Module-1 Introduction to business research

1 What is research? Systematized effort to gain knowledge- Redman and Mory. Research is a process of manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the practice of an art- Slesinger and Stephenson in Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Research comprises the following: Defining and redefining the problem Formulating hypothesis Collecting, organizing and evaluating data Making deductions and reaching conclusions Carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the hypothesis 2. Why should managers study research Methodology? Aid to Informed decision making

Helps identify problem areas Aid to forecasting Helps business budgeting Tool for efficient production and investment decision making Optimal utilisation of resources Basis for innovation Managers need research to measure and compare the ROI on various strategies. Helps in a better understanding of employees, stockholders and customers

 Significant in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry Market research (investigation of the structure and development of market) Important for formulating policies for purchase, production and sales Motivational research studies consumers motives in their purchase behavior (Consumer behavior) Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of optimization of resource use, cost minimization and profit maximization Iceberg principle A sailor on the open sea notices only a small part of an iceberg. Only 10% of it is above the surface of the water, and 90% is submerged. The dangerous part of many business problems is neither visible to nor understood by business managers 3. ROLE OF RESEARCH IN DECISION-MAKING Decision-making is the process of selecting the best alternative from the available set of alternatives. Management is chiefly concerned with decision-making and its implementation. These decisions should be based on appropriate studies, evaluations and observations. Research provides us with knowledge and skills needed to solve the problems and to meet the challenges of a fast paced decision-making environment.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT MANAGERIAL DECISIONS INTERNAL FACTORS factors present inside an organisation such as resources, technology, trade unions, cash flow, manpower etc. EXTERNAL FACTORS factors present outside the organisation such as government policies, political factors, socio-economic factors, legal framework, geographic and cultural factors etc. QUANTITATIVE FACTORS factors that can be measured in quantities such as time, resources, cost factors etc. QUALITATIVE FACTORS factors that cannot be measured in quantities such as organizational cohesiveness, sense of belonging of employees, risk of technological change etc. UNCERTAINITY FACTORS factors which cannot be predicted
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4.Significance of research in business: Research is the process of systematic and indepth study or search for a solution to a problem or an answer to a question backed by collection, compilation, presentation, analysis and interpretation of relevant details, data and information. It is also a systematic endeavour to discover valuable facts or relationships. Research may involve careful enquiry or experimentation and result in discovery or invention. There cannot be any research which does not increase knowledge which may be useful to different people in different ways. Let us see the need for research to business organizations and their managers and how it is useful to them. i) Industrial and economic activities have assumed huge dimensions. The size of modern business organizations indicates that managerial and administrative decisions can affect vast quantities of capital and a large number of people. Trial and error methods are not appreciated, as mistakes can be tremendously costly. Decisions must be quick but accurate and timely and should be objective i.e. based on facts and realities. In this back drop business decisions now a days are mostly influenced by research and research findings. Thus, research helps in quick and objective decisions. ii) Research, being a fact-finding process, significantly influences business decisions. The business management is interested in choosing that course of action which is most effective in attaining the goals of the organization. Research not only provides facts and figures to support business decisions but also enables the business to choose one which is best. Iii) A considerable number of business problems are now given quantitative treatment with some degree of success with the help of operations research. Research into management problems may result in certain conclusions by means of logical analysis which the decision maker may use for his action or solution. iv) Research plays a significant role in the identification of a new project, project feasibility and project implementation. v) Research helps the management to discharge its managerial functions of planning, forecasting, coordinating, motivating, controlling and evaluation effectively. vi) Research facilitates the process of thinking, analysing, evaluating and interpreting of the business environment and of various business situations and business alternatives. So as to be
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helpful in the formulation of business policy and strategy. vii) Research and Development ( R & D) helps discovery and invention. Developing new products or modifying the existing products, discovering new uses, new markets etc., is a continuous process in business. viii) The role of research in functional areas like production, finance, human resource management, marketing need not be over emphasized. Research not only establishes relationships between different variables in each of these functional areas, but also between these various functional areas. ix) Research is a must in the production area. Product development, new and better ways of producing goods, invention of new technologies, cost reduction, improving product quality, work simplification, performance improvement, process improvement etc., are some of the prominent areas of research in the production area. x) The purchase/material department uses research to frame alternative suitable policies regarding where to buy, when to buy, how much to buy, and at what price to buy. xi) Closely linked with production function is marketing function. Market research and marketing research provide a major part of marketing information which influences the inventory level and production level. Marketing research studies include problems and opportunities in the market, product preference, sales forecasting, advertising effectiveness, product distribution, after sales service etc., xii) In the area of financial management, maintaining liquidity, profitability through proper funds management and assets management is essential. Optimum capital mix, matching of funds inflows and outflows, cash flow forecasting, cost control, pricing etc., require some sort of research and analysis. Financial institutions also (banking and non-banking) have found it essential to set up research division for the purpose of collecting and analysing data both for their internal purpose and for making indepth studies on economic conditions of business and people. xiii) In the area of human resource management personnel policies have to be guided by research. An individuals motivation to work is associated with his needs and their satisfaction. An effective Human Resource Manager is one who can identify the needs of his work force and formulate personnel policies to satisfy the same so that they can be motivated to contribute their best to the attainment of organizational goals. Job design, job analysis, job assignment, scheduling work breaks etc., have to be based on investigation and analysis. xiv) Finally, research in business is a must to continuously update its attitudes, approaches, products goals, methods, and machinery in accordance with the changing environment in which it operates.
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5.Fields Where Business Research is Often Used

General Business Conditions and Corporate Research Short- & Long-Range Forecasting, Business and Industry Trends Global Environments Inflation and Pricing Plant and Warehouse Location Acquisitions Management and Organizational Behaviour Research Total Quality Management Morale and Job Satisfaction Leadership Style Employee Productivity Organizational Effectiveness Structural ssues Absenteeism and turnover Organizational Climate

Financial and Accounting Research Forecasts of financial interest rate trends, Stock,bond and commodity value predictions capital formation alternatives mergers and acquisitions

 risk-return trade-offs portfolio analysis impact of taxes research on financial institutions expected rate of return capital asset pricing models credit risk
Sales and Marketing Research Market Potentials Market Share Market segmentation Market characteristics Sales Analysis Establishment of sales quotas Distribution channels New product concepts Test markets Advertising research Buyer behaviour Customer satisfaction Website visitation rates cost analysis

Information Systems Research Knowledge and information needs assessment Computer information system use and evaluation Technical suppot satisfaction
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 Database analysis Data mining Enterprise resource planning systems Customer relationship management systems Corporate Responsibility Research Ecological Impact Legal Constraints on advertising and promotion Sex, age and racial discrimination / worker equity Social values and ethics

6. Criteria Of Good Research

1 .Purpose should be clearly defined. 2. Research Process (source of data etc) should be described in sufficient detail-except when secrecy is required-This will help verify, correct and extend knowledge, keeping the continuity of what has already been achieved. 3. Design (Sampling, questionnaire, observation etc) should be thoroughly planned so as to yield objective results 4. High ethical standards -from misusing information , to forcing respondents to answering questions to animal rights and human dignity- Dilemma 5. Limitations should be frankly revealed (e-g., flaws in design) so that the decision maker is made aware. 6. Analysis of data should be adequate and methods of analysis appropriate. Should check for reliability and validity, and probability of error 7. Unambiguous presentation 8. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research. Good research is systematic- structured with specified steps taken in specified sequence in accordance with well-defined rules Good research is logical: logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making
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Good research is empirical: dealing with concrete data that provides the basis for external validity to research results. Good research is replicable

7. The Scientific Method

The scientific method is basically an overarching perspective on how scientific investigations should be undertaken. It can, in effect, be considered as a complete set of principles and methods that help researchers in all scientific disciplines obtain valid results for their research studies, and which includes the provision of clear and universally accepted guidelines for acquiring, evaluating and communicating information in the context of a research study The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, to understand, explain and predict

Elements of the Scientific Method

Empirical Approach Observation Questions Hypotheses Experiments Analysis Conclusion Replication

1(Empirical Approach)
Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle behind all research conducted in accordance with the scientific method Data derived from direct, systematic and careful observation and experimentation (as opposed to speculation, intuition, opinions, hunches, gut feeling)

2. Observation

 Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle behind all research conducted in accordance with the scientific method. Data derived from direct, systematic and careful observation and experimentation (as opposed to speculation, intuition, opinions, hunches, gut feeling)

3. Questions Making an answerable question out of a research idea. The question must be answered using available and established scientific research techniques and procedures. Scientific Analysis should not be attempted on questions which cannot be answered 4. Hypotheses Hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena of interest. A hypothesis is a proposition which is empirically testable. It usually seeks to explain relationships between variables, and predict, and must be falsifiable 5. (Experiments) -Experiments are basically about measuring phenomena and collecting accurate and reliable data which are used for analysis and evaluation Accuracy Correctness of the Measurement Reliability Consistency of the Measurement

6. Analysis-Analysis is about the use of qualitative or quantitative tools and techniques to process data Quantitative tools and techniques are considered more desirable (objective) than qualitative tools and techniques Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively analyze data acquired in research studies 7. (Conclusions) which are not supported by the Based on the results of the analysis conducted, and used to support or disprove a hypothesis When undertaking research, conclusions should only be based on the available data and not broadened to include statements data 8.(Replication) The purpose of replication is to ensure that if the same research study is conducted with different participants (i.e. researchers, research subjects), then the same results are achieved

Replication establishes the reliability of a research studys conclusions

UNIT-2 The research process:

1. 7 basic steps in the research process: 1. Select a topic 2. Review existing research and theory that are relevant 3. Develop a hypothesis or research question/s 4. Determine the appropriate methodology/research design 5. Collect relevant data 6. Analyze and interpret the results 7. Present the results in an appropriate form

2. Objectives of research
1. To gain familiarity with a certain phenomenon or gain new insights (Exploratory research) 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, group or situation. (Descriptive) 3. To see the frequency with which some phenomenon is associated with something else (Diagnostic) 4. Hypothesis of causal relationship between variables (Hypothesis-testing)

3. Types of Research:
1: According to the Branch of Knowledge
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Different Branches of knowledge may broadly be divided into two: a) Life and physical sciences such as Botany, Zoology, Physics and Chemistry. b) Social Sciences such as Political Science, Public Administration, Economics, Sociology, Commerce and Management.

The research carried out, in these areas, is called management research, production research, personnel research, financial management research, accounting research, Marketing research etc. Management research includes various functions of management such as planning, organizing, staffing, communicating, coordinating, motivating, controlling. Various motivational theories are the result of research. Production (also called manufacturing) research focuses more on materials and equipment rather than on human aspects. It covers various aspects such as new and better ways of producing goods, inventing new technologies, reducing costs, improving product quality. Research in personnel management may range from very simple problems to highly complex problems of all types. It is primarily concerned with the human aspects of the business such as personnel policies, job requirements, job evaluation, recruitment, selection, placement, training and development, promotion and transfer, morale and attitudes, wage and salary administration, industrial relations. Basic research in this field would be valuable as human behaviour affects organizational behaviour and productivity. Research in Financial Management includes financial institutions, financing instruments (egs. shares, debentures), financial markets (capital market, money market, primary market, secondary market), financial services (egs. merchant banking, discounting, factoring), financial analysis (e.g. investment analysis, ratio analysis, funds flow / cash flow analysis) etc., Accounting research though narrow in its scope, but is a highly significant area of business management. Accounting information is used as a basis for reports to the management, shareholders, investors, tax authorities, regulatory bodies and other interested parties. Areas for accounting research include inventory valuation, depreciation accounting, generally accepted accounting principles, accounting standards, corporate reporting etc. Marketing research deals with product development and distribution problems, marketing institutions, marketing policies and practices, consumer behaviour, advertising and sales promotion, sales management and after sales service etc. Marketing research is one of the very popular areas and also a well established one. Marketing research includes market potentials,
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sales forecasting, product testing, sales analysis, market surveys, test marketing, consumer behaviour studies, marketing information system etc. Business policy research is basically the research with policy implications. The results of such studies are used as indices for policy formulation and implementation. Business history research is concerned with the past. For example, how was trade and commerce during the Moghul regime.

2: According to the Nature of Data A simple dichotomous classification of research is Quantitative research and Qualitative research / non-quantitative. Quantitative research is variables based where as qualitative research is attributes based. Quantitative research is based on measurement / quantification of the phenomenon under study. In other words, it is data based and hence more objective and more popular. Qualitative research is based on the subjective assessment of attributes, motives, opinions, desires, preferences, behaviour etc. Research in such a situation is a function of researchers insights and impressions. 3: According to the Coverage According to the number of units covered it can be Macro study or Micro study. Macro study is a study of the whole where as Micro study is a study of the part. For example, working capital management in State Road Transport Corporations in India is a macro study where as Working Capital Management in Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation is a micro study. 4: According to Utility or Application Depending upon the use of research results i.e., whether it is contributing to the theory building or problem solving, research can be Basic or Applied. Basic research is called pure / theoretical / fundamental research. Basic research includes original investigations for the advancement of knowledge that does not have specific objectives to answer problems of sponsoring agencies. Applied research also called Action research, constitutes research activities on problems posed by sponsoring agencies for the purpose of contributing to the solution of these problems.

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5: According to the place where it is carried out Depending upon the place where the research is carried out (according to the data generating source), research can be classified into: a) Field Studies or field experiments b) Laboratory studies or Laboratory experiments c) Library studies or documentary research 6: According to the Research Methods used Depending upon the research method used for the investigation, it can be classified as: a) Survey research, b) Observation research , c) Case research, d) Experimental research, e) Historical research, f) Comparative research. 7:According to the Time Frame Depending upon the time period adopted for the study, it can be a) One time or single time period research - eg. One year or a point of time. Most of the sample studies, diagnostic studies are of this type. b) Longitudinal research - eg. several years or several time periods ( a time series analysis) eg. industrial development during the five year plans in India. 8: According to the purpose of the Study What is the purpose/aim/objective of the study ? Is it to describe or analyze or evaluate or explore? Accordingly the studies are known as. a) Descriptive Study: The major purpose of descriptive research is the description of a person, situation, institution or an event as it exists. Generally fact finding studies are of this type.

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b) Analytical Study: The researcher uses facts or information already available and analyses them to make a critical examination of the material. These are generally Ex-post facto studies or post-mortem studies. c) Evaluation Study: This type of study is generally conducted to examine / evaluate the impact of a particular event, eg. Impact of a particular decision or a project or an investment.
d) Exploratory Study: The information known on a particular subject matter is little. Hence, a study is conducted to know more about it so as to formulate the problem and procedures of the study. Such a study is called exploratory/ formulative study

4.What is a research problem? The term problem means a question or issue to be examined. Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which a researcher experiences in the context of either theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

The first step in the research process definition of the problem involves two activities: Identification / Selection of the Problem Formulation of the Problem FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM initial steps 1Finding out the Broad problem area 2Preliminary information gathering 3Problem definition 1. Broad problem area Problem currently existing A situation requiring improvement A conceptual issue that needs to be tightened Find some answers empirically. 2. Preliminary information gathering A) Background information of organization B) Managerial philosophy
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C)Perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral responses of organizational members 3 .Problem definition Two types of definitions: 1. Conceptual definition definition of a term as given by authoritative sources (e.g. Websters dictionary; a well-known research study; textbook, etc..) 2. Operational definition researchers own definition, based on how it will be used in the study This requires the researcher to specify actions or operations necessary to identify and measure the term A concept converted into a measurable or observable elements- series of steps

1. Identify the Behavioral Dimensions 2. Identify Behavioral Dimensions' elements Eg. Learning

(E)
( D) UNDERSTANDING ANSWER CORRECTL Y

(E)
GIVING EXPLANATION (E) RECALL AFTER SOME TIME (E)

LEARNING

( D) RECALL

( D)
APPLICATION

SOLVING PROBLEMS (E)

INTEGRATION WITH RELATED MATERS

5. Factors to consider in the choice of a research topic

1. Novel When considering a research topic, the researcher has to focus on one which has not been investigated before. In the event that the problem has been studied before, he has to inject originality in it by coming up with another research design, using a different data-gathering tool or a different scheme for analyzing the research data.

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2. Interesting The researcher needs to consider his interest in the choice of a research problem. Interest counts a lot in the conduct of a study. If a researcher is not interested in the topic, it will be difficult on his part to put his heart and soul in it 3. Relevant The results of the study on a given problem should be of practical value to the researcher and the significant others in the field. This means that once the study had been completed, its findings, its conclusions and recommendations can be used in improving practices or solving an identified difficulty. Will the results add knowledge to information already available in the field? 4. Feasible This means that a problem that an investigator is going to work on can be completed without undue amount of time, money or effort. Feasibility of research also means that the researcher has the necessary competence or expertise to conduct the study on the chosen problem. Is the topic too broad? (e.g. the effects of TV violence on children) Can the problem really be investigated? (e.g. availability of information) What costs and time are involved in the analysis? researcher.

5. Researchable Data can be collected to answer the problem posed by the Can the data be analyzed? (Can the data be measured?)

6. Ethical A problem is said to be ethical when it does not involve physical or psychological harm or damage to human beings or organizations. In other words, a study on a particular topic should not put people or institutions in a bad light 6. REVIEW OF LITERATURE- Role and importants Literature Review is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher. The main aim is to find out problems that are already investigated and those that need further investigation. It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the field of investigation. It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field of study and how they have done so.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.

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 To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them and to formulate researchable hypothesis. To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts and techniques of analysis. To identify data sources used by other researchers. To learn how others structured their reports

SOURCES OF LITERATURE Books and Journals Electronic Databases Bibliographic Databases Abstract Databases Full-Text Databases Govt. and Industry Reports Internet Research Dissertations / Thesis

The recording of bibliographic information should be made in proper bibliographic format.

The format for citing a book is: Authors name, (year), Title of the book, Place of publication, Publishers name. For Example; Koontz Harold (1980), Management, New Delhi, McGraw-Hill International. The format for citing a journal article is: Authors name, (year), Title of the article, Journal name, Volume (number), pages.

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 For Example; Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.
7.Theoretical Framework
Theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire research project is based. A theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how one makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problem. Researcher wants to know what produces inflation- another one wants to know if organisational structure influences leadership style Both want to be able to predict behavior prediction and understanding are two purposes of Theory

Theory construction is often the result of a combination of DEDUCTIVE and INDUCTIVE reasoning DEDUCTIVE The logical process of deriving a conclusion by logical generalization of known fact(from universal to particular)

e.g. All managers are human beings. Mr.Goal is a manager, then we can deduce---- Mr.Goal is a human being Hypothetic deductive method INDUCTIVE The logical process of establishing a general proposition on the basis of observation of particular facts. (from particular to universal)

It involves two processes observation and generalization All managers that have ever been seen are human beings; therefore ,all managers are human beings

8.Types of variables:
1. Independent variables the cause supposed to be responsible for the bringing about change in a phenomenon or situation.

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2. Dependent variables the outcome of change brought about by change in the independent variable 3. Intervening variable a variable whose existence is inferred but cannot be manipulated or controlled 4. 4Moderator variable a variable that may or may not be controlled but has an effect on the research situation/phenomenon
For example: Does a commitment to ethics among media practitioners depend on their educational or professional training?

1. Independent variable: educational attainment of journalist. 2. Dependent variables: ethical behavior, knowledge of Code of Ethics 3. Intervening variable: newsroom policies 4. Moderator variables: civil status, age, years of work experience

9.Define hypothesis-what are the nature, scope and testing of hypothesis?

Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependant variable. Hypothesis must contain at least one independent variable and one dependant variable. Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem. Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen in the study. Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study. It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track

a. Descriptive Hypothesis These are assumptions that describe the characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event. Examples: Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized planning.

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b. Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis] These are assumptions that describe the relationship between two variables. The relationship suggested may be positive, negative or causal relationship. Examples:Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation C Null Hypothesis When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null hypothesis. It is a no difference, no relationship hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists between the parameter and statistic being compared to or no relationship exists between the variables being compared. It is usually represented as HO or H1 Example: H0: There is no relationship between a familys income and expenditure on recreation. D Alternate Hypothesis It is the hypothesis that describes the researchers prediction that, there exist a relationship between two variables or it is the opposite of null hypothesis. It is represented as HA or H1. Example: HA: There is a definite relationship between familys income and expenditure on recreation Hypothesis A tentative proposal made to explain certain observations or facts that requires further investigation to be verified. A hypothesis is a formulation of a question that lends itself to a prediction. This prediction can be verified or falsified. A question can only be use as scientific hypothesis, if their is an experimental approach or observational study that can be designed to check the outcome of a prediction. Nature of hypothesis The various discussions of the hypothesis which have appeared in works on inductive logic and in writings on scientific method, its structure and function have received considerable attention, while its origin has been comparatively neglected. The hypothesis has generally been treated as that part of scientific procedure which marks the stage where a definite plan or method is proposed for dealing with new or unexplained facts. It is regarded as an invention for the purpose of explaining the given, as a definite conjecture which is to be tested by an appeal to experience to see whether deductions made in accordance with it will be found true in fact. The function of the hypothesis is to unify, to furnish a method of dealing with things, and its structure must be suitable to this end. It must be so formed that it will be likely to prove valid, and writers have formulated various rules to be followed in the formation of hypotheses. These rules state the
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main requirements of a good hypothesis, and are intended to aid in a general way by pointing out certain limits within which it must fall. In respect to the origin of the hypothesis, writers have usually contented themselves with pointing out the kind of situations in which hypotheses are likely to appear. But after this has been done, after favorable external conditions have been given, the rest must be left to "genius," for hypotheses arise as "happy guesses," for which no rule or law can be given. In fact, the genius differs from the ordinary plodding mortal in just this ability to form fruitful Hypotheses in the midst of the same facts which to other less gifted individuals remain only so many disconnected experiences. Hypothesis is to determine its nature a little more precisely through an investigation of its rather obscure origin, and to call attention to certain features of its function which have not generally been accorded their due significance.

TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis testing refers to the process of using statistical analysis to determine if the observed differences between two or more samples are due to random chance (as stated in the null hypothesis) or to true differences in the samples (as stated in the alternate hypothesis). A null hypothesis (H0) is a stated assumption that there is no difference in parameters (mean, variance, DPMO) for two or more populations. The alternate hypothesis (Ha) is a statement that the observed difference or relationship between two populations is real and not the result of chance or an error in sampling. Hypothesis testing is the process of using a variety of statistical tools to analyze data and, ultimately, to fail to reject or reject the null hypothesis. From a practical point of view, finding statistical evidence that the null hypothesis is false allows you to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis. Hypothesis testing is the use of statistics to determine the probability that a given hypothesis is true. The usual process of hypothesis testing consists of four steps. 1. Formulate the null hypothesis (commonly, that the observations are the result of pure chance) and the alternative hypothesis (commonly, that the observations show a real effect combined with a component of chance variation). 2. Identify a test statistic that can be used to assess the truth of the null hypothesis. 3. Compute the P-value, which is the probability that a test statistic at least as significant as the one observed would be obtained assuming that the null hypothesis were true. The smaller the value, the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis.
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4. Compare the -value to an acceptable significance value (sometimes called an alpha value). If , that the observed effect is statistically significant, the null hypothesis is ruled out, and the alternative hypothesis is valid.

Flow Diagram 1 Identify the null hypothesis H0 and the alternate hypothesis HA. 2 Choose ,The value should be small, usually less than 10%. It is important to consider the consequences of both types of errors. 3 Select the test statistic and determine its value from the sample data. This value is called the observed value of the test statistic. Remember that a t statistic is usually appropriate for a small number of samples; for larger number of samples, a z statistic can work well if data are normally distributed. 4 Compare the observed value of the statistic to the critical value obtained for the chosen ?. 5 Make a decision. If the test statistic falls in the critical region: Reject H0 in favor of HA. If the test statistic does not fall in the critical region: Conclude that there is not enough evidence to reject H0

The research design should be based

1. What is the study about?

2. Why is the study being made? 3. Where will the study be carried out? 4. What type of data is required? 5. Where can the required data be found? 6. What will be the sample design? 7. What techniques of data collection will be used? 8. How will the data be analyzed?

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9. In what style will the report be prepared?

Purpose/Nature of the study

Exploratory study Descriptive study Hypotheses testing Case studies Types of Data Primary vs. Secondary Data Quantitative vs. Qualitative Longitudinal vs. Non-Longitudinal Using Control / Comparison

The research proposal is:

A written statement of the research design Includes an explanation of the research studys purpose and the problem definition Outlines the research methodology and procedures that will be utilized throughout the research study Includes information on cost and deadlines Research proposals must be as specific and clear as possible about What is to be achieved and how it is to be achieved? Questionnaires and other supporting documents should be attached for reference

Research Objectives
Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, as they directly assist in answering the research problem.
The objectives may be specified in the form of either statements or questions. Generally, they are written as statements, using the word to. (For example, to discover , to determine , to establish , etc. )
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Research objectives are simply research questions rewritten in statement form.

Unit 111 -Measurement of variables

Measurement and Scaling- importants
A scale is basically a continuous spectrum or series of categories and has been defined as any series of items that are arranged progressively according to value or magnitude, into which an item can be placed according to its quantification Four popular scales in business research are: Nominal scales Ordinal scales Interval scales Ratio scales

1.A nominal scale is the simplest of the four scale types and in which the numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as labels for identification or classification Example: Males = 1, Females = 2 Sales Zone A = Islamabad, Sales Zone B = Rawalpindi Drink A = Pepsi Cola, Drink B = 7-Up, Drink C = Miranda

2.An ordinal scale is one that arranges objects or alternatives according to their magnitude Examples: Career Opportunities = Moderate, Good, Excellent Investment Climate = Bad, inadequate, fair, good, very good Merit = A grade, B grade, C grade, D grade

A problem with ordinal scales is that the difference between categories on the scale is hard to quantify, I,e., excellent is better than good but how much is excellent better?

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3.An interval scale is a scale that not only arranges objects or alternatives according to their

respective magnitudes, but also distinguishes this ordered arrangement in units of equal intervals (i.e. interval scales indicate order (as in ordinal scales) and also the distance in the order)

Examples: Opportunities offered by the job are very important to me because a) Interacting with others 1.SDA b) Serving others - 1.SDA 2.DA 2.DA 3.NA/NDA 3.NA/NDA 4.A 4.A 5.SA 5.SA

Interval scales allow comparisons of the differences of magnitude (e.g. of attitudes) but do not allow determinations of the actual strength of the magnitude

4.A ratio scale is a scale that possesses absolute rather than relative qualities and has an absolute
zero. Examples: Money,Weight, Distance, Temperature on the Kelvin Scale

Interval scales allow comparisons of the differences of magnitude (e.g. of attitudes) as well as determinations of the actual strength of the magnitude

Criteria for Good Measurement

Reliability Reliability is the degree to which measurements are devoid of error and therefore in the position to yield consistent results, also over repeated attempts over time (ordinal measures always yield the same order, interval measurements always yield the same order and same distance between the measured items) Validity Validity is the ability of a scale or measuring instrument to measure what it is intended to measure (e.g. is absenteeism from work a valid measure of job satisfaction or are there other influences like a flu epidemic which is keeping employees from work) Sensitivity Sensitivity is the ability of a measurement instrument to accurately measure variability in stimuli or responses (e.g. on a scale, the choices very strongly agree, strongly agree, agree, dont agree offer more choices than a scale with just two choices agree and dont agree and is thus more sensitive)
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Measuring Attitude
It can be difficult to measure attitude, therefore, indicators such as verbal expression, physiological measurement techniques and overt behaviour are used for this purpose. The three different components of attitude may require different measuring techniques
Common techniques used in business research to determine attitude include rating, ranking, sorting and the choice technique

Rating Scales are frequently employed in business research for measuring attitude, and many scales have been developed for this purpose, including: Simple Attitude Scales Category Scales Likert Scale Semantic Differential Numerical Scales Constant-Sum Scale Stapel Scale Graphic Scales
Data Sources

Primary Data Observations Direct communication with subjects (surveys, interviews, etc.) Secondary Data Existing data sources collected for some other purpose than the proposed study (reports, databases, results of past studies or surveys).

Data collection methods

Data can be collected in a variety ways ,data sources can be primary or secondary. Data collection methods such as: interview(face-to- face, telephone, computer-assisted interviews), 26

Questionnaires Observation Motivational techniques

(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigators own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned. (ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent. (iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time. (iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information. (v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules byenumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work

Census & sampling

Census A census is a investigation of all the individual elements of a population sampling The process of using a small number of items or parts of a larger population to make conclusions about the whole population
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Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling Every element in the population under study has a nonzero probability of selection to a sample, and every member of the population has an equal probability of being selected 1.

Simple Random Sampling This is a technique which ensures that each

element in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample Example: Choosing raffle tickets from a drum, computer-generated selections, random-digit telephone dialing The major advantage of simple random sampling is its simplicity

2.

Systematic Sampling This is a technique which in which an initial starting

point is selected by a random process, after which every nth number on the list is selected to constitute part of the sample Example: From a list of 1500 name entries, a name on the list is randomly selected and then (say) every 25th name thereafter. The sampling interval in this case would equal 25. For systematic sampling to work best, the list should be random in nature and not have some underlying systematic pattern

3.

Stratified Sampling This is a technique which in which simple random

subsamples are drawn from within different strata that share some common characteristic

Example: The student body of KUSAT is divided into two groups (management science, engineering) and from each group, students are selected for a sample using simple random sampling in each of the two groups, whereby the size of the sample for each group is determined by that groups overall strength Stratified Sampling has the advantage of giving more representative samples and less random sampling error; the disadvantage lies therein, that it is more complex and information on the strata may be difficult to obtain There are other specialized techniques of sampling such as: 1Cluster Sampling Area Sampling 3 Internet Sampling 2 Multistage

Non-Probability Sampling
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1.Convenience Sampling This is a sampling technique which selects those sampling units most conveniently available at a certain point in, or over a period, of time Major advantages of convenience sampling is that is quick, convenient and economical; a major disadvantage is that the sample may not be representative Convenience sampling is best used for the purpose of exploratory research and supplemented subsequently with probability sampling

2 Judgment (purposive) Sampling This is a sampling technique in which the business researcher selects the sample based on judgment about some appropriate characteristic of the sample members Example 1: The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is based on a judgment sample of market-based items, housing costs, and other selected goods and services which are representative for most of the overall population in terms of their consumption Example 2: Selection of certain voting districts which serve as indicators for the national voting trend

Quota Sampling This is a sampling technique in which the business researcher ensures that certain characteristics of a population are represented in the sample to an extent which is he or she desires a. Example: A business researcher wants to determine through interview, the demand for Product X in a district which is very diverse in terms of its ethnic composition. If the sample size is to consist of 100 units, the number of individuals from each ethnic group interviewed should correspond to the groups percentage composition of the total population of that district

Quota Sampling has advantages and disadvantages: b. Advantages include the speed of data collection, less cost, the element of convenience, and representativeness (if the subgroups in the sample are selected properly) c. Disadvantages include the element of subjectivity (convenience sampling rather than probability-based which leads to improper selection of sampling units) 4 Snowball Sampling This is a sampling technique in which individuals or organizations are selected first by probability methods, and then additional respondents are identified based on information provided by the first group of respondents
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a. Example: Through a sample of 500 individuals, 20 Mamooty fans are identified which, in turn, identify a number of other Mamooty fans b. The advantage of snowball sampling is that smaller sample sizes and costs are necessary; a major disadvantage is that the second group of respondents suggested by the first group may be very similar and not representative of the population with that characteristic

Surveys-Types
A Survey is a research technique in which data is collected from a sample of people using an interview or questionnaire Surveys are a crucial tool of business research methods Surveys are undertaken using verbal or written means to obtain primary data for the research project Surveys target individuals and/or organizations (respondents) Surveys are often quantitative, occasionally also qualitative in their orientation

Types of Survey Research Methods Surveys can be classified according to the mode of communication with the respondent (personal interviews, telephone interviews, mail surveys, internet surveys etc.) Surveys can be classified according to the type of questions asked of respondents (structured questions, disguised questions). Structured questions impose a limit on the number of permissible responses, while disguised questions try to hide the purpose of the study from the respondents and get information that respondents may otherwise be reluctant to give.

Surveys often incorporate both structured and disguised questions Surveys are usually done for descriptive purposes and for ascertaining the characteristics of a group, to measure attitudes and determine behavioural patterns, and sometimes to explore ideas or provide causal explanations

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 Surveys can be classified according to their time frame (cross-sectional studies, i.e., where data is collected from respondents at a single point in time, and longitudinal studies, i.e., where data is collected from a group of respondents over a time interval, with a view to examining the level of continuity or change over time If data is collected from the same sample of individuals, the longitudinal study is called a panel study. A method for documenting data in panel studies is to use diaries for tracking. Personal Interviews A personal interview is a form of direct communication in which an interviewer asks respondents in a face-to-face conversational situation Personal interviews can take place in various locations, often at the respondents place of residence or in their workplaces (door-to-door interviews), in shopping malls and in supermarkets (mall intercept interviews) and in other high-traffic areas (this has the advantage of lower cost but, on the downside, it has a higher refusal rate due to the respondents time limitation and there may be sampling issues to consider) Personal interviews have a number of advantages and disadvantages for business researchers Opportunity for Feedback Interviewer can provide direct feedback to the respondent, give clarifications and help alleviate any misconceptions or apprehensions over confidentiality that the respondent may have in answering the interviewers questions Probing Complex Answers Interviewers can probe if the respondents answer is too brief or unclear. This gives interviewers some flexibility in dealing with unstructured questions and is especially suited for handling complex questions Length of Interview If the questionnaire is very lengthy, the personal interview is the best technique for getting respondents to cooperate, without overtaxing their patience Complete Questionnaires Personal ensures ensure that the respondent will answer all questions asked, unlike in telephone interview where the respondent may hang up or in mail questionnaire where some questions may go unanswered
supports & Visual Aids Interviewers have the opportunity of showing respondents items such as sample products, graphs ands sketches, which can aid in their answers High Participation Interviewing respondents personally can increase the likelihood of their participation, as many people prefer to communicate directly verbally and sharing information and insights with interviewers

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Complete Questionnaires Personal ensures ensure that the respondent will answer all questions asked, unlike in telephone interview where the respondent may hang up or in mail questionnaire where some questions may go unanswered supports & Visual Aids Interviewers have the opportunity of showing respondents items such as sample products, graphs ands sketches, which can aid in their answers High Participation Interviewing respondents personally can increase the likelihood of their participation, as many people prefer to communicate directly verbally and sharing information and insights with interviewers

Disadvantages of Personal Interviews Cost Personal interviews are usually more expensive than mail, telephone and internet surveys. Factors influencing the cost of the interview include the respondents geographic proximity, the length and complexity of the questionnaire, and the number of non-respondents Lack of Anonymity Respondents are not anonymous in a personal (face-to-face) interview and may be reluctant to disclose certain information to the interviewer. Hence, considerable must be expended by the interviewer when dealing with sensitive questions to avoid bias effects on the respondents part Necessity for Callbacks When a person selected for interview cannot be reached the first time, a callback has to be scheduled which result in extra cost and time spent Variance Effects It has been shown that the demographic characteristics of the interviewer can influence the answers of the respondents. In one study, male interviewers had a much larger variance of answers than female interviewers in a sample of most female individuals Dishonesty Interviewers cheat to make their life easier and save time and effort Personal Style The interviewers individual questioning style, techniques, approach and demeanor may influence the respondents answers Global Considerations Cultural aspects may influence peoples willingness to participate in an interview (e.g. repressive Middle Eastern cultures discourage females from being questioned by male interviewers

Mail Surveys A mail survey is a self-administered questionnaire dispatched to respondents through the mail Mail surveys have several advantages and disadvantages: geographic flexibility 32

 Disadvantages

cost respondent convenience interviewers absence standardized questions time factor length of the questionnaire

Interviewer Absence Standardized Questions Time Factor Length of Mail- Questionnaire Wrong Respondents Social Factors Internet Survey An internet survey is a self-administered questionnaire which is posted on a website. Some major advantages of using the Internet for Conducting Surveys: access to a large (possibly global) audience on 24-hour basis Real-time data entry and analysis More accurate data capture if properly programmed obtaining confidential, anonymous answers quickly and cost-effectively No costs for paper, postage, data entry and administrative costs Large samples can be larger than with interviews and other types of self-administered questionnaires Questionnaires can include use of appealing multimedia aids including photographs or drawings of prototypes Callbacks are automated (if response incomplete or not given) eMail can be used to invite respondents to visit the website, for e.g. to participate in panels 33

Flexible and personalized questioning of respondents

Some major disadvantages of using the internet for conducting surveys: Many people in the general population do not have access to the internet Different levels of technology may be prevalent (broadband or dial-up connectivity) which may result in some users not being able to access information as quick as others Hardware deficiencies and/or software incompatability Different computer skill levels Physical incentives (e.g. inclusion of money) is not possible, only the promise of a future reward Research on internet surveys is small and so are ideas for improving response rates

Questionnaire:
A Questionnaire is a set of questions prepared by the researcher to collect data. The following point should be considered while preparing a questionnaire. The questionnaire should be based upon the objective of study. It should be able to provide the required information. The respondents should easily understand it. Enough care must be taken while drafting the questionnaire. It is always better to free test a questionnaire. Free Testing is the process of collecting data through questionnaires. To test their relevance, acceptability etc.

This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organizations and even by Governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. GUIDLINES FOR CONSTRUCTING QUESTIONNAIRE/SCHEDULE 1. The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it provides the starting point for developing the Questionnaire/Schedule. He must be clear about the various aspects of his research problem to be dealt with in the course of his research project. 2. Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information sought, the sampled respondents and the kind of analysis intended. The researcher must decide whether to use closed or open-ended question. Questions should be simple and must be constructed with a
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3.

4. 5. 6.

view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan. The units of enumeration should be defined precisely so that they can ensure accurate and full information. Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule is prepared, giving due thought to the appropriate sequence of putting questions. Questionnaires or Schedules previously drafted may as well be looked at this stage. Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the rough draft for a better one. Technical defects must be minutely scrutinized and removed. Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire. The Questionnaire may be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study. Questionnaires must contain simple but straight forward directions for the respondents so that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.

Process of Preparing the Questionnaire. (Do and Donts) Enough care must be taken while drafting a questionnaire. A wrong question misleading question, wrong wording, etc may create more problem for the researcher while drafting a questionnaire the researcher should consider the following areas. 1 Relevance of the question. 2 Wording of the question. 3 Types of question. 4 Sequence of the question. Relevance of Question: The researcher should ask only such questions which provide information needed by him. Ex: If a study is made on media habits of teenagers, questions like which part of Bangalore do you stay at which hotel do you prefer during the weekend, etc are irrelevant. A researcher should ask questions which are specific in nature and which the respondents may answer easily. Ex: Instead of asking what brand of coffee do you have today? Respondents may be usually, what brand of coffee do you use? 1 Wording of the Question: When a question is asked, the researcher should be careful in choosing the words while designing the question he should consider the following points. The words used in the question should mean the same for both researcher and respondent. All the respondents should perceive the meaning of the question in the same way. The words should precise or exact. Ex: Question like how intelligent? What is your income? Are vague. The question should be worded in a very simple manner.
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Ex: Instead of asking questions like what is your marital status? The researcher may ask are you married? 2 The question worded in such a manner that they are neutral in nature and does not influence the respondents answer, this result in bias. Ex: A question likes Isnt St. Josephs college a good college? It influence the respondent top answer in a positive manner, hence should be avoided. No question should give lead to answer. 3 Questions should not be worded with unwarranted assumptions. Ex: Do you think Indians are very conservative? 4 While wording a question you should avoid personalizing question and for same sensitive topics questions should be indirectly asked. 5 While wording questions, the researcher should not resume anything about the respondent. Ex: How many times do you drink coffee in a day; will not be useful if a person doesnt drink coffee. 1 Words that embarrass the respondent should be avoided. Ex: How frequently do you take bath? Do you approve pre- marital sex? Etc.

Types of Question. A researcher may ask basically two types of questions, namely Open- ended question and Closed ended Questions. Close ended questions might be of three types, Dichotomous, Multiple Choice or Declarative. 1 Open ended Questions: In this type of question respondents are given choice to reply with their own words. It is a useful type of questions, not only gives freedom to respondents but also the answers should be creative. Ex: When you think of St. Josephs college, what comes to your mind? The problem with open- ended question is that only tabulation becomes difficult but chances are their that respondents may give variety of answers, making it difficult to generalize. 2 Close ended Questions: Close ended Questions are those, which gives options to the respondents to choose from. The answers are standardized, such questions may be of three types i.e. Dichotomous Questions, Multiple choice Questions and Declarative Questions. Dichotomous Questions have two choices to choose from. It is a simple form of question, which the respondent answers either positively or negatively. Ex: Are you interested in playing tennis? A) Yes b) No In case of Multiple Choice Questions, there will be more two options to choose from. Ex: After Graduation would you go for higher studies? A) Definitely yes b) Probably yes c) Dont know d) Probably No e) Definitely No. Declarative question is a type of multiple choice questions in which a respondent has to
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choose from a series of statement about a given subject. Ex: Which of the following statement best describes your college? The campus atmosphere is highly conducive for the academic excellence of a student. Students are not encouraging to be creative because of rigid contents of syllabus. It brings out oneness among all the students in the college. It stands for character formation compassion and competency of students. Types of Questions to be avoided. 1 Leading Questions: It is a question, which is worded in such a way that the respondent is influenced to give a certain answer. Ex: Do you like your college, dont you? 2 Loading Questions: A loading question is one attached with emotions, which make respondents to give a biased answer. Ex: Questions like, do you think Australian cricketers have hurt the sentiments of Indians? 3 Ambiguous Questions: An ambiguous question is one that does not have clear meaning and which may mean many things to people. Ex: Do you live in a big house? Is an ambiguous question because the word big is a very vague? 4 Doubled barred Questions: These are the questions, which ask the respondents to give information on two or more ideas at a time. Ex: How much do you plan to save next year and will you buy a car next year. Please mention the no. of members in your family, their relationship with you, age group, marital status and whether they are earning? 5 Long Questions: When a question is lengthy, respondents lose interest in answering them. Ex: Have you ever visited a mall in the last week, purchased the following items and also mention with whom you have purchased? 6 Double Lengthy Questions: The researcher should, avoid asking double lengthy questions, as it creates confusion.

SEQUENCE. The order in which the questions are arranged influences the ease with which the respondent answers the questionnaire. It also has an impact on creating or avoiding the bias. While deciding on the sequencing following point must be considered. 1 It should create interest among the respondents to voluntarily answer the question. 2 It should start with simple items and move with complex items. 3 The sequencing must give a sense of clarity. There are two types of sequencing questions. 1. The questionnaire with personal information and gradually moves on to specific objective of the research. This method is known as Filter down Questionnaire. 2. The other method start the questionnaire with question directly related to the objectives of
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research and at the end ask general questions like age, marital status. This method is called Inverted Filtered Questionnaire. The following points must be considered while deciding on the sequencing of questions. 1 The order in which the questions are put should encourage respondents to answer questions voluntarily. 2 The questionnaire should begin with simple items and gradually move onto the objectives of the research. 3 Their should be logical progression. 4 Their should be neither be over lapping nor confusion in the sequencing. The merits of questionnaire: 1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically. 2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer, answers are in respondents own words. 3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers. 4. Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also e reached conveniently. 5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable. The demerits of questionnaire: 1. Low rate of return of the duly filled questionnaires, bias due to no-response is often indeterminate. 2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating. 3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent. 4. There is inbuilt inflexibility coz, of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched. 5. There is also possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions, interpretation of omissions is difficult. 6. It is difficult to know whether wiling respondents are truly representative. 7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Scientific Observation
Scientific Observation is the systematic process of recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects, and occurrences as they are witnessed In observation, there is no direct interaction with respondents no communication or questioning takes place while data is collected
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A major advantage of observation (over surveys) is that the data collected is done at the time the actual behaviour or situation takes place, and it is not subject to distortions, inaccuracies and respondent biases and so forth. A major limitation of observation is that many cognitive phenomona such as attitudes, motivations, expectations, intentions and preferences cannot be observed. Also, observation usually is of short-duration as observation over longer periods is tedious and expensive

Advantages of Observation. 1 The data is collected as it happens. 2 It is direct and does not involve any kind of artificially in collecting the data. 3 For certain researcher observation is the best method. Ex: Research involving children. 1 Through observation a researcher can capture the whole world event as it occurs. 2 Observation gives more authentic data as no question is asked by the researcher. 3 It is an easier method of collecting data. 4 The data is more reliable as it is unbiased. 5 The researcher is enabled to record the natural behavior of the group. 6 The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. 7 The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule. 8 The researcher is enabled to record the natural behavior of the group. 9 The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. 10 The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule. Disadvantages of Observation. 1 This method cannot be used for historical research i.e. to study the past events. 2 It is not suitable to study opinions and attitude. 3 It is difficult to choose the sample for observation survey. 4 It is not flexible, in the sense, that the researcher cannot collect the data and use it as and when he likes. 5 The researcher should be physically present at the place of happening to collect the data. 6 It is a slow process. 7 Changes of researchers bias are high as he may give his own meaning to the behaviour of respondents. 8 The observer may lose the objectivity to the extend he participates emotionally. The problem of observation is not solved. And it may narrow-down the researcher's range of experience.

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The observer may lose the objectivity to the extend he participates emotionally. The problem of observation is not solved. And it may narrow-down the researcher's range of experience.

Projective Techniques. The survey and the other method of data collection may result in the researcher collecting either incorrect information or misleading information because respondents are given freedom to report their behaviour. This is called respondents bias. To avoid this, a direct way of collecting the data from the sample is used which is known as Projective Techniques. Meaning: Projective Techniques involve presentation of ambiguous stimuli to the respondents for interpretation. By doing so they reveal their inner characteristics. The basic assumption is that a person projects his own thoughts, feelings, ideas, etc. when he perceives and respondents to ambiguous stimuli. Approaches to Projective Techniques. 1 Association: A respondent is asked to associate a product, brand or anything that is under study to something else. Ex: Students may be asked the question what comes to your mind when you think of your college? 2 Fantasy: Here the respondents are asked to guess a story or discuss a picture in imaginary terms. Ex: Respondents may asked to continue the following statement Mrs. A goes to forum mall on Saturday evening with her daughter with a budget of Rs.10,000/-, she. 3 Ambiguous Stimuli: Here the respondent is asked to respond to stimuli. Ex: He may be shown blue colour and be asked when you think of blue what do u imagine? Types of Projective Techniques. It may be divided into three categories namely Visual Projective Techniques, Verbal Techniques and Expressive Projective Techniques. Following are commonly used Projective Techniques: 1 Ink Blot Test: This was developed by Swiss scientist called Rorschach, which is normally used to analyze the personality of a person the respondents are given cards on which an ink blot is printed. The respondent gives meaning to the blots. 2 Thematic Appreciation Test: It is a highly structure techniques of data collection where respondents are shown Vague Pictures. The respondent has to develop a story for each picture. The content of the story is analyzed to understand his emotion, attitude, personality etc. 3 Word Association Test: This is a simplest form of Projective Techniques where the
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interviewer gives a list of words to the respondent. They are asked to match the words based upon the time taken to respond, the attitude is measured. Sentence Completion Test: Under this method an incomplete sentence is given and the respondents are asked to complete the same. Ex: I like because. Story Completion Test: Here respondents are given an incomplete story and they are asked to complete it.

UNIT-1V Data analysis and interpretation

PROCESSING OF DATA Processing of data is that stage of research between data collection and data analysis, which helps the researcher to convert raw data into an analyzable form. This step consists of editing, coding, classification and the tabulation. EDITING Editing of data is the process of checking to detect and correct errors and omissions. It may either be on field or at office. On a field editing is a type of editing where the researcher edits the data immediately after collection. He reviews questionnaire correct omissions, rewrites ineligible responses etc. Office editing also know as In is a process of editing where all completed questionnaire are checked in the office for completeness, accuracy and uniformity. The researchers whether all questions are properly answered. If any unanswered question is their, he can infirm the answer with the help of the questions. If the information is very important he may connect the respondent again. The researchers also checks for the accuracy and consistency in the answer given by the respondents. Ex: If the question, do you own a debit card or credit card? The respondent answers as no. For another question, do you always buy using credit cards or debit cards, he answers yes. Such are inconsistency, which may not give accurate data. The researcher has to identify such questions inconsistencies. Proper coding and computerization of data cleans such data and avoids such inconsistencies. While editing the researcher should also see that there is uniformity throughout in interpretation of questioned and their answering.

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CODING. It is the process of assigning numbers to the categories for the purpose of identification. Coding is necessary to make data entry convenient and to remove errors in answering, would also avoid, mix up of various questions of difficult researchers. Coding helps in data cleaning. Removing inaccuracies and inconsistencies in answers. Coding is made three levels. At each level each questionnaire is coding. Ex: If a researcher is carried on at St. Josephs Evening College with 50 students as sample. Questionnaire will be coded at SJEC, SJEC2 At the second level, each question is coded. Ex: Name, Age, and Gender etc. At the third level, the potions are coded, either numerically are by using alphabets. Ex: Male, Female, Gender or Male 3.1 Female 3.2 or Male a, Female b, or Male M, Female F. Proper coding makes the data more reliable. This results in the research findings to be trust worthy. CLASSIFICATIONS. Classifications is grouping of data according to identified categories with the help of classifications, huge data will be condensed for the purpose of analysis. It is done after coding and before tabulation. TABULATION. Tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and displaying them on compact statistical table for further analysis. In this step it starts after the classification the researcher identifies no. of the respondents falling under each category. Tabulation may either be done manual and with help of computer. While constructing a table, the researcher should consider the following: 1 2 3 4 5 6 Each table should have a proper title. The table should be properly numbered. The captions (column heading) and stabs (row heading) should be clearly mentioned. Any explanation to the table should be in the form of footnotes below the table. The table should show the total of every row and column. Usually abbreviations, ditto marks, etc are avoided in the table.

ANALYSIS OF DATA. The purpose of research is to identify solutions to give a research problem. Collected data is put into statistical test analyzed and interpreted. Analysis of data performs the art of research, as it is in this step that data acquires meaning. Analysis of data is the critical examination of the assembled and grouped for studying the
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characteristics of the objects under study and of determining the patterns of relationship among the identified variables The purpose of Analysis. 1. Analysis of Data gives life to the dead figures. 2. It summarizes huge volume of data into understandable and meaningful from. 3. It describes the data in a specific manner. Ex: If somebody makes a general statement that arts students are not as intelligent as commerce students it may be ignored, as it is not a reliable statement, But if a statement is made based on the IQ level it will be a reliable statement. 4. Statistically analysis facilitates identification of the factors influencing complex phenomena. Ex: A good research may indicate what factors contribute to the better academic performance of students. 5. Analysis of data helps in meaningful interpretation. 6. It also helps in generalization of the findings. In other words, the finding of the research carried out with the help of sample may be generalized to the entire population. 7. Statistical analysis is useful for assessing the significance of specific sample design under assumed population conditions, Ex; A researcher answers the question whether extra coaching to under performance students increase their performance in the examination, such test are called Hypothesis Testing. Points to be considered while analyzing the data. 1. The analysis of data depends upon the type of research, if it is descriptive research, analysis concentrates on the behavior of variables and if it is analytical research it concentrates on analyzing the relationship between variables. 2. The researcher should use the language, which is not slang, undiplomatic, and clich. The analysis should be in short sentences, meaningful and observatory. 3. The researcher should adopt the unbiased approach for the analysis, as far as possible he should avoid giving his own meaning to the data. 4. Analysis should basically cover and answer the following question. a. What is the relevance of its statement? b. What does the data say? c. What inference can be drawn from the data? Simply Statistical Analysis. The researcher can use many statistical tools to analyze the data. He can use percentages, averages, standard deviation, correlation, regression etc. Percentages can be used to generalize the findings, if ratios are used to show the relation of one figure with another. Ex; Leverages, Liquidity ratio etc Averages are also known as measures of central tendency, it is used to find a single value that
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represents the average characteristics of the sample distribution. Ex: The per capita income, the average speed of a vehicle, the average marks scored by a student etc.

Assessing Correlations /Cronbachs Alpha

Cranach's alpha is an index of reliability associated with the variation accounted for by the true score of the "underlying construct." Allows a researcher to measure the internal consistency of scale items, based on the average inter-item correlation Indicates the extent to which the items in your questionnaire are related to each other Indicates whether a scale is one-dimensional or multidimensional The higher the score, the more reliable the generated scale is A score of .70 or greater is generally considered to be acceptable .90 or > = high reliability .80-.89 = good reliability .70-79 = acceptable reliability .65-.69 = marginal reliability

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics Descriptive statistics

Examples: The number of employees with MBA degrees in an organization The number of students who failed to qualify their final examination at IMK The branch of statistics which describes or summarizes information about a population or sample

Inferential statistics The branch of statistics which is used to make inferences or judgments about a population on the basis of a sample Examples: The demand for a new Product X based on a sample conducted in Region Y The general election result based on a representative survey of voters in electoral district

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Descriptive statistics
provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures.
Central Tendency. The central tendency of a distribution is an estimate of the "center" of a distribution of values. There are three major types of estimates of central tendency:

Mean is the most common-used measure of data tendency.=average.

Median is the middle value , when the data is arranged in numerical order.

Mode is the value ( number) that appears the most.

Dispersion (Range, Standard Diviation)refers to the spread of the values around the central tendency

Inferential statistics
t-test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), regression analysis, Correlation is a measure of the relation between two or more variables. we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions;

we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data .

Parametric and non-parametric tests 1.Parametric Tests Normal distribution Homogeneity of variance N should be large (N > 30) Data should be at least interval scale More powerful Prone to Type I error Less chance of Type II error

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Unfortunately, these assumptions are not always appropriate, or cannot be always supported or validated Nonparametric methods do not have the same restrictions placed on them as do their parametric counterparts. there are underlying distributional requirements, but the requirements are much less restrictive.

Nonparametric tests are also referred to as distribution-free tests. These tests have the obvious advantage of not requiring the assumption of normality or the assumption of homogeneity of variance. Many statistical techniques focus on just one or two variables

Nonparametric tests have different characteristics:

They are concerned with quantities other than parameters of distributions. They can be used when the assumptions of parametric tests do not hold for the particular data under consideration. They make minimal assumptions about the population from which the sample comes. A common example is the situation in which an underlying population is not normally distributed. Other tests, such as a median test or the sign test, can be used in place of ttests for means and paired comparisons, respectively.

Nonparametric tests are normally used in three cases: When the distribution of the data to be analyzed indicates or suggests that a parametric test is not appropriate. When the data are ordinal or ranked, as parametric tests normally require the data to be interval or ratio. One might be ranking the performance of investment managers; such rankings do not lend themselves to parametric tests because of their scale. When your test does not involve a parameter. For instance, in evaluating whether or not an investment manager has had a statistically significant record of consecutive successes, the nonparametric runs test might be employed. Another example: if you want to test whether a sample is randomly selected, a nonparametric test should be used.

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Multivariate analysis (MVA) techniques allow more than two variables to be analysed
at once Multiple regre ssion is not typically included under this heading, but can be thought of as a multivariate analysis Two general types of MVA technique 1 Analysis of dependence Where one (or more) variables are dependent variables, to be explained or predicted by others E.g. Multiple regression, PLS, MDA 2 Analysis of interdependence No variables thought of as dependent Look at the relationships among variables, objects or cases E.g. cluster analysis, factor analysis

ANOVA
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is based on breaking down the variations of a response into several parts that can be compared to each other for significance testing. To test the significance of a given effect, you have to compare the variance of the response accounted for by the effect to the residual variance, which summarizes experimental error. If the structured variance (due to the effect) is no larger than the random variance (error), the effect can be considered negligible. If it is significantly larger than the error, it is regarded as significant. In practice, this is achieved through a series of successive computations, with results traditionally displayed as a table . The elements listed hereafter define the columns of the ANOVA table, and there is one row for each source of variation: 1. First, several sources of variation are defined. For instance, if the purpose of the model is to study the main effects of all design variables, each design variable is a source of variation. Experimental error is also a source of variation 2. Each source of variation has a limited number of independent ways to cause variation in the data. This number is called number of degrees of freedom (DF) 3. Response variation associated to a specific source is measured by a sum of squares (SS)
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4. Response variance associated to the same source is then computed by dividing the sum of squares by the number of degrees of freedom. This ratio is called mean square (MS) 5. Once mean squares have been determined for all sources of variation, f-ratios associated to every tested effect are computed as the ratio of MS (effect) to MS (error). These ratios, which compare structured variance to residual variance, have a statistical distribution which is used for significance testing. The higher the ratio, the more important the effect 6. Under the null hypothesis (i.e., that the true value of an effect is zero), the f-ratio has a Fisher distribution. This makes it possible to estimate the probability of getting such a high f-ratio under the null hypothesis. This probability is called p-value ; the smaller the p-value, the more likely it is that the observed effect is not due to chance. Usually, an effect is declared significant if p-value<0.05 (significance at the 5% level). Other classical thresholds are 0.01 and 0.001 The outlined sequence of computations applies to all cases of ANOVA. Those can be the following:

Summary ANOVA : ANOVA on the global model. The purpose is to test the global significance of the whole model before studying the individual effects Linear ANOVA : Each main effect is studied separately Linear with Interactions ANOVA : Each main effect and each 2-factor interaction is studied separately Quadratic ANOVA : Each main effect, each 2-factor interaction and each quadratic effect is studied separately

ANOVA for Linear Response Surfaces

The ANOVA table for a linear response surface includes a few additional features compared to the ANOVA table for analysis of effects. Two new columns are included into the main section showing the individual effects:

b-coefficients : The values of the regression coefficients are displayed for each effect of the model Standard Error of the b-coefficients : Each regression coefficient is estimated with a certain precision, measured as a standard error

Regression Analysis Regression is a generic term for all methods attempting to fit a model to observed data in order to quantify the relationship between two groups of variables. The fitted model may then be used either to merely describe the relationship between the two groups of variables, or to predict new values

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The two data matrices involved in regression are usually denoted X and Y, and the purpose of regression is to build a model Y = f(X). Such a model tries to explain, or predict, the variations in the Y-variable(s) from the variations in the X-variable(s). The link between X and Y is achieved through a common set of samples for which both X- and Y-values have been collected. Usual names for X- and Y-variables
Context General Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) Designed Data X Predictors Independent Variables Factors, Design Variables Y Responses Dependent Variables Responses

Spectroscopy

Spectra

Constituents

Univariate regression uses a single predictor, which is often not sufficient to modern property precisely. Multivariate regression takes into account several predictive variables simultaneously, thus modeling the property of interest with more accuracy. How and why to use Regression? Building a regression model involves collecting predictor and response values for common samples, and then fitting a predefined mathematical relationship to the collected data. Once you have built a regression model, you can predict the unknown concentration for new samples, using the spectroscopic measurements as predictors. The advantage is obvious if concentration is difficult or expensive to measure directly Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) MLR is a method for relating the variations in a response variable (Y-variable) to the variations of several predictors (X-variables), with explanatory or predictive purposes. Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) is a well-known statistical method based on ordinary least squares regression.

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MODULE-V - The Research report

The research report is the crucial means for communicating the whole project to those individuals or entities who or which commissioned the research A research report may be in writing, verbal, or a combination of both It is essential that great effort is put into writing a good research report because it is often the only part of the research cycle that end users get to see! A great research based on a well-conceived approach will go to waste if the research report leaves a bad impression on the end users of that research The business researcher should carefully consider how he or she is going to communicate the information to the end user The business researcher should take pains to ensure that he/she and the research end-user are at the same communicational level, i.e., that the terminology used in the report is understandable and that the end-user is presented with all the information neded to make an informed decision

LAYOUT OF A RESEARCH REPORT. Basically a report is divided into two types. Namely, The general section and The research content or body of report. I. General section includes the following Title Pages: This is the cover page, which shows the title of the research but whom it is conducted and to whom it is submitted. Declaration of the researcher. Here the research guide for the originality of the research conducted by the researcher under his supervision. Acknowledgement: In this section the researcher acknowledges the help and assistance of various people for this research. Table of Content: This table explains the contents of the research along with the sections and page numbers on which they can be found. List of Tables and Graphs: Here the researcher give the index of all the tables and graphs used in the research and page numbers on which they can be found. II .The research content or Body of the Report:
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This part contains the main part of the research. It will be divided into five chapter, which are as follows. Introduction: This chapter gives brief introduction of the research. This is divided into two parts. Theoretical part and industrial background. This chapter gives the background and the nature of the problem in a conceptual framework. This is useful to give conceptual clarity of research. Research Design: This chapter basically explains the methodology followed by the researcher. In simple words, it explains what is the problem of the research, why was it selected, what is the importance and scope of the research. What methodology is followed, what is the type of the study, how was the study conducted. Profile of Sample; This section explains various features of sample, the sample technique followed, the demographic, economic, and psycho graphic profile of the sample. Analysis: This chapter analysis data in accordance with the objectives of the study. The tables are followed by analysis and interpretation, graph and diagram. This is the most important part of the research; hence enough care must be taken. Summary of findings: This chapter summarizes the research and offers suggestions. In addition with these chapters there are two more selections, namely, bibliography and appendix. Bibliography gives information on various references made by the research. This is classified into four parts, namely, books, journals, newspapers and magazines and websites. While mentioning the reference books used, the order should be as follows. Authors Name, Title of the book, Publishers name, Place of Publication and Year of publication. It should be noted that while mentioning authors name surname should come first. Ex: The researcher has used, Philip Kotlers, Principle of Marketing Books, it should be written as follows, Kotler Philip, Principles of Marketing, Printing Hall of India, New Delhi, 12th edition 2008. If a research article in a journal is referred, it should be explained as follows, Authors name, Title of the article, Name of the journal, year and month of publications volume and page number. It should be remembered that the title of the article would always be in quotations. If there are two or more authors instead of writing all names, first authors name followed by etc, all. Ex: If an article is written by three authors, it is mentioned as follows Arun etc all Understanding service quality perception in the Health care Industry, journal on services marketing, April - June 2008 volume XXV page number 143-160.
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In case of appendix, certain important documents like copy of questionnaire, balance sheet, etc are attached. Points to be considered while writing a research report. Writing a research report is based on certain standard practices, the researcher should Consider the following points while writing a report. 1. The report should be properly organized into different chapters. The chapters must have proper headings and sub-headings, each chapter heading and sub-heading must be consecutively numbered as per the standard practices. 2. The style of presentation should be carefully designed; it should be objective and unbiased. 3. The report should disclose facts with accuracy, clarity, coherence and conciseness. The report must be readable. The researcher should not use offensive words, useless words, superfluous terms (exaggerated), words etc. 4. He should avoid clich of stereotype words. Ex: last but not the least, in the first place, by a large. 5. He should avoid using slangs. Ex: The customers shave fallen for Brand X. 6. The presentation should be free from grammatical errors. He should be very careful regarding punctuations, using capital letter, voice and gender. 7. The researcher should be careful in using numerals for the general section. He can use roman numbers and for the body of the report, he can use Arabic numbers. 8. Whenever he uses quotation, he should put that in quotes, give double spacing and mention the source or the author's name. 9. As far as possible the researcher should avoid using abbreviations. Ex; Instead of writing Marketing, he should not write Marketing. 10. Each table must be properly numbered and titled. 11. Wherever necessary he should give proper footnotes, are explanation of a content or reference of a document. The purpose of footnote is to acknowledge the use of information from a source, to establish the validity of evidence and to give the reader the source of reference. 12. Footnotes may be placed either at the bottom of the concerned page of at the end of the concerned chapter 13. Footnotes must be consecutively numbered Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following: 1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. The main text of the report should have the following parts:
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(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part. (b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised. (c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections. (d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up. At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.

The Research Proposal

The research proposal is: A written statement of the research design Includes an explanation of the research studys purpose and the problem definition Outlines the research methodology and procedures that will be utilized throughout the research study Includes information on cost and deadlines Research proposals must be as specific and clear as possible about what is to be achieved and how it is to be achieved. Questionnaires and other supporting documents should be attached for reference

Outline of Research Study proposal

Outline of the Research work proposed should be drawn as per the following guidelines. 1. Objectives:- The focus and orientation of the study may be indicated and specific objectives spelt out. 2. Hypotheses to be tested:- The hypotheses to be tested may be indicated and specific objectives spelt out. 3. Type and method:- The extent to which the proposed study is reflective or empirical may be indicated. It may also be clarified whether it is intended to utilize data already available or whether collection of primary data is aimed at . In the former case it may be
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4. 5.

6. 7.

8. 9.

indicated whether the available data are in published from or whether they are still unpublished. Relevant sources of data may be listed in all cases. Where collection of primary data aimed at, the approach should be spelt out as to whether it would be a sample survey or a case study. Relevance of the study to improve plan formulation and implementation should be discussed in concrete terms. Major variable for data collection and analysis: The important variables on which data are to be collected and their sources should be indicated. Concepts and definitions to be followed in the study should be defined and important lines of analysis spelt out. Statistical design:- In case fresh survey is to be taken up for primary data.sampling design as well as broad content of the schedules and questionnaire may be given. Tabulation arrangements:- Time phasing of the tabulation programme where primary data are proposed to be collected and also where secondary data are proposed to be utilized may be drawn up. For case study: the number of units proposed to be studied and the method and justification for their selection may be indicated. Synopsis: Synopsis of chapter plan of the report may also be given , if possible RESEARCH PROPOSEL-IMPORTANT POINTS

Background 1. Why is this research important? 2. What other studies have there been in this area? 3. How will this research add to knowledge in this area? 4. What do you want to find out? 5. What is the main question you wish to answer? 6. What are the specific questions you will ask to address the main question? How you will do your research 1. Will you be doing this research on your own or with others? 2. Have you provided full details of anyone else you intend to carry out this research with, including fieldworkers? 3. Who are you targeting in this research? 4. How many people or case files do you intend to interview or read through? 5. Where will the research take place? 6. Will participants be clearly and fully informed of the purpose of the research study? 7. How will you do this? 8. How will participants be clear about the expectations of the researcher? 9. Do you have an information sheet and a consent form forparticipants? 10. Supervisory arrangements - how do you intend your researchto be supervised and monitored and by whom? 11. Who will be funding your research?
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3. Timetable 1. When will your research start and finish? 2. Are there particular stages to the research - e.g. piloting, thenmain research?If so, what are they? 3. Is the timetable realistic? 4. Is it influenced by external constraints or deadlines? 5. How will you provide regular updates and progress reports and to whom will you provide them?

4. Methodology 1. What sort of data will you be collecting e.g. are you intending to count numbers, talk to people directly or a mixture of the two? 2. What is the main method you will use to carry out the research - e.g. questionnaire, faceto-face interviews, focus groups, paper reviews etc.? 3. How will you select your sample? 4. How will you recruit your sample? 5. How will you collect your data? 6. Will you be paying participants? Example

RESEARCH PROPOSEL TO STUDY RETENTION OF NEW EMPLOYEES

Purpose of the study
a. Draw up a profile of the employees who quit; b. Assess if there are any special needs of the new recruits that require to be met c. Determine the reasons for employees leaving the organization in the first three years

Relevance of the study: Due to various reasons most of the newly recruited employees are leaving from different sectors irrespective of their position or rank. S0 such a sensitive problem should be analyzed for better HR practices. Research Design
Sample: 60% of the individuals who have joined the company within the last three years 55

Sampling method- simple random sampling Survey instruments- questionnaire, personal interview Data collection- questionnaire will collect on particular day and personal interviews will be conducted during office hours Data Analysis- appropriate data analytic techniques will use Report A written report will be submitted within 2 months of the commencements of the study. Timetable: Prepare proposal by 1 April

Complete literature review by 15 April Complete fieldwork by Complete analysis by Give presentation on 22 May 29 May 3 June

Complete final report by 16 June Budget- Data collectionAnalysis-----------Report Transport Total 2000 1000 1500 500 = 5000/

Assignment Prepare a research proposal for The feasibility study on canteen facility in your campus

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Report format
A-PREFATORY PARTS

CONTENTS
Executive Summary

List of Tables

List of Figures

ii

Abbreviations

iii

B- Main body
CHAPTER I: Introduction 1.1. Statement of the Problem 1.2. Significance of the Study 1.3. Objectives of the Study 1.4. Hypotheses of the Study 1.5. Review of Literature 1.6. Methodological Design of the Study 1.7. Sampling Design 1.8 Tools for Analysis 1.9 Reference Period 1.10 Limitations of the Study 1.11 Chapterisation

CHAPTER II Theoretical Framework of the Study

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CHAPTER III: Analysis and Interpretation

CHAPTER IV: Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Suggestions

C- APPENDED PARTS
Bibliography

Appendices i) Data CollectionForms ii) General Tables

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Important questions
1. Why should managers study research Methodology? 2. Significance of research in business: 3. What you meant by Scientific method of research and how is it important in Business Research? 4. Explain the Seven steps in a research process: 5. Explain the various Types of Research: 6. What is a research problem? How is it formulating? 7. Explain the role of Review of Literature in research 8. Define hypothesis- How it is formulating? What are the major types of hypothesis? 9. Describe with relevant examples, the popular scales using in business research, 10. Critically examine the Data collection methods of business research. 11. Critically examine the Probability and Non-Probability Sampling methods 12. Explain the different Types of Survey Methods. 13 What you meant by a Questionnaire? Explain its features. 14. Critically examine the role Scientific Observation as datacollection method 15. Distinguish between Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 16. How Parametric and non-parametric tests are using in data analysis? 17. Define ANOVA. How is its important in Business Research? 18 Explain the important characteristics of well written reports
19. Explain, with a relevant example, what is a research proposal? 20. Explain the major components of a research report and prepare a model of the Research Report.

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