DISCUSSION

a) Importance of studying earth resistance and resistivity,

Earth resistivity measurements and studying is a very important in electrical installations because soil resistivity directly affects the design of the grounding system. When designing an extensive grounding system it should locate the area of lowest earth resistivity in order to achieve the most economical one. Studying of earth resistivity data also used to sub-surface geophysical surveys as an aid in identifying ore locations, depth to bedrock and other geological phenomena. When laying underground pipelines soil resistivity measurements of soil needed for use treatment for avoid corrosions in the pipes.

b) Importance of bringing the earth resistance to a desirable value,

As mentioned above it is more important in studying about earth resistance and earth resistivity when we concern about grounding of electrical systems. Grounding of electrical systems have many benefits to electrical equipments and as well as to people who are interact with electrical systems. Following are some benefits gain by grounding a electrical system. Protect people from electrical shocks. To activate the protective devices in case of an insulation fault. Protect plant and equipments from damage. Limit voltage due to lightning. To Reduce electromagnetic interference Reduce power factor problems.

Therefore it is essential to bring the earth resistance and earth resistivity to a desirable value. Earth resistance and earth resistivity depends on several factors. Such as Soil type Soil temperature Chemical Composition Moisture content When the soil type is different from place to place earth resistivity is also different from place to place. As an example in sandy gravel earth resistivity is about 300-500m while in rocks it is more than 1000m. Therefore we have to choose proper method of grounding to obtain minimum earth resistance for grounding terminal to make proper safety to electrical systems and consumers. We can decide the depth of which electrode is to be driven and the type of grounding method. We also have to concern about the corrosion of the rod. Therefore finally we can design a feasible grounding system by studying all of the above factors.

There are four standard methods of grounding. Those are Single rod method, Multiple rod method Using copper plates Conductors mesh method.

When we choose the desirable value not only the type of the soil, we have to check also the type of the rod we are going to use.

c)

Normal range of earth resistance,

Here are few facts on which the earth resistivity is heavily dependent. Moisture percentage Temperature Dissolved salt content

The resistivity of the soil varies widely throughout the world and seasonally. Therefore earth resistance differs from place to place. Earth resistance is depend on the contents of electrolytes, mineral, moisture and dissolved salt. The resistivity range can go from 0.01 /cm to the upwards of over 10,000/m. If the moisture level is high the resistance is lower. In dry soils the resistance is very high. Therefore the resistive is very much depends on the type of the soil.

d) Suggestions to reduce the earth resistance to a desirable value,

Adding mixture of salt and water to the soil that has a high resistivity Adding salt, charcoal and sand mixture to the soil
Use a larger grounding electrode. Increase the burying depth of the grounding electrode. Use more than one electrode. Use a plate electrode rather than a pipe electrode such that area of contact with the ground of the electrode is increased. Soil types such as clay, loam and brine have relatively low resistivity, and thus they can be used to reduce the earth resistance

THEORY
(a) Determination of earth resistance (i) earth resistance of an earth electrode (small depth of insertion) Consider an earth electrode of radius r driven vertically into the earth. Assume the depth of insertion is small and that only a hemispherical portion is in contact with the earth as shown below.

x dx Consider an elemental hemisphere of soil of radius x and thickness dx. Its resistance dR can be expressed as

Where,

is the resistivity of the soil.

If the earth is assumed homogeneous the total resistance is given by

(ii) earth resistance of an earth electrode (rod or pipe) Consider an earth electrode of radius r0 driven vertically into the ground to a depth of l. consider a concentric layer of soil of thickness dx at a distance x as shown below. This layer is a thin cylinder above the tip end and is a hemisphere below the tip of the electrode.

dx

r0

The resistance of this is given by

From which, the total resistance of the earth electrode is given by

[ ]

In both cases considered, if the current passes to the earth through the electrode the voltage variation along the surface of the earth is of the form shown below. Vx

(iii) Measurement of earth resistance

Vx

d Consider the earth electrode E and current electrode C to be supplied by a source E 0 as shown. The voltage difference Vx between the electrode E and the potential electrode P will vary in manner similar to that of figure above near the earth electrode and near the current electrode. Also in the current region, there will be negligible voltage variation. The total variation of voltage along the earth surface is shown in figure 1. From this figure the maximum voltage drop along the earth surface due to electrode E may be assumed equal to E1 Vx

Vx E2

E2

E1 X Figure 01

E1 X Figure 02

Under these conditions the current driven into the earth through this electrode is I 1 and the earth resistance of the electrode is given as R = E1/I1 . The distance between two current carrying electrodes should be sufficiently large in order to obtain full voltage E without any significant error. Otherwise the voltage measured will be less than E1 as shown in figure 2. The resistance areas of the two electrodes should not overlap.

(b) Determination of earth resistivity I I

A r1 x dx B

r2

r4 r3

A and D are current electrodes though which the current I is supplied. B and C are potential electrodes across which the potential is measured. Consider the voltage drop across the thin layer of radius x and thickness dx as shown in figure with voltage across is dV and resistance dR.

The components of the voltage measured are due to the current in A, Due to the current in the Rod D, So that

Wenner method We have chosen the values of distances between the electrodes such a way that easy for calculations, as AB = BC =CD = A, then

CALCULATIONS
Variation of apparent earth resistivity with depth of layer Electrode Span A (m) 10.0 7.5 5.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 Potential Electrode Voltage V 0.4 0.3 0.5 1.5 5.7 3.7 Earth Current I (mA) 370 210 200 230 530 300

According to Wenner method, Earth Resistivity Where, A = distance between two electrodes V = potential electrode Voltage I = Earth current

When A=10 m, = 67.926 When A=7.5 m, = 67.619 When A=5.0 m, = 78.539 When A=3.0 m, = 122.932 When A=2.0 m, = 135.148 When A=1.5 m, = 116.239

Variation of Earth Resistance with Depth of Electrode

400

350

300

250

Earth Resistance ()

200

150

100

50

0 0 0.5 1 Depth (m) 1.5 2 2.5

Variation of Earth Resistance of Earth Electrode E with position of Potential Electrode P

200

175

150

Earth Resistance ()

125

100

75

50

25

0 0 5 10 15 20 Distance between earth Electrode (m)

MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

Instructed by

: Mr.M.W. Kumara Name Index no Group Field Conducted on Submitted on : W.A.I.S.Kasthurirathne : 090253H : G6 : Electrical Engineering : 26/09/2011 : 17/10/2011