phase too Ferdinand was victorious.

However, the Habsburgs chief general, Wallenstein, alienated many Catholic princes with his high-handed and self- interested behavior. 13.The third phase of the war (16301635) involved successful intervention by Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus on the Protestant side. France subsidized the Swedes to limit Habsburg power. 14. The fourth phase of the war (16351648) involved direct French intervention on the Protestant side. 15. The thirty years war lasted so long because neither side had the resources to win a quick, decisive victory. 16. Finally, in October 1648, peace was achieved. 17.The treaties signed at Munster and Osnabruck, commonly called the Peace of Westphalia, marked a turning point in European political, religious, and social history. 18.The treaties recognized the sovereign, independent authority of more than three hundred German princes; each would govern his territory and make war

and peace. 19.After the Peace of Westphalia, the Habsburg emperors power was severely limited, but the Holy Roman Empire continued to function as a federation. 20. Political divisions within the empire, Germanys weak frontiers, and the acquisition of the province of Alsace increased Frances size and prestige. 21. The treaties also denied the papacy the right to participate in German religious affairsa restriction symbolizing the reduced role of the church in European politics. 22.The Westphalian treaties stipulated that the Augsburg agreement of 1555 should stand permanently. 23. (German States) North: Protestant; South: Catholic A. Germany After the Thirty Years War 1. The Thirty Years War was a disaster for the German economy and society, probably the most destructive event in German history before the twentieth century. 2.In the late 16-17th centuries, all Europe experienced an economic crisis primarily caused by the influx of silver from South America. 3. The destruction of land and foodstuffs, compounded by the flood of Spanish silver, brought on a severe price rise. 4.During and after the war, inflation was worse in Germany than anywhere else in Europe/ 5.Agricultural areas suffered catastrophically. 6. Population decline. 7. Thus the Thirty Years War contributed to the legal and economic decline of the largest segment of German society. I. Discovery, Reconnaissance, and Expansion 1. 1450-1650: Age of Discovery 2. Refers to the eras phenomenal advances in geographical knowledge and technology. 3. Age of Expansion: refers to the migration of Europeans to other parts of the world. 4. Launched a new age in world history. A. Overseas Exploration and Conquest 1.The outward expansion of Europe began with the Viking voyages across the Atlantic in the ninth and tenth centuries. 2. The Vikings also made permanent settlements in, and legal imprint on, Iceland, Ireland, England, Normandy, and Sicily.

3. The Crusades of the eleventh through thirteenth centuries were another phase in Europes attempt to explore and exploit peoples on the periphery of the continent. 4. 1450: A grave new threat had appeared in the EastThe Ottoman Turks 5. The Turkish menace badly frightened Europeans. 6. Political centralization in Spain, France, and England helps explain those countries outward push.

7. The Spanish monarchy was stronger than before and in position to support foreign ventures; it could bear the costs and dangers of exploration. 8. Portugal sought greatness in the unknown world overseas. 9. Portugals taking of Ceuta, an Arab city in northern Morocco, in 1415, marked the beginning of European exploration and control of overseas territory. 10. 1500: Portugal controlled the flow of gold to Europe. 11. The golden century of Portuguese prosperity had begun. 12. Lisbon became the entrance port for Asian goods into Europebut this was not accomplished without a fight. 13. For centuries the Muslims had controlled the rich spice trade of the Indian Ocean, and they did not surrender it willingly. 14.In March 1493, between the voyages of Diaz and da Gama, Spanish ships under a triumphant Genoese mariner named Christopher Columbus (14511506), in the service of the Spanish crown, entered Lisbon harbor. 15. Spain also had begun the quest for an Empire. A. Technological Stimuli to Exploration 1. Technological developments were the key to Europes remarkable outreach. 2.By 1350cannon iron or bronze guns that fired iron or stone ballshad been fully developed in Western Europe. 3.Sultan Mohammed IIs siege of Constantinople in 1453 provides a classic illustration of the effectiveness of cannon fire. 4.The mounting of cannon on ships and improved techniques of shipbuilding gave impetus to European expansion. 5.Since ancient times, most seagoing vessels had been narrow, open boats calledgalleys propelled largely by manpower. 6.In the course of the fifteenth century, the Portuguese developed the caravel, a small, light, three-masted sailing ship. 7. Other fifteenth century developments in navigation helped make possible the conquest of the Atlantic. 8.The magnetic compass enabled sailors to determine their direction and position at sea. 9.Thea s tro la be an instrument developed by Muslim navigators in the twelfth century and used to determine the altitude of the sun and other celestial bodies, permitted mariners to plot their latitude, or position north of south of the equator. A. The Explores Motives 1. The expansion of Europe was not motivated by demographic pressures. 2. The reasons are varied and complex. 3. Enterprising young men of the Spanish upper classes found their economic and political opportunities severely limited. 4. Many ambitious men immigrated to the Americas to seek their fortunes. 5. Government sponsorship and encouragement of exploration also accounted for the results of the various voyages.

6.Scholars have frequently described the European discoveries as a manifestation of Renaissance curiosity about the physical universethe desire to know more about the geography and peoples of the world. 7. Spices were another important incentive for voyages of discovery. 8. The basic reason for European exploration and expansion, however, was the quest for material profit. 9. Wealth was the driving the motivation. A.The Problem of Christopher Columbus 1.The year 1992, which marked the quincentenary of Columbuss first voyages to the Americas, spawned an enormous amount of discussion about the significance of his voyages. 2.Columbus has recently undergone severe criticism. 3. He did not discover the continents: otherAfricans and Europeanshad been there before him. 4. And not only did he not discover the continents; he also misunderstood what he had found. 5. In short, he was a fool who did not know what was going on around him. 6. The central feature in the character of Christopher Columbus is that he was a deeply religious man, 7. Columbus understood Christianity as a missionary religion that should be carried to places and peoples where it did not exist. 8. Columbus was also very knowledgeable about the sea. 9. The objective of the first voyage was in the very title of the expedition of The Enterprise of the Indies. 10. His mind had been formed by the Bible and the geographical writings of classical authors, as had the minds of most educated people of his times. 11. Columbus laid the foundation for Spanish imperial administration. 12.He never understood, however, that the scale of his discoveries created problems of trade, settlers, governmental bureaucracy, and, from a twentyfirst century perspective, the rights of the native people. II. Later Explorers 1.The search for precious metals determined the direction of Spanish exploration and expansion into South Ameica. 2. Magellan also proved that the earth was much larger than Columbus had estimated. 3.In the west indies, the slow recovery of gold, the shortage of a healthy labor force, and sheer restlessness speeded up Spains search for wealth. 4.In 1545 the Spanish opened at Potosi in the Peruvian highlands what became the richest silver mines in the New World. 5. Between 1525 and 1575, the riches of the Americas poured into the Spanish port of Seville and the Portuguese capital of Lisbon. 6.It was the Flemish city of Antwerp that developed into the great entrepot for overseas bullion and Portuguese spices and served as the commercial and financial capital of the entire European world. 7.By the end of the 16th century, Amsterdam had overtaken Antwerp as the financial

capital of Europe. 8.The Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602, became the major organ OF Dutch imperialism and within a few decades expelled the Portuguese from Ceylon and other East Indian islands. A. The Economic Effects of Spains Discoveries in the New World 1.The sixteenth century has been called the Golden Century of Spain.

2. The influence of Spanish armies, Spanish Catholicism, and Spanish wealth was felt all over Europe. 3. Spain was experiencing a steady population increase, creating a sharp rise in the demand for foods and goods. 4. The Spanish economy suffered and could not meet the new demands. 5. The textile industry was badly hurt. 6.The Price Revolution severely strained government budgets. 7. The Spanish inflation was transmitted to the rest of Europe. 8.People who lived on fixed incomes, such as the continental nobles, were badly hurt because their money bought less. 9. Food costs rose more sharply, and the poor fared worst of all. A. The Columbian Exchange 1.Europeans had had commercial relations with Asia and sub- Saharan Africa since Roman times. 2. But with the American discoveries, commercial and other relations for the first time became worldwide, involving all the continents except Australia. 3. European involvement in the Americas led to the acceleration of global contacts. 4. The Age of Discovery led to the migration of peoples, which in turn led to an exchange of fauna and flora, of plants, and disease. 5. On his second voyage to America Columbus brought horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and chickens. 6. Europeans also brought something that had a devastating effect on the Amerindian population: disease. 7. Amerindians had no resistance to European diseases, especially smallpox. 8. Amerindians gave the Spaniards the venereal disease syphilis. A. Colonial Administration 1. Columbus, Cortes, and Pizarro claimed the lands they had discovered for the Crown of Spain. 2.In the sixteenth century, the Crown divided its New World territories into four viceroyalties, or administrative divisions: New Spain, which consisted of Mexico, Central America, and present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, with the capital at Mexico City; Peru, originally all the lands in continental South America, later reduced to the territory of modern Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Ecuador, with the viceregral seat at Lima; New Granada, including present-day Venezuela, Columbia, Panama, and, after 1739, Ecuador with Bogot as its administrative center; and La Plata, consisting of Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, with Buenos Aires as the capital. 3. The viceroy- imperial governor

4.The viceroy presided over theaudiencia , a board of twelve to fifteen judges that served as his advisory council and the highest judicial body. 5.. The Crown claimed thequinto, one fifth of all precious metals mined in South America. 6. The Portuguese governed their colony of Brazil in a similar manner. 7.Corregidores held judicial and military power. 8.The unique feature of colonial Brazils culture and society was its thorough governing intermixture of Indians, whites, and blacks. II. Changing Attitudes 1.The age of religious wars was one of extreme and violent contrasts. 2.Sexism, racism, and skepticism had all originated in ancient times. 3. But late in the sixteenth century they began to take on their familiar modern forms. A. The Status of Women 1. Marriage had three purposes: the procreation of children, the avoidance of sin, and mutual help and companionship. 2. Reformers saw marriage as a womens highest calling and believed that it freed women from sexual urges. 3. While the reformers elevated marriage over celibacy, they did not elevate women as women. 4. Church authorities recognized that most women would marry, and Catholic writings described the ideal wife in the same terms as Protestant manuals: she was obedient, silent, and pious. 5.Male bias and general ignorance of the female anatomy led even educated people to insist that a woman could not achieve sexual satisfaction without a man. 6. Counselors believed that marriage should be based on mutual respect and trust. 7. Moralists believed that the household was a womans first priority. 8. Catholics viewed marriage as a sacramental union that, if validly entered into, could not be dissolved. 9. Society in the early modern period was patriarchal. 10.While women neither lost their identity nor lacked meaningful work, the pervasive assumption was that men ruled. 11.Scholars debated Saint Augustines notion that whores served a useful function by preventing worse sins. 12.Single women of the middle and working classes in 16th and 17th centuries worked in many occupations and professions. 13. Marriages, the reformers maintained, freed women from clerical domination, cultural deprivation, and sexual repression. A. The Great European Witch-hunt 1.A witch, according to Chief Justice Coke of England, was a person who hath conference with the Devil to consult with him or to do some act. 2. Witches were thought to be individuals who could mysteriously injure other people or animalsby causing a person to become blind or impotent, for instance, or by preventing a cow from giving milk.

3.Sabbats- assemblies of witches. 4. Religious reformers extreme notions of the Devils powers and the insecurity created by the religious wars contributed to the growth of belief in witches. 5. Some scholars see witch-hunts as a consequence of the Reformation: rulers proved their piety and religious commitment either by religious wars or by cracking down on heretics or persons considered socially marginal. 6. Some scholars attribute witch-hunts to socioeconomic factors: severe inflation; periodic famines due to poor harvest; wars; the enclosure of land, leading to the movement of the dispossessed and an increase in vagrantsall creating an atmosphere of instability and uncertainty in values. 7. Perhaps a number of causesreligious, intellectual, social, and economiccreated the atmosphere that led to the deaths of so many. A. European Slavery and the Origins of American Racism 1. The slave trade represented one aspect of Italian business enterprise during the Renaissance: where profits were lucrative, papal threats of excommunication failed to stop Genoese slave traders. 2.In 1453 the Ottoman capture of Constantinople halted the flow of white slaves from the Black Sea region and the Balkans. 3.Blacks could better survive under South American conditions. 4.Charles agreed, and in 1518 the African slave trade began.

5.African kings and dealers sold black slaves to European merchants who participated in the transatlantic trade. 6. Settlers beliefs and attitudes toward blacks derived from two basic sources: Christian theological speculation and Arab ideas. 7. Africans were believed to possess a potent sexuality. 8. African women were considered a sexually aggressive, with a temper hot and lascivious. 9. In contrast to civilized peoples from the Mediterranean to China, some Arab writers absurdly claimed, sub-Saharan blacks were the only peoples who had produced no sciences or stable states. II. Literature and Art 1. The age of religious wars and overseas expansion also witnessed an extraordinary degree of intellectual and artistic ferment. A. The Essay: Michel de Montaigne 1. Skepticism is a school of thought founded on doubt that total certainty or definitive knowledge is ever attainable. 2. Perhaps, the fines representative of early modern skepticism is Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592). 3.A humanist, he believed that the object of life was to know thyself for selfknowledge teaches men and women how to live in accordance with nature and God. 4.Montaigne developed a new literary genre, the essayfrom the French essayer,

meaning to test or tryto express his thoughts and ideas. 5.Montaignes essays provide insight into the mind of a remarkably civilized man. 6. Montaignes essay On Cannibals reflects the impact of overseas discoveries on Europeans consciousness. 7. Montaignes rejection of dogmatism, his secularism, and skepticism thus represented a basic change. A. Elizabethan and Jacobean Literature 1.James I (r. 1603-1625) Elizabeths successor. 2.The terms Elizabethan and Jacobean are used to designate the English music, poetry, prose and drama of this period. 3.The poetry of Sir Phillip Sidney (1554-1586), such as Astrophel and Stella, strongly influenced later poetic writing. 4.The Faerie Queene of Edmund Spenser (1564-1593) endures as one of the greatest moral epics in any language. 5. The rare poetic beauty of the plays of Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), such as the Tamburlaine and the Jew of Malta, paved the way for the work of Shakespeare. 6. The immortal dramas of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) and the stately prose of the Authorized, or King James, Bible marked the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods as the golden age of English literature. 7. Shakespeares genius lay in the originality of his characterizations, the diversity of his plots, his understanding of human psychology, and his unexcelled gift for language. 8. Another great masterpiece of the Jacobean period was the Authorized Bible. 9. The Authorized Version. So called because it was produced under royal sponsorshipit had no official ecclesiastical endorsementrepresented the Anglican and Puritan desire to encourage laypeople to read the Scriptures. 10. For centuries the King James Bible has had a profound influence on the language and lives of English- speaking peoples. A. Baroque Art and Music 1.The term Baroque itself may have come from the Portuguese word for an odd shaped m imperfect pearl and was commonly used by late 18th century art critics as an expression of scorn for what they considered an overblown, unbalanced style. 2. The influence of Spanish armies, Spanish Catholicism, and Spanish wealth was felt all over Europe. 3. Spain was experiencing a steady population increase, creating a sharp rise in the demand for foods and goods. 4. The Spanish economy suffered and could not meet the new demands. 5. The textile industry was badly hurt. 6.The Price Revolution severely strained government budgets. 7. The Spanish inflation was transmitted to the rest of Europe. 8.People who lived on fixed incomes, such as the continental nobles, were badly hurt because their money bought less. 9. Food costs rose more sharply, and the poor fared worst of all. A. The Columbian Exchange 1.Europeans had had commercial relations with Asia and sub- Saharan Africa since Roman times.

2. But with the American discoveries, commercial and other relations for the first time became worldwide, involving all the continents except Australia. 3. European involvement in the Americas led to the acceleration of global contacts. 4. The Age of Discovery led to the migration of peoples, which in turn led to an exchange of fauna and flora, of plants, and disease. 5. On his second voyage to America Columbus brought horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and chickens. 6. Europeans also brought something that had a devastating effect on the Amerindian population: disease. 7. Amerindians had no resistance to European diseases, especially smallpox. 8. Amerindians gave the Spaniards the venereal disease syphilis. A. Colonial Administration 1. Columbus, Cortes, and Pizarro claimed the lands they had discovered for the Crown of Spain. 2.In the sixteenth century, the Crown divided its New World territories into four viceroyalties, or administrative divisions: New Spain, which consisted of Mexico, Central America, and present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, with the capital at Mexico City; Peru, originally all the lands in continental South America, later reduced to the territory of modern Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Ecuador, with the viceregral seat at Lima; New Granada, including present-day Venezuela, Columbia, Panama, and, after 1739, Ecuador with Bogot as its administrative center; and La Plata, consisting of Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, with Buenos Aires as the capital. 3. The viceroy- imperial governor 4.The viceroy presided over theaudiencia , a board of twelve to fifteen judges that served as his advisory council and the highest judicial body. 5.. The Crown claimed thequinto, one fifth of all precious metals mined in South America. 6. The Portuguese governed their colony of Brazil in a similar manner. 7.Corregidores held judicial and military power. 8.The unique feature of colonial Brazils culture and society was its thorough governing intermixture of Indians, whites, and blacks. II. Changing Attitudes 1.The age of religious wars was one of extreme and violent contrasts. 2.Sexism, racism, and skepticism had all originated in ancient times. 3. But late in the sixteenth century they began to take on their familiar modern forms. A. The Status of Women 1. Marriage had three purposes: the procreation of children, the avoidance of sin, and mutual help and companionship. 2. Reformers saw marriage as a womens highest calling and believed that it freed women from sexual urges. 3. While the reformers elevated marriage over celibacy, they did not elevate women as women. 4. Church authorities recognized that most women would marry, and Catholic writings described the

ideal wife in the same terms as Protestant manuals: she was obedient, silent, and pious. 5.Male bias and general ignorance of the female anatomy led even educated people to insist that a woman could not achieve sexual satisfaction without a man. 6. Counselors believed that marriage should be based on mutual respect and trust. 7. Moralists believed that the household was a womans first priority. 8. Catholics viewed marriage as a sacramental union that, if validly entered into, could not be dissolved. 9. Society in the early modern period was patriarchal. 10.While women neither lost their identity nor lacked meaningful work, the pervasive assumption was that men ruled. 11.Scholars debated Saint Augustines notion that whores served a useful function by preventing worse sins. 12.Single women of the middle and working classes in 16th and 17th centuries worked in many occupations and professions. 13. Marriages, the reformers maintained, freed women from clerical domination, cultural deprivation, and sexual repression. A. The Great European Witch-hunt 1.A witch, according to Chief Justice Coke of England, was a person who hath conference with the Devil to consult with him or to do some act. 2. Witches were thought to be individuals who could mysteriously injure other people or animalsby causing a person to become blind or impotent, for instance, or by preventing a cow from giving milk. 3.Sabbats- assemblies of witches. 4. Religious reformers extreme notions of the Devils powers and the insecurity created by the religious wars contributed to the growth of belief in witches. 5. Some scholars see witch-hunts as a consequence of the Reformation: rulers proved their piety and religious commitment either by religious wars or by cracking down on heretics or persons considered socially marginal. 6. Some scholars attribute witch-hunts to socioeconomic factors: severe inflation; periodic famines due to poor harvest; wars; the enclosure of land, leading to the movement of the dispossessed and an increase in vagrantsall creating an atmosphere of instability and uncertainty in values. 7. Perhaps a number of causesreligious, intellectual, social, and economiccreated the atmosphere that led to the deaths of so many. A. European Slavery and the Origins of American Racism 1. The slave trade represented one aspect of Italian business enterprise during the Renaissance: where profits were lucrative, papal threats of excommunication failed to stop Genoese slave traders. 2.In 1453 the Ottoman capture of Constantinople halted the flow of white slaves from the Black Sea region and the Balkans. 3.Blacks could better survive under South American conditions. 4.Charles agreed, and in 1518 the African slave trade began.

5.African kings and dealers sold black slaves to European merchants who participated in the transatlantic trade. 6. Settlers beliefs and attitudes toward blacks derived from two basic sources: Christian theological speculation and Arab ideas. 7. Africans were believed to possess a potent sexuality. 8. African women were considered a sexually aggressive, with a temper hot and lascivious. 9. In contrast to civilized peoples from the Mediterranean to China, some Arab writers absurdly claimed, sub-Saharan blacks were the only peoples who had produced no sciences or stable states. II. Literature and Art 1. The age of religious wars and overseas expansion also witnessed an extraordinary degree of intellectual and artistic ferment. A. The Essay: Michel de Montaigne 1. Skepticism is a school of thought founded on doubt that total certainty or definitive knowledge is ever attainable. 2. Perhaps, the fines representative of early modern skepticism is Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592). 3.A humanist, he believed that the object of life was to know thyself for selfknowledge teaches men and women how to live in accordance with nature and God. 4.Montaigne developed a new literary genre, the essayfrom the French essayer, meaning to test or tryto express his thoughts and ideas. 5.Montaignes essays provide insight into the mind of a remarkably civilized man. 6. Montaignes essay On Cannibals reflects the impact of overseas discoveries on Europeans consciousness. 7. Montaignes rejection of dogmatism, his secularism, and skepticism thus represented a basic change. A. Elizabethan and Jacobean Literature 1.James I (r. 1603-1625) Elizabeths successor. 2.The terms Elizabethan and Jacobean are used to designate the English music, poetry, prose and drama of this period. 3.The poetry of Sir Phillip Sidney (1554-1586), such as Astrophel and Stella, strongly influenced later poetic writing. 4.The Faerie Queene of Edmund Spenser (1564-1593) endures as one of the greatest moral epics in any language. 5. The rare poetic beauty of the plays of Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), such as the Tamburlaine and the Jew of Malta, paved the way for the work of Shakespeare. 6. The immortal dramas of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) and the stately prose of the Authorized, or King James, Bible marked the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods as the golden age of English literature. 7. Shakespeares genius lay in the originality of his characterizations, the diversity of his plots, his understanding of human psychology, and his unexcelled gift for language. 8. Another great masterpiece of the Jacobean period was the Authorized Bible. 9. The Authorized Version. So called because it was produced under royal sponsorshipit

had no official ecclesiastical endorsementrepresented the Anglican and Puritan desire to encourage laypeople to read the Scriptures. 10. For centuries the King James Bible has had a profound influence on the language and lives of English- speaking peoples. A. Baroque Art and Music 1.The term Baroque itself may have come from the Portuguese word for an odd shaped m imperfect pearl and was commonly used by late 18th century art critics as an expression of scorn for what they considered an overblown, unbalanced style.