduce the shear area of both internal and external thread .The stripping strength of an assembly can be improved by increasing the width across flats of the nut. This increases the stiffness locally around the internal thread and reduces diametral expansion.

after plating, to prevent hydrogen embrittlement. Since cadmium melts at 600F, its useful service temperature limit is 450F. Zinc plating: Zinc can be electrodeposited or can be hot dip galvanised. Zinc has a dull finish compared to cadmium. Zinc is a sacrificial material. It will migrate to uncoated areas that have had their plating scratched off, thus continuing to prevent corrosion resistance.

Vibration loosening
Though bolted joints have the advantage of dismantling, this feature becomes a problem when it occurs unintentionally as a result of operational conditions. Such unintentional loosening is called vibration loosening. Vibration loosening occurs because of side sliding of the nut or bolt head relative to the joint, resulting in relative motion occurring in the threads. If this does not occur, the bolt will not loosen, even if the joint is subjected to severe vibration. The main causes of relative motion occurring in threads are: bending of parts which results in forces being induced at the friction surface. If slip occurs, the head and threads will slip which can lead to loosening differential thermal effects caused as a result of either differences in temperature or differences in clamped materials applied forces on the joint can lead to shifting of the joint surface leading to bolt loosening It is observed that transversely applied alternating forces generate the most severe conditions for self loosening. The key to prevent self loosening of fasteners is to ensure that: there is significant clamp force present on the joint interface to prevent relative motion between the bolt head or nut and the joint the joint is designed to allow for the effects of embedding and stress relaxation

Thread bending
The tensile force in the fastener during the tightening process results in a degree of thread bending between internal and external threads. Thread bending reduces the shear area of both internal and external threads. The important factor controlling the degree of thread bending is the ratio between the strength of internal and external threads. The strength ratio is the ratio between the force necessary to cause the nut thread to strip, divided by the force required to cause the bolt thread to strip.

Plating
Plating on fasteners is done by an electrolytic process. After plating, the fasteners are baked at a temperature well below the decomposition temperature of the plating material to prevent hydrogen embrittlement. However, heating the plating to its decomposition temperature can generate free hydrogen again. Thus exceeding the safe operating temperature of the plating can cause premature fastener failure due to hydrogen embrittlement as well as loss of corrosion protection. So a bolts plating material is usually the limiting factor on maximum service temperature. Cadmium plating: Cadmium plating is done by electro-deposition and easy is to accomplish. However, cadmium plated parts must be baked at 375F for 23 hours, within 2 hours

Nut dilation
The tensile force present in the fastener during tightening acts on the threads to produce a wedging action which result in a diametral displacement. This diametral displacement is generally known as nut dilation. Theoretical and practical

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 proven thread locking devices are used (e.g., Loctite)

Passivation
Stainless steel fasteners will create galvanic corrosion or oxidation in a joint unless they are passivated or pre-oxidised prior to assembly. Passivation is the formation of a protective oxide coating on the steel by treating it briefly with an acid. The oxide coating is almost inert. Pre-oxidation is the formation of an oxide coating by exposing the fasteners to approximately 1300F temperature in an air furnace. The surface formed is inert enough to prevent galling due to galvanic corrosion.

approximately 750F. Molybdenum tri-sulphide is an abrasive rather than a lubricant.

Elevated temperatures
In case of an elevated temperature joint design, three things are important preload, temperature and time. As a result of the effects of temperature such considerations as selection and strength of materials, bolt relaxation and accelerated corrosion and oxidation come into play. The factor of time is critical for a designer, to know how long the structure will be exposed to the elevated temperature. With a fluctuating load there will be continued loss of preload and the possibility of rapid fatigue failure will occur. To eliminate the fatigue problem, an initial high preload is essential. At elevated temperatures the induced bolt load will change with time even if the elastic limits are not exceeded, and this can adversely affect fastener performance. The following factors affect bolted joint performance at high temperature: Strength of fastener material: It is necessary to compensate for strength at high temperature conditions while selecting the fastener materials, as at high temperature the strength of the material reduces. Modulus of elasticity : As temperature increases less load is needed to impart a given amount of elongation or strain to a material than at lower temperatures. So a fastener, stretched a certain amount at room temperature to develop a preload, will exert a lower clamping force at higher temperatures. The effect of a change in modulus is to reduce the clamping force. As temperature increases the modulus of elasticity decreases. Coefficient of thermal expansion: In a joint both the structure and fastener grow with an increase in temperature. If the coefficient of

thermal expansion of the bolt is greater than that of the joined materials an amount of clamping force will be lost as temperature increases. Conversely if the coefficient of expansion of the joined materials is greater, the bolt may be stressed beyond its yield point or, due to cyclic thermal stressing, fatigue failure may occur. Thus matching of materials in joint design can assure sufficient clamping forces at elevated temperatures.

Relaxation
In a joint at an elevated temperature, a fastener with a fixed distance between bearing surface of head and nut will produce less and less clamping force over time. This characteristic is called relaxation. It is different from creep because the stress changes without change in elongation. If the relaxation is not compensated for, it will lead to fatigue failure or a loose joint even though it was properly tightened initially. As the temperature environment and the materials of the structure are normally fixed the design objective is to select a bolt material that will give the desired clamping force at all critical points PET in the operating range.

Thread lubricants
Lubricants are used to reduce the co-efficient of friction. Generally 0.2 is used for an un-lubricated co-efficient of friction and 0.09 for a lubricated co-efficient of friction. It is observed that torque required for a lubricated fastener is less than half that of an un-lubricated fastener. The most common thread lubricants are: Oil & Grease: Oil and grease are the most common type of thread lubricants, but they are limited to an operating range of 250F. Above this temperature the oil or grease will melt or boil off. Oil can not be used in a vacuum environment. However, oil and grease are good for both lubrication and for corrosion prevention. Graphite: A fine carbon powder that needs moisture or oil to become a lubricant. Therefore, its maximum temperature is limited to the boiling point of oil or water. It also cannot be used in a vacuum environment without loosing its moisture. As dry graphite is abrasive its use is detrimental to a bolted joint. Molybdenum disulphide: One of the more popular dry lubricants. It can be used in a vacuum environment but turns to molybdenum tri-sulphide at

This article was written by Mr Trinath Sahoo, in the refinery division of IOC Ltd. Presently working in Haldia Refinery in West Bengal, Trinath has more than ten years experience in the design of pressure vessels and piping systems for new projects. IOC is the only Fortune 500 company in India.

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