Volt-ampere reactive

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In electric power transmission and distribution, volt-ampere reactive (var) is a unit used to measure reactive power in an AC electric power system. Reactive power exists in an AC circuit when the current and voltage are not changing at the same time. The correct symbol is var
[1]

and not Var, VAr or

VAR, but all three terms are widely used. The term var was proposed by the Romanian electrical engineer Constantin Budeanu and introduced in 1930 by the IEC in Stockholm, which has adopted it as the unit for reactive power. Vars may be considered as either the imaginary part of apparent power, or the power flowing into a reactive load, where voltage and current are specified in volts and amperes. The two definitions are equivalent.

Series and parallel circuits

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A series circuit with a voltage source(such as a battery) and 3 resistors

Components of an electrical circuit or electronic circuit can be connected in many different ways. The two simplest of these are called series and paralleland occur very frequently. Components connected in series are connected along a single path, so the same current flows through all of the components. component.
[1][2]

Components connected in parallel are connected so the same voltage is applied to each

[3]

A circuit composed solely of components connected in series is known as a series circuit; likewise, one connected completely in parallel is known as aparallel circuit. In a series circuit, the current through each of the components is the same, and the voltage across the components is the sum of the voltages across each component.
[3] [1]

In a parallel circuit, the voltage across

each of the components is the same, and the total current is the sum of the currents through each component.

As an example, consider a very simple circuit consisting of four light bulbs and one 6 V battery. If a wire joins the battery to one bulb, to the next bulb, to the next bulb, to the next bulb, then back to the battery, in one continuous loop, the bulbs are said to be in series. If each bulb is wired to the battery in a separate loop, the bulbs are said to be in parallel. If the four light bulbs are connected in series, there is same current through all of them, and the voltage drop is 1.5 V across each bulb, which may not be sufficient to make them glow. If the light bulbs are connected in parallel, the currents through the light bulbs combine to form the current in the battery, while the voltage drop is 6.0 V across each bulb and they all glow. In a series circuit, every device must function for the circuit to be complete. One bulb burning out in a series circuit breaks the circuit. In parallel circuits, each light has its own circuit, so all but one light could be burned out, and the last one will still function.

Series circuits
Series circuits are sometimes called current-coupled or daisy chain-coupled. The current in a series circuit goes through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components in a series connection carry the same current. There is only one path in a series circuit in which the current can flow. A series circuit's main disadvantage or advantage, depending on its intended role in a product's overall design, is that because there is only one path in which its current can flow, opening or breaking a series circuit at any point causes the entire circuit to "open" or stop operating. For example, even one of the light bulbs in an older-style string of Christmas tree lights burns out or is removed, the entire string becomes inoperable until the bulb is replaced.

Parallel circuits
If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same potential difference (voltage) across their ends. The potential differences across the components are the same in magnitude, and they also have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all circuit components connected in parallel. The total current is the sum of the currents through the individual components, in accordance with Kirchhoffs current law.

The operator J, whose Cartesian components satisfy the commutation relations is defined as an angular momentum operator. For such an operator we have [Ji,J2]=0, i.e. the operator J2=Jx2+Jy2+Jz2 commutes with each Cartesian component of J. We can therefore find an orthonormal basis of eigenfunctions common to J2 and Jz. We denote this basis by {|k,j,m>}. We have .

The index j can take on only integral and half integral positive values. Which integral and half integral values of j are allowed depends on the exact nature of the physical problem. For a given j the index m can take on one of 2j+1 possible values, m=-j,-j+1,... ,j-1,j. We define the operators J+=Jx+iJy and J-=Jx-iJy. We then have and . The operators J operating on the basis states {|k,j,m>} yield .

Orbital angular momentum

The operator L=RP satisfies the commutation relations and is called the orbital angular momentum operator. We denote the common eigenstates of L2 and Lz by {|k,l,m>}.
In computer science, Peter Landin's J operator is a programming construct that post-composes a lambda expression with the continuation to the current lambda-context. The resulting function is first-class and can be passed on to subsequent functions, where if applied it will return its result to the continuation of the function in which it was created. [edit]Generalized

first-class return

One can define the return statement as a first-class object by taking the J of the identity function. It can then be passed on to other functions and applied there to return from the function in which the return was created.

As a recapitulation, the concepts of j-operator are illustrated in the following sketch:

Fig. 1: A sketch of a complex-plane for the j-operator

Volt-ampere
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A volt-ampere (VA) is the unit used for the apparent power in an electrical circuit, equal to the product of root-mean-square (RMS) voltage and RMS current. equal to the real power (active power)
[2] [1]

In direct current (DC) circuits, this product is

in watts. Volt-amperes are useful only in the context

of alternating current (AC) circuits (sinusoidal voltages and currents of the same frequency).

Apparent power is the vector sum of real (P) and reactive (jQ) AC power vectors

While both the volt-ampere (abbreviated VA) and the watt have the dimension of power (time rate of energy), they do not have the same meaning. Some devices, including Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPSs), have ratings both for maximum volt-amperes and maximum watts. The VA rating is limited by the maximum permissible current, and the watt rating by the power-handling capacity of the device. When a UPS powers equipment which presents a reactive load with a low power factor (e.g., a computer), neither limit may safely be exceeded.
[3]

RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

The rectangular coordinate system is also known as the Cartesian coordinate system after Rene Descartes, who popularized its use in analytic geometry. The rectangular coordinate system is based on a grid, and every point on the plane can be identified by unique x and y coordinates, just as any point on the Earth can be identified by giving its latitude and longitude. Axes Locations on the grid are measured relative to a fixed point, called the origin, and are measured according to the distance along a pair of axes. The x and y axes are just like the number line, with positive distances to the right and negative to the left in the case of the x axis, and positive distances measured upwards and negative down for the y axis. Any displacement away from the origin can be constructed by moving a specified distance in the x direction and then another distance in the y direction. Think of it as if you were giving directions to someone by saying something like go three blocks East and then 2 blocks North.

The Parallel Circuit

A parallel circuit has more than one resistor (anything that uses electricity to do work) and gets its name from having multiple (parallel) paths to move along . Charges can move through any of several paths. If one of the items in the circuit is broken then no charge will move through that path, but other paths will continue to have charges flow through them. Parallel circuits are found in most household electrical wiring. This is done so that lights don't stop working just because you turned your TV off.

Ohm's Law in Series-Parallel Circuits - Current The total current of the series-parallel circuits depends on the total resistance offered by the circuit when connected across the voltage source. The current flow in the entire circuit and it will divide to flow through parallel branches. In case of parallel branch, the current is inversely proportional to the resistance of the branch that is the greater current flows through the least resistance and vice-versa. Then, the current will then sum up again after flowing in different circuit branch which is the same as the current source or total current. The total circuit current is the same at each end of a series-parallel circuit, and is equal to the current flow through the voltage source.

Ohm's Law in Series-Parallel Circuits - Voltage The voltage drop across a series-parallel circuits also occur the same way as in series and parallel circuits. In series parts of the circuit, the voltage drop depends on the individual values of the resistors. In parallel parts of the circuit, the voltage across each branch are the same and carries a current depends on the individual values of the resistors. If in case of circuit below, the voltage of the series resistance forming a branch of the parallel circuit will divide the voltage across the parallel circuit. If in case of the single resistance in a parallel branch, the voltage across is the same as the sum of the voltages of the series resistances.

The sum of the voltage across R3 and R4 is the same as the voltage across R2.

Finally, the sum of the voltage drop across each paths between the two terminal of the series-parallel circuit is the same as the total voltage applied to the circuit. Let's have a very simple example of this calculation for this topic. Considering the circuit below with its given values, lets calculate the total current, current and voltage drop across each resistances.

What is the total current, current and voltage across each resistances

However, if circuit components are series-connected in some parts and parallel in others, we won't be able to apply a single set of rules to every part of that circuit. Instead, we will have to identify which parts of that circuit are series and which parts are parallel, then selectively apply series and parallelrules as necessary to determine what is happening. Take the following circuit, for instance:

This circuit is neither simple series nor simple parallel. Rather, it contains elements of both. The current exits the bottom of the battery, splits up to travel through R3 and R4, rejoins, then splits up again to travel through R1 and R2, then rejoins again to return to the top of the battery. There exists more than one path for current to travel (not series), yet there are more than two sets of electrically common points in the circuit (not parallel). Because the circuit is a combination of both series and parallel, we cannot apply the rules for voltage, current, and resistance "across the table" to begin analysis like we could when the circuits were one way or the other. For instance, if the above circuit were simple series, we could just add up R1 through R4to arrive at a total resistance, solve for total current, and then solve for all voltage drops. Likewise, if the above circuit were simple parallel, we could just solve for branch currents, add up branch currents to figure the total current, and then calculate total resistance from total voltage and total current. However, this circuit's solution will be more complex. The table will still help us manage the different values for series-parallel combination circuits, but we'll have to be careful how and where we apply the different rules for series and parallel. Ohm's Law, of course, still works just the same for determining values within a vertical column in the table. If we are able to identify which parts of the circuit are series and which parts are parallel, we can analyze it in stages, approaching each part one at a time, using the appropriate rules to determine the relationships of voltage, current, and resistance. The rest of this chapter will be devoted to showing you techniques for doing this.

Admittance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In electrical engineering, the admittance (Y) is a measure of how easily a circuit or device will allow a current to flow. It is defined as the inverse of the impedance (Z). The SI unit of admittance is thesiemens (symbol S). Oliver Heaviside coined the term in December 1887.
[1]

where Y is the admittance, measured in siemens Z is the impedance, measured in ohms Note that the synonymous unit mho, and the symbol (an upside-down uppercase omega ), are also in common use. Resistance is a measure of the opposition of a circuit to the flow of a steady current, while impedance takes into account not only the resistance but also dynamic effects (known as reactance). Likewise, admittance is not only a measure of the ease with which a steady current can flow, but also the dynamic effects of the material's susceptance to polarization:

The electrical resistance of an electrical element measures its opposition to the passage of an electric current; the inverse quantity is electrical conductance, measuring how easily electricity flows along a certain path. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S). An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its resistivity and length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. All materials show some resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero. The resistance of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it to current through it:

For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance R is constant for a given temperature; it does not depend on the amount of current through or the potential difference (voltage) across the object. Such materials are called Ohmic materials. For objects made of ohmic materials the definition of the resistance, with R being a constant for that resistor, is known as Ohm's law.

In the case of a nonlinear conductor (not obeying Ohm's law), this ratio can change as current or voltage changes; the inverse slope of a chord to an IV curve is sometimes referred to as a "chordal resistance" or "static resistance".
[1][2]

In electrical engineering, susceptance (B) is the imaginary part of admittance. The inverse of admittance is impedance and the real part of admittance is conductance. In SI units, susceptance is measured in siemens. Oliver Heaviside first defined this property, which he called permittance, in June 1887
needed] [citation

[edit]Formula The general equation defining admittance is given by

where Y is the admittance, measured in siemens (a.k.a. mho, the inverse of ohm). G is the conductance, measured in siemens. j is the imaginary unit, and B is the susceptance, measured in siemens. Rearranging yields

. But since

, we obtain . The admittance (Y) is the inverse of the impedance (Z)

or

where

Z is the impedance, measured in ohms R is the resistance, measured in ohms X is the reactance, measured in ohms. Note: The susceptance is the imaginary part of the admittance. The magnitude of admittance is given by:

What is Power Factor?

Power Factor is a measure of how efficiently electrical power is consumed. In the ideal world Power Factor would be unity (or 1). Unfortunately in the real world Power Factor is reduced by highly inductive loads to 0.7 or less. This induction is caused by equipment such as lightly loaded electric motors, luminaire transformers and fluorescent lighting ballasts and welding sets, etc.

What does it do to my electricity bill?

In a 3 phase supply, kW consumed is (VOLTS x AMPS x 1.73 x Power Factor) / 1000. The Electricity Company supply you VOLTS x AMPS and they have to supply extra to make up for the loss caused by poor Power Factor. When the power factor falls below a set figure, the electricity supply companies charge a premium on the kW being consumed, or, charge for the whole supply as kVA.

What causes Power Factor to change?

Inductive loads cause the AMPS to lag behind the VOLTS. The wave forms of VOLTS and AMPS are then "out of phase" with each other. The more out of phase they become then the lower the Power Factor. Power Factor is usually expressed as Cos Phi. ()

In 3 phase power supplies the "power" can be measured as a triangle. ACTIVE Power is the base line and is the real usable power measured in kW. REACTIVE power is the vertical or that part of the supply which causes the inductive load. The reactive power in is measured in kVAr (kilo volt-amperes reactive) APPARENT Power is the hypotenuse. This is the resultant of the other two components and is measured in kVA

The effects of power factor.

Consider a canal boat being pulled by a horse. If the horse could walk on water then the angle (Phi) would be zero and COSINE =1. Meaning all the horse power is being used to pull the load. However the relative position of the horse influences the power. As the horse gets closer to the barge, angle 1 increases and power is wasted, but, as the horse is positioned further away, then angle 2 gets closer to zero and less power is wasted

Why do I need Power factor correction?

Capacitive Power Factor correction (PFC) is applied to electric circuits as a means of minimising the inductive component of the current and thereby reducing the losses in the supply. The introduction of Power Factor Correction capacitors is a widely recognised method of reducing an electrical load, thus minimising wasted energy and hence improving the efficiency of a plant and reducing the electricity bill. It is not usually necessary to reach unity, ie Power Factor 1, since most supply companies are happy with a PF of 0.95 to 0.98

How does it work?

By installing suitably sized switched capacitors into the circuit, the Power Factor is improved and the value becomes nearer to 1 thus minimising wasted energy and improving the efficiency of a plant

Power Factor Correction There has been a growing interest in power factor correction (PFC). In fact, the European Union implemented a directive, EN61000-3-2, which controls the harmonic content and power factor of many products that are sold to European countries. There are several important reasons for this control. Poor power factor results in reduced efciency, which increases the cost of electricity. More importantly, many devices suffer from harmonically rich waveforms. A good example of this is motors, which may overheat as a result of harmonics. In the case of three-phase motors the harmonics can result in signicant neutral current, which can also result in overheating and ultimately in motor failure. Typical switching power supplies rectify the input power and utilize a capacitor lter in order to provide a DC bus voltage. The typical

power factor of such a conversion is approximately 0.6. Linear regulated power supplies generally use a transformer to step down the AC input voltage and rectify the secondary voltage and then utilize a capacitor lter to create the DC voltage to the input of the regulator stage. The transformer improves the power factor of the input just slightly from the typical switching power supply. Phase-controlled power supplies utilize either SCRs or triacs to control the conduction angle of the input, which is then ltered using an LC-type lter. This can result in a power factor that is even lower than the typical switching power supply. Power factor (PF) is dened as the ratio of watts to volt-amperes: PF = watts volts amperes Complex Numbers using Polar Form
Unlike rectangular form which plots points in the complex plane, the Polar Form of a complex number is written in terms of its magnitude and angle. Thus, a polar form vector is presented as: Z = A , where: Z is the complex number in polar form, A is the magnitude or modulo of the vector and is its angle or argument of A which can be either positive or negative. The magnitude and angle of the point still remains the same as for the rectangular form above, this time in polar form the location of the point is represented in a "triangular form" as shown below.

Polar Form Representation of a Complex Number

As the polar representation of a point is based around the triangular form, we can use simple geometry of the triangle and especially trigonometry and Pythagoras's Theorem on triangles to find both the magnitude and the angle of the complex number. As we remember from school, trigonometry deals with the relationship between the sides and the angles of triangles so we can describe the relationships between the sides as:

Using trigonometry again, the angle of A is given as follows.

Then in Polar form the length of A and its angle represents the complex number instead of a point. Also in polar form, the conjugate of the complex number has the same magnitude or modulus it is the sign of the angle that changes, so o o for example the conjugate of 6 30 would be 6 30 .