Discrete Structures LOGIC

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Why Are We Studying Logic?

A few of the many reasons: Logic is the foundation for computer operation. Logical conditions are common in programs: Selection: if (score <= max) { ... } Iteration: while (i<limit && list[i]!=sentinel) ... All manner of structures in computing have properties that need to
be proven (and proofs that need to be understood). Examples: Trees, Graphs, Recursive Algorithms, . . . Programs can be proven correct. Computational linguistics must represent and reason about human language, and language represents thought (and thus also logic).
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PROPOSITION
A statement or a proposition, is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both. example 4 is less than 3 7 is an even integer Washington, DC, is the capital of United State

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Example
Is 2 a positive number? Study logic What is your name? Quiet, please.
The above sentences are not propositions. Why ? (i) & (iii) : is question, not a statement Roselina Sallehuddin and (ii)& (iv) : is aprepared byRazana Alwee command

Examples
i) x is an integer ii)The sun will come out tomorrow

Not Propositions ? Why

We do not know at this time / determine whether it is true / false

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CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are: compound propositions formed in English with the word and, formed in logic with the caret symbol ( ), and true only when both participating propositions are true.

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TRUTH TABLE Truth tables aid in the evaluation of compound propositions

p q

T T F F

T F T F

T F F F

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EXAMPLE
p : 2 is an even integer q : 3 is an odd number pq 2 is an even integer and 3 is an odd number p : today is Monday q : it is hot pq today is Monday and it is hot
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EXAMPLES
p : 2 divides 4 q : 2 divides 6 pq 2 divides 4 and 2 divides 6. is also written as, 2 divides both 4 and 6.

p : 5 is an integer q : 5 is not an odd integer pq 5 is an integer and 5 is not an odd integer. is also written as, 5 is an integer but 5 is not an odd integer.
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DISJUNCTION
compound propositions formed in English with the word or, formed in logic with the caret symbol ( V ), and true when one or both participating propositions are true. Let p and q be propositions The disjunction of p and q, written p q is the statement formed by putting statements p and q together using the word or. The symbol is called or
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DISJUNCTION
TRUTH TABLE FOR p V q
P q pV q

T T F F

T F T F

T T T F

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EXAMPLES
p : 2 is an integer q : 3 is greater than 5 pq 2 is an integer or 3 is greater thanp : 1+1=3 5 q : A decade is 10 years pq 1+1=3 or a decade is 10 years p : 3 is an even integer q : 3 is an odd integer pq 3 is an even integer or 3 is an odd integer or 3 is an even integer or an oddSallehuddin and integer prepared by Roselina
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NEGATION
Negating a proposition simply flips its value. Symbols representing negation include: x , x , x (NOT) x, Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, written p is the statement obtained by negating statement p.
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TRUTH TABLE - NEGATION

The truth table of p

P T F

P F T

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EXAMPLES
p : 2 is positive p, It is not the case that 2 is positive or 2 is not positive

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EXERCISES
GIVE THE NEGATION OF EACH OF THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS i) It will rain tomorrow ii)5 is an even number

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Exercises
In each of the following, form the conjunction and the disjunction of p and q P: I will drive my car q: I will be late

P : NUM > 10

q : NUM 15

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Conditional Propositions
Let p and q be propositions. if p, then q is a statement called a conditional proposition, written pq

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CONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS
False if p = True and q=fal se

The truth table of p q Cause and effect relationship

p q p q

True : p false for any value of q

T T F F

T F T F

T F T T
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example
p : today is Sunday q : I will go for a walk pq If today is Sunday, then I will go for a walk p : I get a bonus q : I will buy a new car pq If I get a bonus, then I will buy a new car

p : x/2 is an integer q : x is an even integer pq if x/2 is an integer, then x is an even integer

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Biconditional
Let p and q be propositions. p if and only if q is a statement called a biconditional proposition, written pq

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Biconditional
The truth table of p q p q p q

T T F F

T F T F

T F F T

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EXAMPLES
p : my program will compile q : it has no syntax error pq My program will compile if and only if it has no syntax error. p : x is divisible by 3 q : x is divisible by 9 pq p:x<6 x is divisible by 3 if and only if x q : x3 < is divisible by 9

pq x < 6 if and only if x3 < 3

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exercises
Propositions p, q, r and s are defined as follows: p is "I shall finish my Coursework Assignment" q is "I shall work for forty hours this week" r is "I shall pass Maths" s is "I like Maths" Write each sentence in symbols: (a) I shall not finish my Coursework Assignment. (b) I dont like Maths, but I shall finish my Coursework Assignment. (c) If I finish my Coursework Assignment, I shall pass Maths. (d) I shall pass Maths only if I work for forty hours this week and finish my Coursework Assignment. Write each expression as a sensible (if untrue!) English sentence: (e) q p (f) p r

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solution
(a) p (b) s p (c) p r (d) r (q p) (e) I shall work for forty hours this week, or Ill finish my Coursework Assignment. (f) If I shall not finish my Coursework Assignment, then I shant pass Maths.

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Precedence of Logical Connectives

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Construct the truth table for, A = (p q) (q p)

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Truth table
p q (pV q) (pVq) (q p) A

T T F F

T F T F

T T T F

F F F T

T F F F

T T T F
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EXERCISES
Construct the truth table for each of the following statements: pq (p q) q ( p q) q (p q) ( q p)

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Logical Equivalence
The compound propositions Q dan R are made up of the propositions p1, , pn. Q and R are logically equivalent and write,

QR
provided that given any truth values of p1, , pn, either Q and R are both true or Q and R are both false.

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example Q=pq R= q p Show that, Q R

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example
The truth table shows that, Q R p q pq q p

T T F F

T F T F

T F T T
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T F T T
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example
Show that, (p q) p q

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example
The truth table shows that, (p q) p q p q (p q) pq

T T F F

T F T F

F T F F
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F T F F
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EXERCISE
Given, R = p ( q r) Q = p (q r) State whether or not R Q.

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exercise
For each pair of expressions, construct truth tables to see if the two compound propositions are logically equivalent: (a) (i) p (q p) (ii) p q (b) (i) (p q) (p q) (ii) (p q) (p q)

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(a) Yes; both results columns give T, T, T, F (b) No; first is F, T, T, F; second is T, F, F, T

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Basic logical equivalences

Let p, q and r be propositions Idempotent laws ppp ppp
TRUTH TABLE

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Basic logical equivalences

double negation law pp Commutative laws pqqp pqqp

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Basic logical equivalences

Associative laws (p q) r p (q r) (p q) r p (q r) Distributive laws p (q r) (p q) (p r) p (q r) (p q) (p r) Absorption laws p (p q) p p (p q) p
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PROVE

PROVE

solution

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solution

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Basic logical equivalences

De Morgans laws (p q) ( p) ( q) (p q) ( p) ( q)

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The truth table for, (p q) ( p) ( q)

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Propositional functions p, q and r are defined as follows: p is "n = 7" q is "a > 5" r is "x = 0" Write the following expressions in terms of p, q and r, and show that each pair of expressions is logically equivalent. State carefully which of the above laws are used at each stage

(a) ((n = 7) (a > 5))(x = 0) ((n = 7) (x = 0)) ((a > 5)(x = 0)) (b) ((n = 7) (a 5)) (n 7) (a > 5) (c) (n = 7) (((a 5) (x = 0))) ((nprepared by (a Sallehuddin (x 0) = 7) Roselina > 5)) and
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solution
(a) (p q) r (p r) (q r) (p q) r= r (p q) Commutative Law = (r p) (r q) Distributive Law = (p r) (qr) Commutative Law (twice) (b) First, we note that q is "a 5"; and p is "n 7". So the expressions are: (p q) p q (p q)= p (q) De Morgan's Law = p q Involution Law
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First, we note that r is "x 0". So the expressions are: p ((q r)) (p q) r p ((q r))= p ((q) r)De Morgan's Law = p (q r) = (p q) r Double negation Law Associative Law

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Proof Techniques
Direct Proof or Proof by Direct Method

Proof of those theorems that can be expressed in the form x (P(x) Q(x)), D is the domain of discourse Select a particular, but arbitrarily chosen, member a of the domain D Show that the statement P(a) Q(a) is true. (Assume that P(a) is true Show that Q(a) is true By the rule of Universal Generalization (UG), x (P(x) Q(x)) is true

Proof Techniques
Direct Proof - Example for all integer x, if x is odd, then x2 is odd Or P(x) = x is an odd integer Q(x) = x2 is an odd integer

x( P ( x) Q ( x )) the domain of discourse is set Z of all ,

Can verify the theorem for certain value of x. x=3, x2 =9 ; odd

integer

Proof Techniques
a is an odd integer

a 2n 1

for some integer n

a 2 (2n 1) 2 a 2 4n 2 4n 1 a 2 2(2n 2 2n) 1 a 2 2m 1 a 2 is an odd integer

where m= 2n2 +2n is an integer

Proof Techniques
Indirect Proof

The implication p q is equivalent to the implication (q p) Therefore, in order to show that p q is true, one can also show that the implication (q p) is true To show that (q p) is true, assume that the negation of q is true and prove that the negation of p is true

Indirect Proof - Example P(n) : n2+3 is an odd number Q(n) : n is even numbern 3 (2k 1)
2 2

n ( P ( n ) Q ( 4k)) 4k 1 3 n
4k 2 4 k 4
2

2k 2 P ( n ) Q ( n ) ~ Q ( n)2(~k 2)( n ) P

~Q(n) is true , n is not even, n is odd so n=2k+1

n
2

3 (2 k 1)
2 2

4 k 4 k

4 k 1 3 4 k 4
2

2 (2 k

2 k 2 )

t 2k 2 2k 2 n 2 3 2t

t is integer

n2+3 is an even integer, thus ~P(n) is true

Proof Techniques
Proof by Contradiction Assume that the conclusion is not true and then arrive at a contradiction Example: Prove that there are infinitely many prime numbers Proof: Assume there are not infinitely many prime numbers, therefore they are listable, i.e. p1,p2,,pn Consider the number q = p1p2pn+1. q is not divisible by any of the listed primes Therefore, q is a prime. However, it was not listed. Contradiction! Therefore, there are infinitely many primes

Proof Techniques