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Chapter # Title 35 Nervous System

Summary
351 Human Body Systems Cells of multicellular organisms are specialized for certain functions. The levels of organization in a multicellular organism include cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. A cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living things. Specialized cells are suited to perform a particular function. Groups of similar cells work together to form tissues. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces. Connective tissue supports the body and connects its parts. Nervous tissue carries messages throughout the body. Muscle tissue allows movement. Groups of tissues that work together to perform complex functions are called organs. Organs form organ systems. Organ systems work together to keep conditions in the body stable. This process is called homeostasis. Homeostasis is the process by which organisms keep internal conditions relatively constant, despite changes in external environments. Homeostasis may involve feedback inhibition, or negative feedback. For example, the nervous system senses when the body cools and signals the cells to give off more heat. 352 The Nervous System The nervous system controls and coordinates body functions. It responds to internal and external stimuli. Messages move through the nervous system as electrical signals. The signals are called impulses. Neurons are nerve cells. Each neuron has a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body is the largest part of a typical neuron. It holds the nucleus. Short branches, called dendrites, carry impulses toward the cell body. A long fiber, called the axon, carries impulses away from the cell body. A myelin sheath covers and insulates parts of some axons. A synapse is at the end of an axon. One neuron transfers an impulse to another at the synapse. Chemicals called neurotransmitters send impulses across the synapse. There are three types of neurons: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. Sensory neurons carry impulses to the spinal cord. Motor neurons carry impulses from the spinal cord. Interneurons link sensory and motor neurons.

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A resting neuron is one that is not carrying an impulse. When a neuron is resting, the inside of the cell has a net negative charge. The outside of the cell has a net positive charge. This charge difference across the cell membrane is called the resting potential of the neuron. When a resting neuron is stimulated by another neuron or by the environment, an impulse starts. Positive ions flow into the neuron making the inside of the cell temporarily more positive than the outside of the cell. This reversal of charges across the membrane is the impulse, or action potential. Once started, the action potential travels quickly down the neurons axon. At the end of the axon, impulses can be transmitted to the next cell. 353 Divisions of the Nervous System The nervous system has two major divisions: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. 1) The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. It is the control center of the body. It sends messages, processes information, and analyzes information. The brain and spinal cord are protected by bone and three layers of connective tissue. Fluid between the layers cushions and protects nerve tissue. The brain has several regions. The cerebrum controls voluntary actions. The cerebellum coordinates involuntary actions. The brain stem controls basic body functions. The thalamus receives impulses from the senses and sends them to the cerebrum.The hypothalamus connects the nervous and endocrine systems. The spinal cord connects the brain with the rest of the body. Some reflexes are processed in the spinal cord. A reflex is a quick, automatic response to a stimulus. Sneezing is an example. The path of an impulse during a reflex is called the reflex arc. 2) The peripheral nervous system has two divisions. The sensory division sends impulses from sensory neurons to the central nervous system. The motor division sends impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands. The motor division is further divided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system controls voluntary actions. The autonomic nervous system regulates activities that are automatic. These nerves control functions that are not under conscious control.

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354 The Senses Sensory receptors are neurons that react to stimuli in the environment. These receptors send impulses to the central nervous system. There are five types of sensory receptors. Pain receptors respond to pain. Thermoreceptors respond to temperature. Mechanoreceptors respond to pressure. Chemoreceptors respond to chemicals. Photoreceptors respond to light. The sensory organ responsible for vision is the eye. Light enters the eye through the pupil. The pupil is a small opening at the front of the eye. Light then moves through the lens, which focuses the light on the retina. The retina contains photoreceptors called rods and cones. Rods are sensitive to dim light. Cones are sensitive to colors. Ears respond to sound stimuli. Sound vibrations enter the ear and create pressure waves in the fluid-filled cochlea. Sensory receptors in the cochlea send impulses to the brain. Ears also sense balance. Semicircular canals in the ear contain fluid, hair cells, and tiny grains. Movements make the grains bend the hair cells, which send an impulse to the brain. Chemoreceptors in the nose react to chemicals in the air and send impulses to the brain. Taste buds are sense organs that detect taste. Most taste buds are located on a persons tongue. The skin is the largest sense organ. It has receptors that respond to temperature, touch, and pain. 355 Drugs and the Nervous System A drug is any substance, other than food, that changes the structure or function of the body. Several types of drugs affect the nervous system. Stimulants increase heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate. Depressants decrease heart rate and breathing rate, lower blood pressure, relax muscles, and relieve tension. Opiates act like natural brain chemicals called endorphins. These brain chemicals normally help overcome pain. Opiates are highly addictive. Marijuana can cause memory and concentration problems. Alcohol is a depressant that slows down the rate at which the central nervous system functions. Drug abuse can be defined as the intentional misuse of any drug for nonmedical purposes. Addiction is an uncontrollable dependence on a drug.

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