Control de Migración de Gas

CONTROL DE LA MIGRACION DE GAS
1. Gas Migration - Introduction

Annular fluid migration, which can occur during drilling or well completion procedures, consists of the invasion of formation fluids into the annulus, because of a pressure imbalance at the formation face. It manifests itself mainly by the appearance of gas at the top of the annulus or by interzonal gas flow in the wellbore. Gas migration is also known as: - gas communication - gasleakage - annular gas flow - gas channeling after cementing - gas invasion The various studies of gas migration have lead to a varied number of concepts to minimize the problem. They include simply adhering to, and reinforcing good cementing practices, in addition to mechanical and chemical means. In some areas of the world gas migration is a significant problem as an environmental concern and unacceptable safety hazard when gas migration to surface occurs.
MIGRACION DE GAS
Razones Paso del gas Consecuencias Soluciones (Lechadas) Soluciones mecanicas (ECP, packers) Tecnologia DOWELL
2 Gas Migration
Agenda
Rutas y Causas de la Migracion

Canales
Falla de remocion efectiva del lodo Agua libre
Perdida de la Hidrostatica o Hidrostatica insuficiente

Gelificacion Encogimiento Perdida de Filtrado
Perdida del sello entre cemento y formacion

Deshidratacion de la torta de filtrado Encogimiento Esfuerzos de fondo de pozo
Gas Migration
Gas Migration: Causes and routes of gas migration

Causes of gas migration are due to a combination of many factors, amongst which are: 1. Failure to effectively displace the drilling fluid and replace with cement allowing a good seal to be achieved. 2. Channeling of cement through mud Contamination of cement by mud
Insufficient or loss of pressure exerted by the cement and the annular fluids column at the gas zone level before the cement achieves strength. Density of annular fluids too low Insufficient fill-up Lost circulation
3. Failure of cement to casing and/or formation interface. Overpressured casing Temperature fluctuation Poor cement quality Pipe surface preparation
Remocion insuficiente del lodo

Canal de Lodo
Torta de filtrado del lodo
Gas Migration
Gas Migration Causes and routes of gas migration

Efficient mud removal is a pre-requisite for controlling annular fluid migration. Regardless of the quality of cement slurry, continuous mud channels in the annulus, either within the cement or at interfaces between two permeable zones will favor annular flow. Proper mud removal techniques to minimize gas leakage include: Mud conditioning: cement will only displace mobile mud Conditioning reduce gel strength, fluid loss and rheology of the mud and give a stable wellbore before cementing will increase displacement efficiency. A minimum of one complete, calipered hole volume at efficient rate is recommended before cementing. Casing centralization: to minimize eccentricity and promote all-around flow of displacing fluids to minimize channeling and gas migration routes. Centralizer loading should be determined using CemCADE Normally 2/jt ( minimum) are recommended across gas zones. Casing movement ( reciprocation/rotation ) during mud conditioning and cementing to help mobilize mud in washed out sections. Choose and use correct pre-flushes spacers to prevent cement contamination and help contribute hydrostatic pressure above gas zones A contact time of 10 minutes to be recommended for turbulent flow, or 600 ft spacer length for effective laminar flow techniques. CemCADE computer determination of placement technique, using WELLCLEAN preferably in turbulent flow.
Agua Libre
Canal de agua libre
Zona de Gas
Cemento
Gas Migration
Gas Migration: Free Water

In deviated holes, free water can coalesce to form a continuous channel on the upper side of the hole creating a channel through which the gas can flow. Stable cement slurries which develop essentially no free water, or less than 0.25%, are recommended. The use of the D604, a dispersant specifically designed for zero free water cement slurries, and anti-settling agents is recommended (eg. D153, D154). The API Operating Free Water Test does not cover the testing of slurries for deviated wells. The test is performed by conditioning the slurry in a pressurized consistometer to the BHCT before free water is determined. If testing is performed at a 45 angle, the most severe case, the results would cover all cases.
Presion Hidrostatica Insuficiente
Gas Migration

During the transition liquid to solid, the pressure in the cement column declines as the cement begins to set due to gel strength development. If the cement pore pressure falls sufficiently such that the total hydrostatic pressure of the annular column falls down to that of formation, gas or fluid entry will occur. When in the liquid state, gas will percolate through the cement if the hydrostatic pressure is equal to the formation pressure. The cement density must be high enough for this to be prevented without exceeding the fracture gradient. The path which the migrating gas takes through the cement matrix remains the subject of some debate. One proposition ( Halco ) is that the gas percolates through the cement slurry as gel strength is developing. When sufficient gel strength ( 500lft/100 ft2 ) is attained, gas flow will be stopped. such percolation would involve the shearing and macroscopic disruption of cement paste structure by large gas bubble. Gel strength development would have to be rapid and the period between the time the required strength is attained and setting starts has to be very short to stop gas flow. Dowell proposes that initially smaller, bubbles leave the formation, enter the cement and then move through the interconnected porosity in the fragile cement structure as it sets. This may progress to percolation higher in the annulus where the structure is weaker and gas expansive forces greater. Thus if the cement pores can be plugged and cement permeability be reduced, and at the same time gel strength development be delayed and fluid loss reduced, gas migration would be blocked. If flow is establish through the selling cement then channels will be available for gas flow through the matrix once the cement is set.
Integridad del Cemento
Gas Migration
Presion Hidrostatica vs. Hidratacion

Fluido Cemento Pastoso Nobombeable Cemento fraguado Baja R.C. Alta porosidad Cemento duro Alta C.S.
Periodo durmiente Despues de este punto gas puede migrar
Hidrostatica
8
Presion de Formacion
Gas Migration
Tiempo

The overhead figure depicts the behavior of the hydrostatic pressure of a setting cement slurry. Once the hydrostatic pressure falls below the formation pressure gas may enter the wellbore and migrate upwards before the cement sets. The transition period from when the slurry is in a liquid state where the cement permeability is low enough to prevent gas migration is critical. The pressure reduction occurs in stages and can be described as below. Cement slurry is in the liquid state: Initially the slurry is fluid and can transmit pressure. There are no intergranular stresses between particles and hydrostatic pressures are fully transmitted thus preventing any inflow of formation fluids/gases. Cement slurry is in the transition phase: Once in static the cement starts to build up some shear strength. Physically, this means that the slurry can undertake an infinite deformation, or flow, only if the applied shear is higher than the shear strength. This gel strength describes the development of a structure inside the cement matrix, and the development of intergranular stresses. The process is entirely dependent on the cement slurry composition. The static gel strength represents the shear stress below which the cement behaves as a solid and above which it behaves as a liquid. When the gel strength gets higher than the gel stress corresponding to gravity forces, the cement becomes self supporting. Cement slurry is in the solid phase: During the transition period C-S-H gel precipitates and water is consumed. This hydration process leads to an absolute volume reduction ( chemical shrinkage ) as the hydrates formed occupy less space than the water and anhydrous cement from which they were formed. Therefore an extra porosity made of well inter-connected pores is created. This volume reduction is accompanied by a large decrease in pore pressure below that of the water gradient. Set cement permeability to gas will be very low . 0.10 mD This compare to cement permeability to water, 0.01mD, and gas permeability of sandstones of 0.1 to 2,00- mD. Gas will be unable to move through cement matrix unless channels or interfacial paths have been formed.
NOTES:
Encogimiento
58% Agua 58% Agua
42% cemento 42% cemento
100% Lechada 100% Lechada
75% slidos 75% slidos 20% microporosidad 20% microporosidad 4 a 6% encogimiento 4 a 6% encogimiento
Contraccion Quimica: 4-6% (volumen)

9 Gas Migration
Gas Migration: Causes of gas migration

As cement hydration takes place, cement intergranular stresses increase because of the intergrowth of calcium silicate hydrates. The hydration is responsible for an absolute volume reduction on the cement matrix, also called cement chemical contraction. The volume of the crystallized phases is less than the sum of the volumes of cement particles and water which have been combined through hydration. The volume change proceeds continuously, though at different rates, from the time of cement mixing to the time of hardening several weeks or months later. It is very high during cement setting (hydration of C3S. Cement shrinkage is split between a bulk (or outer) shrinkage and a matrix (or inner) shrinkage. Inner shrinkage creates, at the time of cement setting, a secondary or extra porosity of free and interconnected pores. This increases cement permeability and favors gas migration through the cement matrix. The maximum or inner contraction accounts for several percent by volume (normally 'quoted as 4 -6% by volume of cement). The volume decrease is translated into a drastic pressure drop in the interstitial pores due to the incompressibility of cement and water. Neat and conventional cement systems can be considered to be dimensionally stable when set. The bulk or outer shrinkage is of the order of a few tenths of a percent by volume of cement. For bulk expansion of the set cement, special additives and cement systems must be used (eg. salt, magnesium oxide, gypsum, etc). Linear expansions of less than 2% are normally achieved; at higher values the cement is unsound.
Perdida de Fluido/Filtrado
Perdida de fluido significa una reduccion de la presion de poro del cemento Dinamico
Aumento de la reologia Cambio de otras propiedades

Estatico
Perdida de sobre-balance Puenteo Aceleracion de la hidratacion

Recomendacion: < 50 mL/30 min
10 Gas Migration

Loss of cement filtrate is another important factor contributing to gas migration. Poor fluid-loss control will accelerate the decrease of cement pore pressure. Before the cement slurry sets, the interstitial water is mobile, therefore, some degree of fluid loss always occurs when the annular hydrostatic pressure exceeds that of the formation. The process slows when a low-permeability filter cake 1orms against the formation wall, or can stop altogether when the annular and formation pressures equilibrate. Once equilibrium is reached, any volume change within the cement will provoke a sharp pore-pressure decline. Consequently, because of the low compressibility of the cement, severe gas migration may be induced. Fluid loss from cement pores will allow gas to migrate due to the induced pressure differentials between pores with gas and those without. This channeling effect can reduced by good fluid-loss control. Poor fluid-loss control across permeable formations which may be further up the hole can reduce full transmission of the hydrostatic pressure to the gas zone if bonding occurs. Thus fluid-loss control throughout the whole cement column is recommended. Excessive fluid loss will also change the rheological properties, density and friction pressure gradients of the cement slurries and spacers This will alter the criteria used to design the displacement flow regime and effect mud removal efficiency. It is generally accepted that API fluid loss values less than 50 mL/30min are required to reduce the possibility of gas migration by reducing bridging and lowering cement permeability. In some cases, even in the presence of mud filter cake, extremely low fluid loss values may be required to prevent annular bridging.
Perdida de Filtrado
11 Gas Migration
Falla en las interfases

Alteraciones durante el fraguado del cemento
Movimientos Presion en el tapon
Encogimiento del Casing durante completacion

Reduccion de la densidad del fluido Cambios de temperatura
Presurizacion del casing

Forzamientos de alta presion Estimulacion
Actividades de reparacion/workover
Fluidos a menor temperatura y mas livianos
12 Gas Migration
Microanillo
GAS FLUYE A TRAVES DE MICROANILLOS 90% de los pozos sufren de microanillos Se manifesta como presion en el anular La presion se puede aliviar y se acumula de nuevo Puede manifestarse dias o meses despues de la cementacion Gas migra por cualquier canal entre 5 and 25 m Cambios de diametro de 0.001 son suficientes para el flujo de GAS.
13 Gas Migration
ADVANCED SERVICE MODULE - CEMENTING
9. Gas Migration: Microannulus TEXT:

Microannuli are formed when the bond between cement and casing and/or formation wall is broken. This may produce a fine layer/gap through which fluids can move. This is not generally considered to be a problem for water/oil communication. However, a microannulus has a much higher permeability to gas and this may be sufficient to allow gas migration to surface or inter-zonal communication. This may arise due to thermal or hydraulic stresses which deform the interfaces as a result of reducing the casing fluid density after the cement has set, cooling down the well (displacing wellbore to new fluid or excessive injection periods), or due to pressures exerted during stimulation treatments: Interfaces may also be produced by mechanical stresses downhole. Occasionally, gas migration on an intermediate string occurs after several days after cementing. It is possible that the mechanical stresses induced by drilling (especially when leaving the previous casing shoe) may be sufficient to induce gas migration, especially where weak formations are behind the casing.
NOTES:
Expansion de la tuberia
0.1 10 3/4 - 45.5 lb 8 5/8. - 32 lb 7 - 23 lb 5 1/2 - 17 lb 4 1/2 - 11.6 lb 5 1/2 - 23 lb 2 7/8 - 6.4 lb
Expansin (pulgadas)
0.01
0.001
Gas puede pasar Gas puede pasar
0.0001 100
14 Gas Migration
1000
10,000
Presin (psi)
1 0 . G a s M ig r a tio n : C a u s e s a n d r o u te s o f g a s m ig r a tio n TEXT:

T h e o v e r h e a d s h o w s th e r e la t io n s h i p b e tw e e n th e e x p a n s io n o f p i p e d ia m e t e r to i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e f o r u n s u p p o r te d p ip e . T h is c a n b e u s e d t o e s t im a te t h e p o s s ib il it y o f m i c r o a n n u lu s f o r m a t io n i f c a s in g i s p r e s s u r e d up. D o w n h o l e d e f o r m a ti o n c a n o c c u r a s a r e s u lt o f t h e r m a l s tr e s s e s ( c e m e n t h y d r a ti o n , w e ll b o r e c o o ld o w n tr e a tm e n ts , s t e a m in j e c t io n , c o ld f l u i d in j e c t io n , e tc .) o r h y d r a u l ic s t r e s s e s ( r e p la c e m e n t o f c a s i n g f l u id d e n s i ty , c o m m u n ic a ti o n t e s t s , s t im u l a ti o n tr e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e , e tc . ) . T h e e f f e c t o f s u c h s tr e s s e s c a n b e i ll u s t r a te d b y t h e f o ll o w i n g : H y d r a u li c e f f e c t : c o n s i d e r th e r e p l a c e m e n t o f 1 4 .5 l b /g a l d r i ll in g m u d b y K C I w a t e r i n a l in e r . T h is r e s u lt s i n a 3 ,9 0 0 p s i i n te r n a l p r e s s u r e r e d u c t io n a n d c o n s e q u e n tl y a p ip e d ia m e t e r r e d u c ti o n o f 0 .0 0 8 " ( 2 0 3 in s ) . T h is is m o r e th a n la r g e e n o u g h t o a ll o w g a s f lo w . T h e e f f e c t o f p r e s s u r e o n c a s i n g d e f o r m a ti o n c a n b e e s ti m a t e d a s f o l lo w s : E r = ( 1 - v /2 ) .( [ R m 2 .A p ] / [ e .E ] ) T e m p e r a tu r e e f f e c t: A te m p e r a tu r e in c r e a s e o f 3 8 C ( 1 0 0 F ) in 7 in 2 6 lb /f t c a s in g w il l c a u s e a r a d ia l e x p a n s io n o f 5 8 . ( 0 .0 0 2 in s ) . T h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e o n c a s i n g d e f o r m a t io n c a n b e c a l c u la te d a s f o ll o w s : Er = . Rm . AT w h ere: E r = r a d ia l m o v e m e n t , R m = a v e r a g e c a s in g r a d iu s ( i n s ) = ( D o + D i ) / 4 , e = c a s in g th ic k n e s s ( in s ) = ( D o - D i) /2 , E = Y o u n g 's M o d u l u s = 2 4 - 2 8 E + 0 6 f o r s t e e l ( p s i) , v = P o is s o n 's r a t io = 0 .3 f o r s t e e l , P a n d T = c h a n g e i n p r e s s u r e ( p s i ) a n d te m p e r a tu r e ( F ) = c o e f f ic ie n t o f th e r m a l e x p a n s io n = 6 .9 x E - 0 6 ( in / in / F ) f o r s te e l ( a n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y th e s a m e f o r c e m e n t) , a n d a s s u m i n g t h e c a s in g i s n o t s u p p o r t e d b y c e m e n t. N O TES: R eferen ces: S P E 2 5 3 7 7 ( 1 9 9 3 ). M ic r o a n n u l u s E f f e c t o n C e m e n ta tio n L o g s : E x p e r im e n t s a n d c a s e h i s to r ie s
Rutas de migracion a traves de la Lechada

Proceso del flujo de Gas
Burbujas discretas Porciones elongadas (Union de burbujas) Hongo en elevacion Percolacion
15 Gas Migration
11. Gas Migration: Causes and routes of gas migration TEXT:

During the transition liquid to solid, the pressure in the cement column declines as the cement begins to set due to gel strength development. If the cement pore pressure falls sufficiently such that the total hydrostatic pressure of the annular column falls down to that of formation, gas or fluid entry will occur. When in the liquid state, gas will percolate through the cement if the hydrostatic pressure is equal to the formation pressure. The cement density must be high enough for this to be prevented without exceeding the fracture gradient. The path which the migrating gas takes through the cement matrix remains the subject of some debate. One proposition ( Halco ) is that the gas percolates through the cement slurry as gel strength is developing. When sufficient gel strength ( 500 1bf/100 ft2 ) is attained, gas flow will be stopped. such percolation would involve the shearing and macroscopic disruption of cement paste structure by large gas bubble. Gel strength development would have to be rapid and the period between the time the required strength is attained and setting starts very short to stop gas flow. Dowell proposes that initially smaller, bubbles leave the formation, enter the cement and then move through the interconnected porosity in the fragile cement structure as it sets. This may progress to percolation higher in the annulus where the structure is weaker and gas expansive forces greater. Thus if the cement pores can be plugged and cement permeability be reduced, and at the same time gel strength development be delayed and fluid loss reduced, gas migration would be blocked. Fracture can also develop in the cement structure creating a path for gas. Fractures being created by shrinkage puts the cement under tension. If flow is establish through the setting cement then channels will be available for gas flow through the matrix once the cement is set.
NOTES:
Proceso del Flujo de Gas
Flujo de Burbujas Flujo de Burbujas

16 Gas Migration
Flujo de Interfase Flujo de Interfase
Flujo de porcion Flujo de porcion elongada elongada
Hongo en elevacion Hongo en elevacion
Consecuencias de la Migracion de Gas

Falla de aislacion
Perdida de Produccion Estimulacion fuera de la zona Contaminacion de formaciones vecinas Sobre-presurizacion de formaciones debiles
Dano ambiental
Acuiferos Superficie
Reventon
Perdida de Produccion Peligro a personal Equipo perdido o danado
17 Gas Migration
A D V A N C E D SE R V IC E M O D U L E - C E M E N T IN G
12. G as M igration: C onsequen ces TEXT:

T he severity of gas channeling ranges from the m ost hazardous, eg. the blow out situation w hen w ell control is lost because of severe pressure im balance during drilling or cem enting, to the m ost m arginal, eg. a residual gas pressure of a few psi at the w ellhead. A lso, less easily detected dow nhole interzonal com m unication can occur. O f m ost concern is gas m igration that leads to gas at surface, either from casing strings across shallow zones and cem ented to surface, or on liners w here gas channeling is easily circulated up from the liner hanger. For shallow casings, the slurry volum es generally required are very large, the holes are w ashed-out, centralization is poor and frequently the frac gradient w ill not allow an increase in fluid densities. In liners, m ore attention is paid to design, execution, and m ud rem oval. A lso, density control is usually better. H ow ever, tem peratures m ay be too high for the application of certain techniques. T he potential consequences of gas m igration follow ing prim ary cem enting are num erous, but not alw ays im m ediately detectable. A t the extrem e, those that m anifest them selves at the surface m ay lead to w ell abandonm ent. M ore frequently, rem edial cem enting is perform ed until gas flow is shut dow n, and gas pressure is reduced to a level com patible w ith the operator's safety policies and local regulations. R em edial cem enting how ever, is tim e consum ing and costly and m ay reduce the integrity of the casing. A lso, the efficiency of squeeze cem enting in such circum stances is very poor because (i) (ii) (iii) gas channels are difficult to locate, they m ay be too sm all to accept cem ent, and the pressure exerted during the squeeze job is som etim es sufficient to break dow n cem ent bonds.
Prevention is m uch better than repair
N O T E S:
Consecuencias (Cont.)
Reparaciones requeridas (Seguridad y regulaciones)
Equipo de pozo danado Forzamientos Corrosion de tuberia Eficiencia no garantizada
PREVENIR ES MEJOR QUE CURAR

18 Gas Migration
Formaciones debiles sobrepresurizadas

Zona de baja presion
Zona de Gas
19 Gas Migration
13. Gas Migration: Interzonal Communication TEXT:

Inter-zonal gas migration, with no surface indications, is very difficult to detect. In such cases, the subsequent production of gas may be impaired, undesired refilling of an upper depleted zone may occur (with possibly gas migration to the surface of an adjacent well), or the efficiency of stimulation treatments may be reduced. Such downhole channeling can be evaluated by special methods such as noise logs or acoustic logs. Hydraulic communication testing is never recommended in gas wells where successful squeeze cementing may often be impossible as explained earlier.
NOTES:
Migracion de Gas
20 Gas Migration
The photo shows the result of gas migrating to the surface from a near by gas well. The migrations takes several yeasrs (2 years). The near by well was a waterwell and blew-up as a result of reciving unwanted gas from the near by gas well.
Migracion de Gas
21 Gas Migration
Percolacion
Burbujas de gas invaden la lechada a traves de su microporosidad y fluyen a traves de la porosidad de la estructura de gel sin modificarla
22 Gas Migration
Cement Hydration Analyzer (Analizador de la Hidratacion del Cemento)

T
P
Q - agua
23 Gas Migration
P - gas/agua
A D V A N C E D S E R V IC E M O D U L E - C E M E N T IN G
1 4 . G a s M ig r a tio n : L a b o r a to r y te s tin g TEXT:

T h e C e m e n t H y d ra tio n A n a ly z e r ( C H A ) m e a s u re s th e e v o lu tio n o f im p o r ta n t p a r a m e te rs d u rin g th e c e m e n t h y d ra tio n , s u c h a s : P r in c ip le : D e g r e e o f h y d r a tio n A c e ll ( 3 9 0 c m 3 ) is tille d w ith s lu r ry a n d p la c e d it, a th e r m o s ta tic a lly - c o n tr o lle d o v e n . P re s s u r e is a p p lie d ( 2 0 b a r f o r in s ta n c e ) to th e s lu r ry u n til th e rm a l e q u ilib r iu m is re a c h e d b e tw e e n th e s lu rr y a n d th e o v e n th e n th e c e ll is c lo s e d . T h e te m p e ra tu re in th e c e ll re m a in s c o n s ta n t, th e n in c r e a s e s , r e a c h in g a m a x im u m , a n d fin a lly d e c re a s e s to w a rd s th e te m p e r a tu r e o f th e o v e n . T h e s h a p e o f th e te m p e ra tu r e c u rv e d e p e n d s o n th e h e a t p ro d u c e d b y th e h y d r a tio n o f th e s lu rr y a s w e ll a s th e te s t c o n d itio n s . U n d e r a d ia b a tic c o n d itio n s , te m p e ra tu re w o u ld in c r e a s e u n til h y d ra tio n is o v e r a n d th e n s ta y c o n s ta n t. U n d e r p u re ly is o th e rm a l c o n d itio n s , th e h e a t w o u ld b e im m e d ia te ly d is s ip a te d a n d th e te m p e ra tu re w o u ld s ta y c o n s ta n t in th e c e ll. T h e te m p e r a tu r e c u rv e g iv e s a g o o d in d ic a tio n o f th e d e g r e e o f a d v a n c e m e n t o f th e c e m e n t h y d ra tio n . M e c h a n ic a l p r o p e r t ie s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f s tr e s s in s id e t h e s lu r r y : A h y d ra u lic p is to n is u s e d to p r e s s u r iz e th e s lu r ry . A s s h rin k a g e d e v e lo p s th e p is to n m o v e s to c o m p re s s th e s lu r ry a n d c o m p e n s a te s fo r th is s h rin k a g e . A s lo n g a s th e p is to n c a n m o v e , th e p r e s s u r e in s id e th e c e ll s ta y s c o n s ta n t. It is o b s e rv e d th a t in m o s t o f th e c a s e s th e p is to n s lo p s m o v in g w h e n th e te m p e r a tu re o f th e s lu rr y s ta r ts to in c r e a s e . A t in itia l tim e 0 .5 % to 1 % s h r in k a g e h a s b e e n c o m p e n s a te d b y th e m o v e m e n t o f th e p is to n . W h e n th e p is to n s to p s m o v in g , th e p re s s u r e in th e c e ll d e c re a s e s s h a rp ly to th e v a p o r p r e s s u re o f w a te r. T h e p is to n s to p s m o v in g d u e to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a f ric tio n p r e s s u r e (w a ll s h e a r s tre s s ) b e tw e e n th e s lu rr y a n d th e C e ll. S h r in k a g e T h e c e ll is n o w c o n n e c te d to a g a s s o u r c e a l a c o n s ta n t p re s s u re . A s s h r in k a g e d e v e lo p s , g a s e n te rs in to th e c e ll to f ill th e s p a c e c re a te d b y s h r in k a g e . I f p r e s s u re s ta y s c o n s ta n t in th e c e m e n t th e v o lu m e o f g a s w h ic h e n te rs g iv e s a g o o d e s tim a te o f th e to ta l a m o u n t o f s h rin k a g e . In m o s t c a s e s th e a m o u n t o f g a s w h ic h e n te rs C o rr e s p o n d s to 4 % o f th e s lu r ry v o lu m e . I t th e s lu rr y p r e v e n ts th e m ig r a tio n o f g a s , p r e s s u re c o n tin u o u s ly d e c lin e s d o w n to th e v a p o r p r e s s u r e o f th e w a te r a t s p e c if ic te s t te m p e ra tu re . T h e d e g re e o f h y d r a tio n T h e m e c h a n ic a l p r o p e rtie s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f s tr e s s in s id e th e s lu rr y T h e s h r in k a g e
NO TES:
24 Gas Migration
15. Gas Migration: Laboratory testing TEXT:

Test result: At the end of the test, the pore pressure has returned to the gas pressure. The system does not controlled gas under test conditions. The cell is in a thermostated oven at 85 C ( Y-axis on the right ). Liquid slurry is poured into the cell and pressure is applied to the slurry through a piston ( 20 bars ). During the first 4 hours, the pressure measured at the top of the cell stays constant. The slurry is liquid enough so that the movement of the piston ( lower curve ) can maintain the pressure constant. Just before to reach 4 hours, the differential pressure between the pressure at top of the cell and the applied pressure reaches 2.5 bars. At this time the slurry has developed around 10.000 lb/100 ft wall shear stress. Pressure stops to be applied on the piston and the gas valve is open in order to let the gas enter at 17.5 bars. With this slurry and under the test condition, the gas has invaded the slurry.
2
NOTES:
25 Gas Migration
16. Gas Migration: Laboratory testing TEXT:

Test result: No gas entry. The system has controlled the gas under test conditions. If the system is stable, if has good-fluid loss control, a reasonable thickening time and good rheology, this is a system to consider in a cementing application where gas migration control is required.
NOTES:
Metodos de Prevencion
Mejora de la colocacion del cemento - Wellclean Metodos fisicos Optimizacion de la Lechada RAS RFC Lechadas con bajo esfuerzo de gel Tecnicas especiales GASBLOK
26 Gas Migration
17. Gas Migration: Methods for Prevention TEXT:

Solutions to combat gas migration have been proposed as technology and understanding of the subject has grown. It is universally accepted that effective mud removal and placement of a competent cement which rapidly develops good set properties is essential to get good zonal isolation and therefore help stop gas migration. It is not necessary that the gas be stopped at the gas-bearing interval; if good bending and isolation is obtained by cement above and below the gas zone, then gas will not be able to migrate. The criteria which must be satisfied to achieve good mud removal are well known and accepted by most Operators. Physical means have been used to help reduce the effects of gas migration. External casing packers (ECPs) and stage cementing techniques are used. Casing seal rings which help seal cement/casing interfaces also help when used in conjunction with other techniques. Other methods used include cement slurries with properties which help reduce the effect of gas channeling. These are discussed in the following.
NOTES:
Metodos Fisicos
Presion anular Etapas Multiples Columna de cemento reducida ECP / CFP Sellos de casing Incremento de la densidad del lodo
27 Gas Migration
ECP & CFP
Inflation of ECP
28 Gas Migration
Inflation of CFP
Prevencion de la migracion (1)

AISLACION DE ZONA COMPLETA Y PERMANENTE Remover el lodo
Centralizacion Acondicionamiento Movimiento de la tuberia Regimenes de desplazamiento / caudal Lavadores/Espaciadores
29 Gas Migration
18. Gas Migration Prevention: Improved Cementing Practices TEXT:

Effective mud removal requires good displacement mechanics and associated mechanical devices and procedures. This has been discussed previously and is covered in the Mud Removal Module. All the techniques applicable to conventional cementations should be applied to situations where gas migration may occur. They should not be ignored.
NOTES:
Prevencion de la Migracion (2)

Retardar la entrada de gas
Presion anular Incremento de la densidad Reducir la columna de cemento Cementacion en etapas Sandwich squeeze
Impedir su propagacion
Optimizacion de la lechada Packers Anillos de casing
30 Gas Migration
1 9 . G a s M ig r a tio n : M e th o d s o f p r e v e n tin g g a s m ig r a tio n TEXT:

P h y s ic a l te c h n iq u e s u s e d to c o m b a t g a s m ig r a tio n b y d e la y in g th e o c c u r r e n c e o f d o w n h o le p r e s s u r e r e s tr ic tio n a t th e g a s - b e a r in g f o r m a tio n f a c e u n til th e c e m e n t is s u f f ic ie n tly h a r d a n d im p e r m e a b le a r e s h o w n o n th e o v e r h e a d . T h e ir a p p lic a tio n is o f te n lim ite d b y th e w e ll c o n d itio n s . 1. A n n u lu s P r e s s u r e : a p p lic a tio n o f p r e s s u r e a t s u r f a c e to m a in ta in a p o s itiv e d if f e r e n tia l in f a v o r o f th e a n n u lu s is lim ite d b y th e p r e s e n c e o f w e a k z o n e s w h ic h m a y b e b r o k e n d o w n in d u c in g lo s t c ir c u la tio n . A ls o , o n c e a n n u la r f lu id s d e v e lo p s u f f ic ie n t g e l s tr e n g th th e n p r e s s u r e tr a n s m is s io n w ill b e c o m p r o m is e d . I t s h o u ld b e a p p lie d im m e d ia te ly a f te r c e m e n t is in p la c e , w h e n th e m u d /c e m e n t is n o n - g e llin g , o r w h e n th e d e p th o f to p o f c e m e n t is s h a llo w . I t in c r e a s e s th e im p o r ta n c e o f g o o d f lu id - lo s s c o n tr o l. M u ltis ta g e C e m e n tin g : s ta g e c o lla r s , e tc ., u s e d to h e lp c o n tr o l th e h y d r o s ta tic p r e s s u r e a b o v e th e g a s z o n e b y r e d u c in g th e h e ig h t o f c e m e n t ( w h ic h c o u ld c a u s e a r e d u c tio n in p r e s s u r e u p o n g e la tio n ) . R e d u c e d C e m e n t C o lu m n L e n g th : e ith e r b y th e u s e o f s ta g e c o lla r s o r d e s ig n m e th o d o lo g y . T h e la tte r ( L e v in e e t a l.) is a s im p le g r a p h ic a l m e th o d to d e te r m in e th e m in im u m h e ig h t o f c e m e n t c o lu m n r e q u ir e d a b o v e th e g a s z o n e to p r e v e n t in v a s io n o f g a s . E x te r n a l C a s in g P a c k e r s : w h ic h c a n b e in f la te d b y m u d o r c e m e n t s lu r r y f o r m a p o s itiv e b a r r ie r in th e a n n u lu s p r e v e n tin g f u r th e r u p w a r d f lo w o f g a s . H o w e v e r , th e y r e q u ir e a c o m p e te n t f o r m a tio n a g a in s t w h ic h to o l s e a l, c a n s u f f e r m e c h a n ic a l d a m a g e w h e n b e in g r u n o r in p la c e , m a y n o t h o ld f o r th e lif e o f th e w e ll a n d th e lo n g te r m e f f e c ts o f h a v in g g a s tr a p p e d b e lo w is u n k n o w n . T h e y a ls o w ill r e s tr ic t th e tr a n s m is s io n o f h y d r o s ta tic p r e s s u r e to z o n e s b e lo w w h ic h m a y b e s u s c e p tib le to g a s in v a s io n a n d m ig r a tio n . I n c r e a s e d M u d D e n s ity : a s im p le m e th o d o f in c r e a s in g th e to ta l h y d r o s ta tic p r e s s u r e a c tin g o n th e g a s f o r m a tio n . H o w e v e r , th is w ill n o t a lw a y s b e p o s s ib le a s lo s s e s m a y b e in d u c e d in o th e r z o n e s , a n d a ls o d is p la c e m e n t o f m u d m a y b e le s s e f f ic ie n t. S e a l R in g s : a n e la s to m e r ic s e a l r in g a tta c h e d to th e c ir c u m f e r e n c e o f th e c a s in g w h ic h h e lp s p r e v e n t in te r f a c ia l m ig r a tio n . U s e d m a in ly in c o n ju n c tio n w ith o th e r te c h n iq u e s .
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
NO TES:
Diseno de la Lechada
Cementos compresibles Cementos tixotropicos RAS Cementos surfactantes Cementos expansivos Cementos impermeables Cementos con microsilica
31 Gas Migration
ADVANCED SERVICEMODULE- CEMENTING
20. Gas Migration: Slurry design TEXT:

Different slurry designs are possible to solve gas migration problems. Each one of these slurries is designed to fight against one of the many possible causes of gas migration. For example, if you think that a slurry with high gel will solve your problem of gas migration: you will use a thixotropic slurry ....
NOTES:
Lechadas Compresibles
Concepto
Mantener el sobre-balance
Metodos
Generacion de Gas
Seguridad segun el tipo de gas Control de la generacion Desequilibrio
Cemento Espumado (Foamed Cement)

Logistica y recursos adicionales Complejidad
32 Gas Migration
2 1 . G a s M ig r a tio n P r e v e n tio n : C o m p r e s s ib le C e m e n t TEXT:

C o m p r e s s ib le c e m e n ts w ill m a in ta in c e m e n t p o r e p r e s s u r e a b o v e th e f o r m a tio n g a s p r e s s u r e in a d d itio n to th e ir e x p a n s iv e p r o p e r tie s . T h is th e o r e tic a lly s h o u ld p r e v e n t a n y m o v e m e n t o f g a s f r o m th e f o r m a tio n in to th e c e m e n te d a n n u lu s . C e m e n t s lu r r ie s h a v e v e r y lo w c o m p r e s s ib ilitie s , s o s m a ll v o lu m e lo s s e s w ill c r e a te s ig n if ic a n t p r e s s u r e lo s s e s in a n a n n u lu s . T h e in tr o d u c tio n o f a g a s w ill in c r e a s e th e s lu r r y c o m p r e s s ib ility . T h u s v o lu m e r e d u c tio n s w ill n o t r e s u lt in s u c h d r a s tic p r e s s u r e lo s s e s a s th e g a s w ill b e a b le to e x p a n d . S u c h s y s te m s h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l in c e r ta in a p p lic a tio n s a n d f a ll in to tw o m a in c a te g o r ie s : 1 . F o a m e d C e m e n ts : a n in e r t g a s ( u s u a lly n itr o g e n ) is in tr o d u c e d to th e c e m e n t s lu r r y a t s u r f a c e . T h is te c h n iq u e w a s in itia lly p r o m o te d b y S h e ll in O m a n . A b o u t 8 0 jo b s w e r e p e r f o r m e d b u t th e id e a a p p e a r s to h a v e lo s t o u t to th e u s e o f s u r f a c ta n ts in c e m e n t. F o a m e d c e m e n ts m a y b e a p p lic a b le a t s h a llo w d e p th s . 2 . I n - s itu G a s G e n e r a tio n : m a te r ia ls a r e a d d e d to th e c e m e n t ( e g . f in e a lu m in u m o r m a g n e s iu m p o w d e r ) w h ic h w ill r e a c t d o w n h o le to p r o d u c e h y d r o g e n g a s . I t is th is p r o d u c e d g a s w h ic h m a in ta in s c e m e n t p o r e p r e s s u r e d o w n h o le . I t is im p o r ta n t th a t s u c h s lu r r ie s h a v e g o o d f lu id lo s s a n d r h e o lo g ic a l p r o p e r tie s to a id in c o m b a tin g g a s in v a s io n . T h e g a s m u s t b e g e n e r a te d o n c e th e s lu r r y is in p la c e ; th is is d if f ic u lt to c o n tr o l. T h e g e n e r a te d g a s m a y a ls o c o n tr ib u te to g a s m ig r a tio n a s it is p r o d u c e d a t a s lig h tly h ig h e r p r e s s u r e th a n th e lo c a l f o r m a tio n o r h y d r o s ta tic p r e s s u r e s . D is a d v a n ta g e s o f s u c h s y s te m s in c lu d e : - s a f e ty h a z a r d s w ith n itr o g e n ( e x e c u tio n ) a n d h y d r o g e n ( e x p lo s iv e ) - a t ty p ic a l d o w n h o le p r e s s u r e s it is d if f ic u lt f o r th e in tr o d u c e d g a s e s to a c h ie v e th e 4 - 6 % v o lu m e tr ic e x p a n s io n n e c e s s a r y to m a in ta in p o r e p r e s s u r e . F o a m e d c e m e n ts f o r e x a m p le a r e a lm o s t in c o m p r e s s ib le a t h ig h p r e s s u r e s d u e to th e in c o m p r e s s ib ility o f g a s e s u n d e r s u c h c o n d itio n s . T h e ir c a p a c ity to c o m p e n s a te f o r a r e d u c tio n in s lu r r y v o lu m e s is p r o b a b ly r e s tr ic te d to s itu a tio n s c lo s e r to s u r f a c e w h e r e g a s e x p a n s io n is s ig n ific a n t. - s y s te m m u s t b e w e ll s ta b iliz e d to p r e v e n t c o a le s c e n c e a n d m ig r a tio n o f g a s b u b b le s - w ill n o t p r e v e n t in te r f a c ia l c h a n n e lin g .
NO TES:
Lechadas Tixotropicas
Concepto
El esfuerzo de gel mantiene unidas fuertement las particulas antes de que el cemento frague, el gas no tiene posibilidad de migrar formando canales macroscopicos Debe formar esfuerzos de gel de 500 lb/100 ft2 para impedir que el gas percole
Metodos
Formacion de Ettringita secundaria
Sulfato calcico hemihidratado D53 Aluminum sulfate D111
33 Gas Migration
Viscosificantes
ADVANCED SERVICE M ODULE - CEM ENTING
22. G as M igration: Slurry design TEXT:

High gel strength developm ent m ay help resist m acroscopic gas percolation. Therefore, thixotropic and high gel strength cem ent system s were proposed to com bat gas m igration. A high gel strength will offer resistance to physical deform ation and percolation by large gas bubbles. Gas m igration will be stopped providing the gel strength can be developed fast enough. However, if bubbles are sm aller than cem ent pore sizes they will be able to m igrate through the cem ent m atrix without affecting the structure. This is likely to be the case as the bubbles leave the forrnation whose perm eability is m uch less than the liquid slurry or hydrating cem ent paste. For such cem ents, the transm itted hydrostatic pressure should revert to the gradient of the interstitial water and then rem ain unchanged until the cem ent sets. Thus they are not effective in preventing gas m igration where the gas pressure exceeds the water gradient, unless additional gas pressure is held on the annulus. Such cem ents have been used successfully to prevent gas leakage in shallow, cool, gas storage wells Also, it is very difficult to obtain acceptable fluid loss control in thixotropic slurries. They m ay dehydrate and bridge far earlier than conventional cem ents increasing the chances of gas m igration. There are two m ain m ethods of creating thixotropy in cem ents: 1. The creation of a m icro-crystalline or m icro-gelatinous network of m ineral hydrates throughout the cem ent slurry which support the bulk of the cem ent solids by m echanical and electrostatic interaction. Ettringite, a calcium sulphoalum inate hydrate is form ed when calcium sulfate hem ihydrate (D053) or alum inum sulfate (D111) is added to cem ent. The resultant network of ettringite needles im parts thixotropic properties to the slurry. Polym ers dissolved in the interstitial water are crosslinked by chem ical reaction to give a kind of selfsupporting viscous gel.
2.
NO TES:
RAS
Concepto
La lechada fragua rapidamente, no hay tiempo para que el gas invada, se reduce el periodo de transicion
Metodos

34 Gas Migration
Aceleracion de la kinetica de hidratacion Dificil de alcanzar < 250oF (120oC) No se observan gelificaciones prematuras Combinacion de cementos/yeso a bajas temperaturas
23. Gas Migration: Slurry Design TEXT:

Right angle set (RAS) cement slurries are well dispersed systems which show no progressive gelation tendency but will still set very rapidly because of rapid hydration kinetics. This allow the full hydrostatic pressure of the annular fluid column to act on the gas-bearing zones until the cement sets. They also develop a very low matrix permeability rapidly enough to prevent significant gas intrusion. Such slurries do not exhibit the "transition time" previously discussed and the mechanism is different to high gel strength cement systems which have also been proposed to combat gas migration. A true set occurs involving the deposition and recrystallization of mineral hydrates. Such systems are characterized by typical consistometer thickening time traces. The consistency remains low until setting when it suddenly rises to 100 Bc within a few minutes. This rise is accompanied by a temperature increase resulting from the exothermic cement reactions taking place. When BHCTs are less than 250F (121C) it becomes difficult to design RAS cement systems due to hydration kinetics. They also suffer from the side effects of certain FLACs and dispersants (ie. retardation). They also exhibit relatively high chemical and bulk shrinkage which can contribute to gas migration. Also within this category are the delayed gel strength cements (Halco). The transition time before which a 500 lbf/100ft gel strength develops is extended while maintaining good slurry properties to allow continued transmission of hydrostatic pressure. However, a right-angle gel should not be compared to a right-angle set.
2
NOTES:
RAS
100
Lechada Gelificada Bc Units
50
RAS
Tiempo
35 Gas Migration
Cementos Surfactantes
Concepto
Formacion de una espuma estable en la lechada si el gas entra en el anular Se impide la migracion/flujo de gas adicional
Metodos
Generacion de espuma
Agente espumante (F78, F52.1) anadido al cemento
36 Gas Migration

A technique patented by IFP and Gaz de France, to prevent gas migration is the use of surfactants. The surfactant ( 0.1 gal/sk ) is added to the cement slurry and reacts with gas to form a stable foam under downhole conditions. The foam then provides significant resistance to flow limiting upward gas migration during setting of cement. The surfactant does not alter the cement slurry properties. The surfactant must be in a wet environment for a foam to be formed. Thus, cement interstitial water must be present at the time the gas enters the formation. This will only occur if the gas flows into the annulus during the initial stages of cement slurry pore-pressure decline, ie. before or at the point it falls to the mix water gradient. Thus, surfactants may only be effective in critical cases of gas migration pore pressure and hydrostatic pressures are close and with cement slurries which exhibit low rheology, no gelation tendencies and fluid loss. Surfactant added to a preflush will help as it will enter the formation pores and the resultant foam will reduce permeability with respect to the gas, hindering its movement into the annulus.
NOTES:
Lechadas Expansivas
Concepto
Expansion volumetrica del cemento cierra los canales de gas y mejora el sello entre las interfaces
Metodos
Crecimiento de Cristales
Incrementando el sulfato calcico La expansion ocurre luego de que la migracion de gas empieza, se requiere control de la expansion
37 Gas Migration
25. G as M igration: S lurry design TEXT:

E xpansive cem ent system s have been advocated or use in situations w here a m icroannulus is the cause of gas m igration. T here are tw o principal techniques for inducing expansion in Portland cem ent: 1. C rystal grow th: relies on the deposition and grow th of chem ical species w ithin the cem ent structure. E ttringite, a highly hydrated form of calcium sulfoalum inate, m ay be form ed in-situ by the reaction of calcium sulfate w ith the alum inate cem ent phases, or be added in the anhydrous form in a type K cem ent blend A linear expansion of 0.2 - 0.3 % is experienced. E xpansion properties can also be im parted using high concentrations of salt and/or sodium sulfate. C alcined m agnesium oxide (0.251.0% B W O C ) provides an expansive force w ithin the cem ent m atrix as a result of hydration to m agnesium hydroxide; T he am ount of expansion increases w ith increasing tem perature. 2. G as generation sam e principal as in-situ generating com pressible cem ents but concentration of reactive m etal ( alum inum or m agnesium ) is reduced. C ontrolled expansion w ill help seal sm all gaps betw een the cem ent sheath and the casing / form ation. but is probably ineffective in sealing large channels caused by gas m igration. T rying to increase the expansion of Portland cem ents leads to unsoundness T his w ill occur w hen the linear expansion exceeds 1% : how ever tests have indicated that, the addition of latex to a system containing M gO as the expansive agent allow s expansion at least equal to 1% w ithout apparent effect on cem ent m echanical properties. E ven though expansive cem ents undergo a net bulk dim ensional expansion they still exhibit a net chem ical contraction and experience the sam e hydrostatic and pore pressure decreases as norm al cem ents. T he true volum e of the set cem ent is still less than the slurry volum e, and voids w ill be created w ithin the cem ent m atrix. T he expansion also occurs after the cem ent is set. T his m ay be too late to stop gas m igration.
N O T E S:
Lechadas Impermeables
Concepto
Otorgar propiedades de impermeabilidad al gas a la lechada durante la transicion de liquido a solido.
Metodos
Reducir la porosidad de la lechada
Latex Micromax
Reducir la caida de la presion de poro

Menor reduccion de volumen
38 Gas Migration

Cements mixed at normal water ratios are essentially impermeable if allowed to set undisturbed by invading fluids. However, during the transition from liquid to solid the cement matrix is highly permeable, fragile and susceptible to gas migration. Gas migration can be prevented by reducing the matrix permeability during this critical period. Several techniques have been used: Viscosify interstitial water of the cement slurry to limit gas mobility in cement pores. The concept is similar to fluid-loss control and tendencies for slurry viscosification and temperature limitations limit the application of such techniques. A combination of bridging agents (eg. microsilica) and polymers is used to viscosify and immobilize the fluids within the cement pore spaces. As the cement mix water cannot be displaced, gas cannot move. Microsilica, (D154/D155) a very fine form of silica (or silica fume) with a particle size of 0.01 -0.5 , is used to fill and plug pore spaces reducing matrix permeability at an early stage. Is used for low density, low permeability cements for shallow low-pressure gas zones - see next overhead. Latex additives which are discrete dispersions of solid polymer particles act to block gas migration by the formation of films and the plugging action of the particles in the cement pore spaces. This is the basis of the GASBLOK cement additives.
NOTES:
Cementos con Microsilica

Concepto
Las particulas extremadamente pequenas de microsilica aparentemente empacan los espacios entre las particulas de cemento mas grandes, creando un bloqueo, el cual puede evitar la mobilizacion del agua por el gas
Metodos
Reducen la permeabilidad al gas
Microsilica D154/D155
39 Gas Migration

Work on microsilica based systems for controlling gas migration started in Norway in 1983 and has continued since then as a project between Statoil and Elkem. It was initially used as a lightweight system to control gas migration from shallow zones. Now densities ranging from 16.2 to 11.0 lb/gal are commonly used, the lower densities incorporating hollow glass beads. Microsilica is available from several sources, in various forms. Elkem in Norway claims to be the world's largest supplier. The basic product from Elkem is MICROLITE, which is available either as powder or in a slurry form, coded by DS as D154 and D155 respectively. D154 and D155 are primarily used as an extender. Their use also reduces the strength retrogression. MICROBLOCK is Elkem's trade name when the product is used to combat gas migration. It is available as a slurry. The microsilica is suspended in water using a surfactant. However, large volume are required which may present logistical problems, i.e.,> 20% BWOC is recommended. The average particle size of microsilica is approximately 0.15 micron, much smaller than the average cement particle size. It prevent gas migration by packing into cement pore spaces and blocking gas movement. It also acts to reduce free water and fluid loss, both of which must be controlled for gas migration application.
NOTES:
Sistema GASBLOK
Concepto
Peliculas de Latex coalescen formando una pelicula mientras el espacio entre poros se deshidrata La pelicula de latex es impermeable al gas
Metodos
La pelicula de particulas de Latex coalescen y cohesionan los granos de cemento parcialmente hidratados, volviendo impermeable de esta manera a la matriz
40 Gas Migration
28. Gas Migration: GASBLOK TEXT:

GASBLOK cements are classified as impermeable cements; the flow of gas is stopped by reducing the permeability of the cement during the critical transition period from liquid to solid. The mechanisms of action of the GASBLOK latex additive are shown on the overhead. Latex are aqueous dispersions of solid polymer particles, including anionic surfactants and protective colloids, which impart stability to the dispersion. The particles are discrete, will remain dispersed up to the time of cement setting, and are small enough (200-500 nm diameter) to enter and plug pore spaces. The dispersed polymer particles block pore spaces between cement grains reducing permeability and restricting movement of gas through the matrix. When the latex beads contact an exposed gas-liquid interface they coalesce and form a coherent, low permeability plastic film. This acts to block migration of gas and fluids into the cement. For this mechanism to occur, gas must enter the latex-based slurry. In addition, potential migration is reduced due to the improved bonding to casing and formation interfaces and improved fluid loss of the slurry. GASBLOK was derived from the idea of making a well dispersed, thin non-gelling slurry with excellent fluid loss control that is impermeable to gas in its matrix at the time of cement setting, and still impermeable to gas at the cement to casing/formation interfaces. Latices were found to be excellent as they provide a lubricating action, do not viscosify, give very good fluid-loss control and plug cement pores. To some extent, they also impart bonding and shrinkage compensation properties to the cement which translates to improved shear bond strength and elastic deformability in well cements.
NOTES:
GASBLOK - Propiedades
Lechada
Reologia Control de filtrado Estabilidad
Propiedades de transicion
Permeabilidad Esfuerzo de gel
Propiedades una vez fraguada

41 Gas Migration
Esfuerzo de compresion Adherencia Permeabilidad Elasticidad
2 9 . G a s M ig r a tio n : G A S B L O K TEXT:
In a d d itio n to th e p e rm e a b ility re d u c tio n im p a rte d b y th e la te x p a rtic le p lu g g in g a c tio n a n d film fo rm in g c a p a b ility in th e p re se n c e o f g a s, G A S B L O K slu rrie s e x h ib it m a n y o th e r d e sira b le p ro p e rtie s. T h e ir m a in a d v a n ta g e is th e ir e a se o f d e sig n w h e n c o m p a re d to o th e r c e m e n t slu rrie s w h ic h m u st b e d e sig n e d to m e e t th e sa m e re q u ire m e n ts. L o w rh e o lo g ic a l p ro p e rtie s a re o b ta in e d a s a re su lt o f th e lu b ric a tin g a c tio n o f th e a q u e o u s d isp e rsio n o f th e la te x b e a d s. T h in slu rrie s a re b e n e fic ia l fo r e ffe c tiv e m u d re m o v a l; fric tio n p re ssu re d ro p s a re re d u c e d a n d th e c ritic a l ra te fo r tu rb u le n t flo w w ill b e lo w e r. T h e 6 R P M re a d in g o n a F a n n 3 5 w ill b e in th e sa m e ra n g e a s th e slu rry y ie ld p o in t. F lu id -lo ss c o n tro l is v e ry g o o d (5 0 m l/3 0 m in a t th e re c o m m e n d e d la te x c o n c e n tra tio n ) d u e to th e p lu g g in g o f p o re th ro a ts in th e c e m e n t filte r c a k e b y th e la te x p a rtic le s a n d th e im p ro v e d d isp e rsio n o f c e m e n t g ra in s. L o w e r flu id -lo ss c o n tro l m e a n s le ss v o lu m e re d u c tio n a n d b e tte r h y d ro sta tic c o n tro l. S e ttin g a n d th ic k e n in g tim e s a re c le a n a n d e x h ib it ra p id se ts. T h e re is n o p re m a tu re g e la tio n o f th e slu rry w h e n th e G A S B L O K a d d itiv e is w e ll sta b iliz e d . S lu rry c o n siste n c y re m a in s a t a lo w le v e l u n til fin a l se llin g . T h e c rite ria th a t th e c o n siste n c y sh o u ld re m a in b e lo w 3 0 B c fo r a t le a st 7 0 % o f th e th ic k e n in g tim e le st is u se d . A b o v e 2 5 0 F ( 1 2 1 C ) B H C T a rig h t a n g le se t sh o u ld b e e a sily o b ta in e d c o in c id in g w ith a n e x o th e rm ic p e a k a t se llin g tim e . T h e sta b ility , ie . te n d e n c y fo r fre e w a te r d e v e lo p m e n t a n d se ttin g , o f G A S B L O K slu rrie s te n d s to b e m in im a l. T h e fo rm a tio n o f w a te r c h a n n e ls o r p o c k e ts ( e sp e c ia lly in d e v ia te d w e lls ) is th e re fo re 2 g re a tly re d u c e d . G e n e ra lly th e 1 0 -m in g e l stre n g th v a lu e sh o u ld b e > 1 0 lb /1 0 0 ft o r fre e w a te r a n d se llin g m a y b e p o o r.
T h e e ffe c tiv e n e ss o f G A S B L O K c e m e n t slu rrie s d e p e n d s o n (i) g o o d c e m e n tin g p ra c tic e s ( m u d re m o v a l, e tc ), (ii) th e sta b ility o f th e la te x , (iii) th e B H S T a n d th e slu rry p o ro sity , b o th o f w h ic h d e te rm in e th e q u a n tity o f la te x re q u ire d , a n d (iv ) th e ir c o rre c t a p p lic a tio n .
NO TES:
Optimizacion de la Lechada
Agua libre Control de Filtrado Control de Gelificacion TT Reacciones de hidratacion Densidad (sobre-balance) Propiedades Especiales
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3 0 . G a s M ig r a tio n P re v e n tio n : Im p r o v ed C e m e n tin g P ra ctice s TEXT:

C e m e n t slu rry p ro p e rtie s: A g o o d g a s c o n tro llin g c e m e n t slu rry is o n e w h ic h d e v e lo p s im p e rm e a b ility to g a s a s so o n a s p o ssib le a fte r th e c e m e n t is in p la c e . If n o t, th e n slu rry p ro p e rtie s a n d th e tra n sm issio n o f h y d ro sta tic p re ssu re m u st b e m a in ta in e d lo n g u n til p e rm e a b ility is lo w e n o u g h to sto p g a s. F lu id -L o ss C o n tro l: le ss th a n 5 0 m L /3 0 m in is re q u ire d to e n su re slu rry p ro p e rtie s a re m a in ta in e d d u rin g p la c e m e n t a n d m in im iz e v o lu m e re d u c tio n s (a n d th e re fo re p o re p re ssu re re d u c tio n ) w h e n in p la c e . P o o r flu id -lo ss c o n tro l a b o v e th e g a s z o n e a c ro ss p e rm e a b le z o n e s m a y le a d to b rid g in g o r p re m a tu re c e m e n t g e la tio n a n d lo ss o f h y d ro sta tic p re ssu re tra n sm issio n . G e la tio n /S e ttin g : lo w g e l stre n g th d e v e lo p m e n t w ill re d u c e th e tra n sitio n tim e fro m liq u id to so lid a n d re d u c e th e lo ss o f h y d ro sta tic p re ssu re . D isp e rsa n ts a n d n o n -g e llin g re ta rd e rs sh o u ld b e u se d to p re v e n t g e la tio n a n d g iv e lo w rh e o lo g ic a l p ro p e rtie s. F re e W a te r: to b e a s lo w a s p o ssib le to p re v e n t fo rm a tio n o f p o c k e ts o f w a te r o r c h a n n e ls in d e v ia te d w e lls. M ix W a te r D e n sity : th e h ig h e r th e d e n sity o f th e m ix w a te r, th e le ss d ra stic w ill b e th e re d u c tio n in h y d ro sta tic p re ssu re . C a n b e in c re a se d b y u sin g sa lt w a te r slu rrie s. T h ic k e n in g T im e : a c e m e n t e x h ib itin g a rig h t a n g le se t is re q u ire d to re d u c e th e tra n sitio n tim e . R e ta rd e rs w h ic h c a u se g e la tio n sh o u ld b e a v o id e d . D e n sity : sh o u ld b e h ig h e n o u g h to m a in ta in su ffic ie n t h y d ro sta tic p re ssu re b u t n o t fra c tu re th e fo rm a tio n .
NO TES:
Tecnica Especial
Fast setting Slurry or R.A.S
Gas Zone
Low Filtrate Slurry
43 Gas Migration
A D V A N C E D S E R V IC E M O D U L E . C E M E N T IN G
3 1 . G a s M ig ra tio n P r ev en tio n : C a n a d a S a n d w ich -S q u eeze TEXT:

A n e w m e th o d b a se d o n a n o ld c e m e n tin g te c h n iq u e h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d in C a n a d a fo r c o n tro llin g g a s m ig ra tio n in sh a llo w w e lls. It u se s a lim ite d v o lu m e o f a rig h t a n g le se t c e m e n t fo llo w e d b y a lo w flu id lo ss ta il slu rry . C e m e n t v o lu m e s m u st b e w e ll e stim a te d (n e e d g o o d h o le c a lip e r) a n d th e c e m e n ts sh o u ld h a v e g o o d rh e o lo g ic a l p ro p e rtie s a n d g o o d flu id -lo ss c o n tro l. A su rfa c ta n t/fo a m in g a g e n t is a lso a d d e d to th e c e m e n t slu rrie s a n d a n y p re flu sh e s. T h e te c h n iq u e in v o lv e s: 1. 2. A c c u ra te k n o w le d g e o f h o le v o lu m e a n d g a s z o n e d e p th s. P u m p a rig h t a n g le se t (R A S ) le a d slu rry (v o lu m e e q u iv a le n t to 5 0 m ts in a n n u lu s o r fro m su rfa c e to ju st a b o v e th e g a s z o n e s). T h is su rfa c e se t c e m e n t sh o u ld h a v e a lo w tra n sitio n tim e (5 - 1 0 m in u te s) a n d g o o d rh e o lo g y a n d flu id lo ss to im p ro v e m u d re m o v a l e ffic ie n c y , a n d c o n ta in s a su rfa c ta n t. Q u ic k se t c e m e n t sy ste m s (4 0 % C la ss A c e m e n t + 6 0 % D 5 3 ) a re u se d . P u m p a ta il slu rry (G A S B L O K ) w ith g o o d flu id -lo ss c o n tro l, lo n g e r th ic k e n in g tim e a n d lo w g e l stre n g th , a n d c o n ta in in g a su rfa c ta n t. D ro p to p p lu g a n d d isp la c e sh o rt o f th e la n d in g c o lla r/sh o e . A llo w R A S c e m e n t to se t. S lo w ly c o n tin u e d isp la c e m e n t to sq u e e z e th e ta il slu rry in to th e a n n u lu s, a n d g a s z o n e , b e lo w th e se t R A S c e m e n t. S to p w h e n to p p !u g is b u m p e d .
3.
4. 5. 6.
T h e su c c e ss o f th is te c h n iq u e is p ro b a b ly d u e to a c o m b in a tio n o f th re e fa c to rs, (i) th e q u ic k se ttin g , R A S , c e m e n t p re v e n ts g a s m ig ra tio n to su rfa c e d u e to th e ra p id d e v e lo p m e n t o f p e rm e a b ility , (ii) th e su rfa c ta n t a c ts to c re a te a sta b le fo a m w ith th e g a s, a n d (iii) th e sq u e e z in g o f th e ta il slu rry a llo w s a c o n sta n tly h ig h p re ssu re to b e a p p lie d o n th e g a s z o n e p re v e n tin g in flo w o f g a s.
NO TES:
Mecanismo de Migracion de Gas

La presion de la formacion que contiene el gas
Tan pronto como la presion aplicada sobre la formacion cae por debajo de la presion de gas, ocurre la invasion
Invasion primero - Migracion despues - Esto depende del esfuerzo critico en la pasta de cemento (CWSS) SE DEBE UTILIZAR EL MODULO DE POSTPLACEMENT DEL CemCADE
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Prediccion de la Migracion de Gas

MODULO DE MIGRACION DE GAS del CemCADE Factores influenciando el flujo de gas
Factor de Formacion
(KH)
Factor de comportamiento de la lechada

(Perdida de filtrado * tiempo de transicion)
Factor de Remocion de Lodo

(Eficiencia de remocion de lodo)
Factor de Post-Colocacion
(Presion mantenida en la formacion)
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3 2 . G a s M ig r a tio n - J o b d e s ig n TEXT:
I n 1 9 8 9 , th e G A S R U L E te c h n o lo g y w a s in tr o d u c e d to h e lp q u a n tif y th e r is k a s s o c ia te d w ith th e d e s ig n o f a g a s m ig r a tio n jo b . A s lid e r u le is u s e d to c o m p u te a r is k o f g a s m ig r a tio n a s s o c ia te d to a s e t o f w e ll c o n d itio n s a n d d e s ig n p a r a m e te r s . W ith a s e t o f w e ll a n d w e llb o r e - f lu id d a ta , f o u r p a r a m e te r s a r e f ir s t c o m p u te d . T h e s e p a r a m e te r s a r e c o n v e r te d in to d im e n s io n le s s f a c to r s . T h e y a r e : F o r m a tio n F a c to r M u d R e m o v a l F a c to r H y d r o s ta tic F a c to r S lu r r y P e r f o r m a n c e F a c to r
F in a lly , th e s e f o u r f a c to r s a r e c o m b in e d in to a u n iq u e in d e x w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts th e c h a n c e o f c o n tr o llin g g a s m ig r a tio n . T h is f in a l in d e x is p o o r , m o d e r a te , o r e x c e lle n t . T h e G A S R U L E v a lu e w a s p r o b a b ly n o t in th e d e f in itio n o f v a r io u s f a c to r s b u t r a th e r in a g lo b a l a p p r o a c h . T h e g lo b a l d e s ig n d iv id e d th e jo b d e s ig n in to f o u r m a jo r s te p s f r o m th e a n a ly s is o f th e p r o b le m to th e p r o p e r d e s ig n o f th e c e m e n t c o lu m n , th e m u d r e m o v a l, a n d th e s lu r r y . E a c h o f th e s e s te p s p la y s a n im p o r ta n t r o le in th e o v e r a ll s u c c e s s o f th e jo b a n d c a n b e o p tim iz e d in d e p e n d e n tly o f e a c h o th e r . T h e n in 1 9 9 0 , W E L L C L E A N te c h n o lo g y w a s in tr o d u c e d a n d it w a s r e a liz e d th a t s o m e c a s e s o f g a s m ig r a tio n , w h ic h h a d n o t f o u n d a s o lu tio n w ith th e u s e o f G A S B L O K s lu r r ie s a lo n e , c o u ld b e s o lv e d w h e n th e r u le s o f m u d r e m o v a l, c o n v e y e d b y W E L L C L E A N te c h n o lo g y , w e r e c o r r e c tly a p p lie d . I t b e c a m e p o s s ib le to r e p la c e th e e m p ir ic a l M u d R e m o v a l F a c to r o f th e G A S R U L E b y a m o r e c o m p le te ap p ro ac h . I n th e C e m C A D E g a s m ig r a tio n m o d u le , th e G A S R U L E a p p r o a c h o f d e s ig n in f o u r s te p s is m a in ta in e d . N o c h a n g e is m a d e to th e F o r m a tio n F a c to r ; G A S B L O K a n d W E L L C L E A N te c h n o lo g y a r e f o r s lu r r y d e s ig n a n d m u d r e m o v a l o n ly . T h e m a in im p r o v e m e n t s ta n d s in th e d e s ig n o f th e c o lu m n h y d r o s ta tic p r e s s u r e : a P o s t P la c e m e n t F a c to r r e p la c e s th e H y d r o s ta tic F a c to r . E a c h s te p o f th e d e s ig n w ill b e d e s c r ib e d in th e f o llo w in g s lid e s .
NO TES:
Factor Formacion
Es un termino adimensional que representa la rata de capacidad productiva de la formacion, kh, con un volumen critico, Vc.
Matematicamente: FF = kh/Vc = 467.7khd / OBP(Dh2-Dp2) Donde:
k = Permeabilidad de la zona (md) h = altura de la zona (ft) d = densidad de la lechada de cemento (ppg) OBP = presion de sobrebalance (psi) Dh = diametro del hoyo (in) Dp = diametro de la tuberia (in)
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3 3 . G a s M ig r a t i o n : J o b d e s ig n TEXT:
T h e m o r e i n f o r m a ti o n g a t h e r e d a b o u t a f o r m a t io n , t h e b e tt e r c h a n c e a g o o d d e s i g n i s a c h i e v e d . T h e a n a ly s is s ta r t s b y id e n tif y i n g a l l p o s s i b l e g a s b e a r in g f o r m a t io n s . E a c h g a s z o n e i s c h a r a c te r i z e d b y i ts p o s it io n , v e r t ic a l e x te n s io n , p r e s s u r e a n d p e r m e a b i lit y . A n a c c u r a te d e s c r i p tio n o f th e p o r e p r e s s u r e v e r s u s d e p th is r e q u i r e d to o p tim iz e th e h y d r o s ta t ic p a r a m e te r s . T h e a n a l y s is o f R F T l o g s h e l p s c o n s i d e r a b l y . O c c u r r e n c e o f g a s d u r in g t h e d r ill in g m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d to l o c a t e p o s s ib le le n s e s o f g a s a b o v e t h e m a in zo n es. B e s id e s t h e g a s z o n e d e s c r i p tio n , a g o o d d e s c r ip t io n o f p o r e p r e s s u r e s a n d f r a c g r a d i e n t s i n th e w e ll in f r o n t o f o t h e r p e r m e a b l e la y e r s is n e e d e d . T h e p o re -g ra d ie n t a n d s p e c if ie d b y e n t e r in g a s c r e e n to d e s c r i b e t h e p e r m e a b il ity is e n te r e d 1 0 m D is p r o v i d e d . t h e f r a c - g r a d ie n t p r e s s u r e s a r e s to r e d in th e F o r m a ti o n S c r e e n . G a s z o n e s a r e G in to t h e F l u i d c o l u m n . A ll t h is i n f o r m a ti o n i s u s e d in th e p o s t p l a c e m e n t e v o lu t io n o f th e a n n u la r p r e s s u r e r ig h t a f t e r c e m e n t p la c e m e n t . T h e f o r m a tio n in th e g a s m ig r a ti o n s c r e e n to c a lc u l a te th e F o r m a t io n F a c to r . A d e f a u lt v a lu e o f
I n t h e C e m C A D E p r o g r a m , a g a s z o n e is d e s c r ib e d b y u s in g th e b o t to m o f th e z o n e a s a r e f e r e n c e . W h e n o n e e n te r s a p r e s s u r e a t a g i v e n d e p t h , t h e p r e s s u r e p r o f i le a b o v e t h i s d e p th i s a s s u m e d a s b e i n g a s tr a ig h t li n e g o in g to th e o r ig i n o f p r e s s u r e s a t th e t o p o f th e w e ll . T h is d e s c r ip ti o n c a n c a u s e p r o b le m s o v e r a l o n g z o n e w h e r e g a s p r e s s u r e s h o u ld b e c o n s t a n t. I n th i s c a s e , th e u s e r m ig h t e n t e r t h e g a s p r e s s u r e a t d if f e r e n t d e p th s t h r o u g h o u t th e g a s z o n e to o b ta i n a m o r e a c c u r a te d e s c r ip ti o n o f th e a c tu a l p r e s s u r e p r o f i le . T h e F o r m a ti o n F a c t o r is c a lc u la t e d u s in g d a t a a l th e t o p o f t h e g a s z o n e . R is k e v a lu a t io n : FF FF FF FF FF = = = = = 0 1 2 3 4 V e r y c r it ic a l C r iti c a l M o d e r a te Low V e r y lo w
W it h : FF = ( P F F ) = ( 7 .6 5 - 1 .6 lo g ( P F F ) - 1 .1 7 ta n h ( 9 .7 lo g ( P F F ) - 1 5 .7 ) )
NO TES:
Factor de Comportamiento de la Lechada

Clasificar los sistemas de cemento de acuerdo a su cinetica de hidratacion y perdida de fluido, factores que son fundamentales para el proceso de migracion de gas.
Matematicamente:
SPN = VAPI ((t100Bc)1/2 - (t30Bc)1/2) / 5.477

Donde:
VAPI = Perdida de fluido API (mL/30 min) t100Bc = tiempo para 100 Bc de consistencia (min) t30Bc = tiempo para 30 Bc de consistencia (min)
47 Gas Migration
34. Gas Migration - Prediction of gas migration TEXT:

Once the slurry reaches the CWSS, the annulus pressure equals the formation pore pressure and gas can enter into the cement column. If the pressure gradient is not flat, gas can migrate towards points of lower pressure. Different slurry compositions will not oppose the same resistance. Depending of the state of the slurry, gas propagates by bubbles, micropercolation or fractures. Bubbles flow is controlled by slurry gel strength and critical values like 25 Pa have been published. Above these value, due to the microporosity and intemal stress induced by shrinkage, gas could migrate in the microporosity or by opening fractures into the cement matrix. Two parameters are used in CemCADE to calculate the Slurry Performance Factor. The fluid loss and the transition time. A correction factor is used when slurry is design with latex. The reason of this correction is found in the particular feature of latex slurries. Latex additive should not be considered as liquid additives. In fact the latex is not a true liquid but a 50% suspension of solid latex particle. The first effect is to reduce the porosity of the cement slurry. By decreasing the porosity of the slurry, the mobility of the water is decreased and most probably the gas mobility as well. Also the latex particles coalesce and form a film that binds the partially hydrated cement grains, making cement matrix impermeable.
The relation between the Slurry Performance Factor and the Slurry Performance Number is the following: SPF=[0.38 + 4.39 log(SPN)] (0.5- 0.5 tanh[2 log(SPN) - 2.5] ) + [5.15 + 0.74 log(SPN)] (0.5 + 0.5 tanh[2 log (SPN) - 2.7])
NOTES:
Mud Removal Factor

Is assessed according to a set of standard industry guidelines.
Mathematically: MRF = MCF + WCF + PMF + BPF + FCF where: MCF = mud circulation factor WCF = WELLCLEAN factor PMF = pipe movement factor BPF = bottom plug factor FCF = fluid compatibility factor
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0 - 0.4 0-3 0 - 0.2 0 - 0.2 0 - 0.2
3 5 . G a s M ig r a tio n : P r e d ic tio n o f g a s m ig r a tio n TEXT:

T h e p r im e c o n c e r n w h e n c e m e n tin g a c r o s s a h ig h p r e s s u r e g a s z o n e is to a c h ie v e o p tim u m m u d r e m o v a l. T h e c o r r e c t a p p lic a tio n o f m u d c le a n te c h n o lo g y is m a n d a to r y f o r g a s m ig r a tio n c o n tr o l. I n g a s m ig r a tio n s c r e e n , s e v e r a l in f o r m a tio n a r e r e w ir e d to d e te r m in e th e q u a lity o f th e m u d r e m o v a l. F o r p r a c tic a l p u r p o s e , o n e s h o u ld tr y to a c h ie v e a g o o d z o n a l is o la tio n o v e r 6 0 0 f t a b o v e th e to p o f th e g a s z o n e . P a ra m e te rs to c o n s id e r a re : M u d c ir c u la t io n e f f ic ie n c y : T h e u s e r m u s t e x e r t its o w n e n g in e e r in g ju d g m e n t to e s tim a te if y e s o r n o e n o u g h m u d w a s c ir c u la tin g a t th e c r itic a l r a te p r io r to p la c e m e n t. T h e d e f a u lt v a lu e is Y E S. E f f e c t iv e v o lu m e o f s p a c e r t o d is p la c e t h e m u d : T h e p lo t e f f e c tiv e v o lu m e o f d is p la c in g f lu id in la m in a r f lo w a llo w s to e s tim a te th e a v e r a g e e f f e c tiv e v o lu m e o f s p a c e r a c r o s s th e z o n e o f in te r e s t. A m in im u m o f 6 0 b b l o f e f f e c tiv e v o lu m e o f s p a c e r is r e c o m m e n d e d . I f th e p lo t h a s b e e n v is u a liz e d C e m C A D E u s e s th e e f f e c tiv e v o lu m e o f s p a c e r a t th e to p o f th e g a s z o n e a s d e f a u lt v a lu e . T im e in t u r b u le n c e a c r o s s t h e g a s z o n e : T h e p lo t tim e o f e f f ic ie n t d is p la c e m e n t a llo w s to e s tim a te a n a v e r a g e tim e o f tu r b u le n c e a c r o s s th e z o n e o f in te r e s t. I f th e p lo t h a s b e e n v is u a liz e d C e m C A D E u s e s th e tim e o f e f f ic ie n t d is p la c e m e n t a t th e to p o f th e g a s z o n e a s d e f a u lt v a lu e . 1 0 m in u te s c o n ta c t tim e in tu r b u le n t f lo w is r e c o m m e n d e d . E f f e c t iv e v o lu m e o f c e m e n t t o d is p la c e t h e m u d : T h e p lo t e f f e c tiv e v o lu m e o f d is p la c in g f lu id in la m in a r f lo w a llo w s to e s tim a te a n a v e r a g e e f f e c tiv e v o lu m e o f c e m e n t a c r o s s th e g a s z o n e . I f th e p lo t h a s b e e n v is u a liz e d , C e m C A D E u s e s th e e f f e c tiv e v o lu m e o f c e m e n t a t th e to p o f th e g a s z o n e a s d e fa u lt v a lu e . R e c o m m e n d e d v a lu e c o rre s p o n d a t 6 0 0 ft o f a n n u la r v o lu m e . P ip e m o v e m e n t : R e c ip r o c a te a n d / o r r o ta tio n p a r tic ip a te in th e p r o c e s s o f m u d r e m o v a l. Y e s is th e d e fa u lt v a lu e . B o t t o m p lu g n u m b e r : T h e b o tto m p lu g n u m b e r is c o n s id e r e d to c o n ta m in a tio n w h ic h c a n o c c u r w h e n th e f lu id tr a v e l d o w n in th e c a s in g . e v a lu a te th e d eg re e of
NO TES:
Post Placement Factor

Is represented by the ratio of the gas-zone pore pressure to the total hydrostatic pressure transmitted by the fluid above the cement at the commencement of true transition
Mathematically: PPF = f(PHF) = Pg / PTOC + 0.052 dw Hc where:
Pg = Gas pressure (psi) PTOC = Hydrostatic pressure at TOC (psi) dw = Water density (ppg)
49 Gas Migration
Hc = Cement slurry fill length (ft)
3 6 . G a s M ig r a tio n : J o b d e s ig n TEXT:
A n o th e r m a jo r f a c to r in p r e d i c t in g g a s f lo w p r o b le m s a f te r c e m e n t in g a s th e p r e s s u r e d if f e r e n t ia l d u r i n g t h e c e m e n t s lu r r y s t r a n s i tio n p e r i o d t im e . A f te r c e m e n t p l a c e m e n t, th e s lu r r y i n iti a l ly b e h a v e s a s a f l u i d , a n d tr a n s m its to t h e f o r m a ti o n s t h e f u ll h y d r o s ta ti c p r e s s u r e th a t c o r r e s p o n d s t o th e g r a v i ty f o r c e s . O n c e s ta ti c , th e c e m e n t s ta r ts t o b u il d u p s o m e s h e a r s t r e n g th , a ls o k n o w n a s s ta ti c g e l s tr e n g th . P h y s ic a l ly , th is m e a n s t h a t t h e s lu r r y c a n u n d e r ta k e a n i n f in it e d e f o r m a ti o n ( o r f l o w ) , o n l y if th e a p p l ie d s h e a r s t r e s s is h ig h e r th a n t h e s h e a r s t r e n g th . T h is s ta tic g e l s tr e n g th d e s c r ib e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a s t r u c tu r e w it h i n t h e c e m e n t m a tr i x , a n d th e n th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f in te r g r a n u l a r s tr e s s e s ( b o th o f w h ic h a r e th e r e s u l t o f t h e h y d r a t io n p r o c e s s ) . D u r i n g th e e a r l y s ta g e s o f h y d r a t io n , t h r e e m a i n p h e n o m e n a t a k e p l a c e : 1] T h e s lu r r y i s a b s o r b in g i ts in te r s ti ti a l w a t e r a n d u s in g i t to c o n tin u o u s ly d e v e l o p m a t r i x s tr u c t u r e a n d s tr e n g t h . A s th e s l u r r y d e v e lo p s s tr u c tu r e , p o r e v o l u m e is c r e a t e d a n d f il le d b y w a te r . T h e c e m e n t p o r e w a te r v o lu m e is c o n ti n u o u s ly d e c r e a s i n g d u e to th e a b s o r p t io n p r o c e s s a n d f lu id lo s s to th e s u r r o u n d i n g f o r m a ti o n s .
2] 3]
T h is to ta l w a te r v o l u m e d e c r e a s e , c a u s e d b y h y d r a t io n a n d f l u id l o s s , c r e a te s a s i g n if ic a n t r e d u c t io n in p o r e p r e s s u r e , th u s c r e a t in g a p r e s s u r e d if f e r e n t ia l f r o m t h e f o r m a ti o n i n t o th e c e m e n t p o r e s p a c e s . T h is p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n ti a l c a u s e s a n in f lu x o f f o r m a ti o n g a s i n t o t h e c e m e n t m a t r i x p o r e p r e s s u r e . A f te r th e in f l u x o f g a s i n t o th e c e m e n t p o r e s p a c e s , t h e p o s s ib il it y o f g a s to m i g r a t e is a c r u c ia l s t a g e . T h e m o s t c r i ti c a l p e r i o d i n t h e c e m e n ts h y d r a t io n p r o c e s s i s e a r l y , w h e n t h e c e m e n t s l u r r y h a s o n l y d e v e lo p e d p a r ti a l s tr u c tu r e . A t t h i s p o in t, th e o n ly h y d r o s ta ti c p r e s s u r e a c t in g o n th e f o r m a ti o n is th a t f r o m th e f lu id a b o v e t h e c e m e n t c o lu m n a n d t h e in te r s t iti a l w a t e r i n th e c e m e n t it s e l f . T h e c e m e n t s lu r r y s o li d p a r ti c l e s n o l o n g e r a i d i n th e p r e s s u r e h e a d , b e c a u s e th e y a r e c o n ti n u o u s l y d e v e l o p in g a s e lf s u p p o r ti n g s t r u c tu r e . I f t h e s u m o f t h e h y d r o s t a t ic p r e s s u r e p r o v i d e d b y th e f lu id c o lu m n a b o v e t h e c e m e n t a n d th e i n t e r s t it ia l w a te r in th e c e m e n t i s n o t s u f f ic ie n t , th e g a s th a t i n v a d e d t h e c e m e n t w i ll p e r c o la te th r o u g h th e p o r e s p a c e s , a n d u p th e a n n u lu s . T h is p e r c o l a t io n w i ll c r e a t e a p e r m a n e n t c h a n n e l, w h i c h w ill p e r s is t e v e n a f te r t h e c e m e n t s e ts . B a s e d o n f ie ld d a ta , i t a p p e a r s th a t w h e n t h e r a ti o o f f o r m a ti o n g a s p r e s s u r e t o th e to ta l h y d r o s ta tic p r e s s u r e tr a n s m it te d b y th e f lu id a b o v e t h e c e m e n t p lu s t h e i n t e r s t it ia l w a te r i n th e c e m e n t i s g r e a t e r th a n 0 .8 5 , th e r i s k o f g a s m i g r a t io n is r e la ti v e ly h ig h . T h e h y d r o s ta t ic f a c t o r is s u m m a r i z e d in th e f o ll o w i n g e q u a ti o n : H y d r o s t a t ic p a r a m e te r = P H F = P g / ( P T O C + 0 .0 5 2 p w H c ) and: P P F = ( 4 .3 - 2 .8 1 lo g ( P H F ) + 1 .4 7 ta n h [ - 1 3 .1 l o g ( P H F ) - 1 .8 4 ] )
Hydrostatic factor
Objective : maintain an overpressure on the formation after the cement has reverted to water gradient (0.433 psi/ft) Use short cement column - 600 ft for GASBLOK Post placement pressure on the annulus - a few hundreds of PSI - Be careful not to frac Based on statistical studies : 15 to 18 % is considered a safe overbalance
50 Gas Migration
The hydrostatic factor

Compare the formation gas pressure Pg to the pressure on TOC plus the pressure exerted by the column of cement (Hc) when the cement slurry hydrostatic reverts to that of a water column. Pg / Ptoc + Hc * 0.433 psi/ft If this ratio > 0.85 ==> high risks of gas migration This is based on experimental field data
51 Gas Migration
Gas Migration Factor

Is a linear combination of the four parameter previously described.
Mathematically:
GMF = 1/10 (FF + 2PPF + 4MRF + 3SPF)

where: FF = Formation Factor PPF = Post-placement Factor MRF = Mud Removal Factor SPF = Slurry Performance Factor
52 Gas Migration
ADVANCED SERVICE MODULE- CEMENTING
37. Gas Migration: Job design TEXT:

The Gas Migration Factor is a linear combination of the four parameters previously described: - Mud Removal Factor ( MRF ) - Slurry Performance Factor ( SPF ) - Formation Factor ( FF ) - Post Placement Factor ( PPF ) Notes: If SPF = 0, GMF = GMF -1 If MRF = 0, GMF = 0 If MRF = 1, GMF = GMF-1 For horizontal wells or highly deviated wells, if free water is not equal to zero, a warning message will be displayed on the screen.
NOTES:
New concept The CHP of a Cement Slurry

CHP = Critical Hydration Period = the period of time that begins when the slurry is no longer capable of transmitting hydrostatic pressure that overbalances the pore pressure of the formations and ends when the slurry has developed enough cohesive strength to prevent the entry and flow of reservoir fluids
53 Gas Migration
Critical Hydration Period

CWSS = 0.25 [(gLcos) - Pf] [Dh - Dc] / L where:
10000
= fluid density
Impermeable Matrix CWSS
1000
100
10
CHP
g = gravity L = length of column = angle of inclination Pf = pore pressure Dh = hole diameter Dc = casing diameter
Tf
Gel Strength (lbf/100 sqft)
1 Tc Time
54 Gas Migration
The Critical Wall Shear Stress

CWSS = gel strength at which the cohesive forces between the cement slurry, the wellbore walls and the casing become strong enough to cause the hydrostatic pressure to decline to a pressure equivalent to the formation pore pressure All cement slurry will reach this value of gel strength during their hydration Measure of the degree of hydrostatic decay which allows gas entry. Is not a slurry property. Is dependent on the geometry and pressures in the well.
55 Gas Migration
38. G as M igration: Job design TEXT:

Short term gas m igration is generally due to a loss of w ell control after cem ent placem ent w hich is the result of a decrease in hydrostatic pressure and a creation of room in the cem ent slurry occurring sim ultaneously. T he m ain m echanism responsible for these effects are the fluid loss, the shrinkage and the gelation. A s a slurry gels, interactions develop betw een particles of cem ent. A n estim ate of the m agnitude of these interactions can be obtained by m easuring of the gel strength. A m easure of these interactions is the W all Shear Stress ( W SS ) expressed usually in lbf / 100 ft 2 or Pa. 100 lbf / 100 ft 2 = 47.88 Pa 100 Pa = 208.85 lbf / 100 fl 2 T he pressure drop across a slice of fluid in the annulus is given by the relation: P = df g l cos( ) (4 W SS)/(D h D c) l df : fluid density g : gravity l : length of the slice of fluid : inclination D h : hole diam eter D c : casing diam eter W hen the W SS increases, the pressure in the annulus decreases. T he critical W SS value ( C W SS ) is w hen the annular pressure reaches the gas pressure. O nce the W SS is higher than the critical value, gas can enter into the annulus. T he C W SS does not depend of the slurry by itself but also on w ell param eters like form ation gas pressure, density, and position of the fluids. It is also very sensitive to any extra annular pressure, to the presence of external casing packers ( E C P ) or to any techniques w hich can be used to im prove gas control.
The Critical Wall Shear Stress

The CWSS will be the same for all cement slurry of the same density in a given wellbore CWSS is affected by the any fluid loss from the cement slurry column to the formation after placement due to the resultant density increase CWSS does not depend on the slurry but on:
Formation gas pressure Deviation Hole size Density and position of fluids Additional annular pressure
56 Gas Migration
ADVANCED SERVICE MODULE- CEMENTING
39. Gas Migration: Job design TEXT:

A post placement module has been implement in the CemCADE program which can adjust the hydrostatic parameter in order to maximize the CWSS. By doing so, the time at which the gas can enter the column is delayed. This allows more time for the cement to harden. There is no "good" or "bad" value for CWSS. As rule of thumb: - Below 25 Pa - From 26 to 75 Pa - From 76 to 150 Pa - From 151 to 250 Pa - Above 250 Pa the risk of invasion is very critical the risk of invasion is critical the risk of invasion is moderate the risk of invasion is low the risk of invasion is very low
Values given above are orders of magnitude. The post placement module should be used for differentiating between gas invasion and gas migration. Gas occurs in front of a gas zone for low values of CWSS. Gas migration occurs in front of the gas zone for low values of CWSS. Gas migration may occur only if the pressure gradient in the annulus promotes this migration. Gas migrates toward points of lower pressure only. By looking the post placement plots generated at different values of the wall shear stress, the user can have a good idea of the evolution of the pressure profile in the annulus and effects of adjacent layers.
Values of CWSS
Experimental studies with the CHA indicate that gel strength values as high as 10000 lbf/100 ft2 may be required to prevent fluid influx and flow through a cement slurry. This means that formation fluids cannot migrate by the mechanism of bubble flow alone. Other mechanisms such as the micropercolatioin and fracture flow must be also considered.
57 Gas Migration
CWSS
Low value of CWSS = very critical for gas migration CWSS < 50 lbf/100 ft2 150 < CWSS < 300 lbf/100 ft2 - Critical 300 < CWSS < 500 lbf/100 ft2 - Low risk of gas migration CWSS > 500 lbf/100 ft2 - very low risk of gas migartion.
58 Gas Migration
59 Gas Migration
60 Gas Migration
61 Gas Migration
DOWELL Systems
Gasblok D600 + D135 Gasblok LW (D124/D020/D138/D135/D600) Gasblok HT up to 400 F CemSEAL (D500) LT applications (<150 F) RAS GASBLOK
62 Gas Migration

GASBLOK cement slurries are prepared by mixing Portland cement with latex additive ( D600 or D134 ), a dispersant, antifoam and water. Retarders, extenders or weighting agents are added as required. Laboratory testing should be performed for all slurry design. For optimum slurry performance, latex stability is paramount. D600 and D134 are members of the same latex family developed to complement one another. D600 is used for BHCT up to 250F. Above this temperature its effectiveness is impaired. The temperature range can be extended to 300F by using 4 - 10 % of D135 by volume of D600 but D134 / D135 combination is preferred. D600 can be used in both fresh water and sea water provided that the Mg concentration is less than 2,500 ppm. Salt can be tolerate up to 6 % BWOW, above D135 ( stabilizer ) and D80 have to be used. If flocculation or gelling tendencies persist then the concentration of stabilizer should be increased. D134 was developed for BHCT above 250F, up to 360F. D135 stabilizer must be used in conjunction with D134. It is only used in fresh water systems. Normally 1.5 to 2.0 gal/sk of D600 are required for normal temperatures and densities. When silica flour is used then 2.5 t0 3.0 gal/sk will be required. For low densities, up to 5.0 gal/sk may be required. Retarder should be used according to their temperature ranges. Some of them will cause gelation problems ( D109 ). The thickening time profile should not show any gelation or abnormal thickening. A consistency less than 30 Bc for at least 75 % of time to reach 70 Bc is considered a good test. Latex is also susceptible to bacterial attack. This can be confirmed by their strong smell and flocculation testing.
NOTES:
D600 Criteria
D600 conc function of BHCT and Slurry Porosity D600 is a stabilized suspension of latex particles (Styrene - Butadiene co-polymer) in water (surfactant added)
63 Gas Migration
GASBLOK LT D500 CemSEAL

Passed all the industry tests (CHA, VERITEST, VEBA, TOTAL) A liquid - based on microgel technology Microgel = sub micron particles
64 Gas Migration

Control de Migración de Gas

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CONTROL DE LA MIGRACION DE GAS

1. Gas Migration - Introduction

Rutas y Causas de la Migracion

Perdida de la Hidrostatica o Hidrostatica insuficiente

Perdida del sello entre cemento y formacion

Gas Migration: Causes and routes of gas migration

Remocion insuficiente del lodo

Torta de filtrado del lodo

Gas Migration Causes and routes of gas migration

Gas Migration: Free Water

Presion Hidrostatica Insuficiente

Gas Migration: Causes and routes of gas migration

Integridad del Cemento

Presion Hidrostatica vs. Hidratacion

Periodo durmiente Despues de este punto gas puede migrar

Gas Migration: Causes and routes of gas migration

42% cemento 42% cemento

100% Lechada 100% Lechada

Contraccion Quimica: 4-6% (volumen)

Gas Migration: Causes of gas migration

Aumento de la reologia Cambio de otras propiedades

Perdida de sobre-balance Puenteo Aceleracion de la hidratacion

Gas Migration: Causes and routes of gas migration

Falla en las interfases

Encogimiento del Casing durante completacion

Presurizacion del casing

ADVANCED SERVICE MODULE - CEMENTING

9. Gas Migration: Microannulus TEXT:

Gas puede pasar Gas puede pasar

1 0 . G a s M ig r a tio n : C a u s e s a n d r o u te s o f g a s m ig r a tio n TEXT:

Rutas de migracion a traves de la Lechada

ADVANCED SERVICE MODULE - CEMENTING

11. Gas Migration: Causes and routes of gas migration TEXT:

Proceso del Flujo de Gas

Flujo de Burbujas Flujo de Burbujas

Flujo de Interfase Flujo de Interfase

Flujo de porcion Flujo de porcion elongada elongada

Hongo en elevacion Hongo en elevacion

Consecuencias de la Migracion de Gas

12. G as M igration: C onsequen ces TEXT:

Prevention is m uch better than repair

PREVENIR ES MEJOR QUE CURAR

Formaciones debiles sobrepresurizadas

ADVANCED SERVICE MODULE - CEMENTING

13. Gas Migration: Interzonal Communication TEXT:

Cement Hydration Analyzer (Analizador de la Hidratacion del Cemento)

1 4 . G a s M ig r a tio n : L a b o r a to r y te s tin g TEXT:

ADVANCED SERVICE MODULE - CEMENTING

15. Gas Migration: Laboratory testing TEXT:

ADVANCED SERVICE MODULE - CEMENTING

16. Gas Migration: Laboratory testing TEXT:

ADVANCED SERVICE MODULE - CEMENTING

17. Gas Migration: Methods for Prevention TEXT:

ECP & CFP

Prevencion de la migracion (1)

ADVANCED SERVICE MODULE - CEMENTING

18. Gas Migration Prevention: Improved Cementing Practices TEXT:

Prevencion de la Migracion (2)

1 9 . G a s M ig r a tio n : M e th o d s o f p r e v e n tin g g a s m ig r a tio n TEXT:

ADVANCED SERVICEMODULE- CEMENTING

20. Gas Migration: Slurry design TEXT:

Cemento Espumado (Foamed Cement)