The first person to recognize the essential nature of acids and bases was Svante Arrhenius.

On the basis of his experiments with electrolytes, Arrhenius postulated that acids produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solution, whereas bases produce hydroxide ions. In the Bronsted-Lowry model, an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor. A conjugate acid-base pair consists of two substances related to each other by the donating and accepting of a single proton. A strong acid is one for which the forwards reaction predominates. A strong acid contains a relatively weak conjugate baseone that has a low attraction for protons. A diprotic acid is an acid that can furnish two protons. Most acids are oxyacids, in which the acidic hydrogen is attached to an oxygen atom. Organic acids, those with a carbon backbone, commonly contain the carboxyl group. A substance is said to be amphoteric if it can behave either as an acid or as a base. Water is the most common amphoteric substance. In the ionization of water involves the transfer from one water molecule to another to produce a hydroxide ion and a hydronium ion. Kw is called the ion-product constant for water. In a neutral solution, [H+] = [OH-]. In an acidic solution, [H+] > [OH-]. In a basic solution, [OH-] > [H+]. In each case, however Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14 pH = -log [H+] pH + pOH = 14.00 A buffered solution is one that resists a change in pH even when a strong acid or base is added to is. A solution is buffered by the presence of a weak acid and its conjugate base. The Characteristics of a Buffer 1. 2. 3. 4. The solution contains a weak acid HA and its conjugate base. The buffer resists changes in pH by reacting with any added H+ or OH- so that these ions do not accumulate. Any added H+ reacts with the base A-. Any added OH- reacts with the weak acid HA.

The idea that reactions occur during molecular collisions, which is called the collision model, explains many characteristics of chemical reactions. For example, it explains why a reaction proceeds faster if the concentrations of the reacting molecules are increased. A minimum energy called the activation energy is needed for a reaction to occur. Higher temperatures Higher speeds More high-energy collisions More collisions that break bonds Faster reaction A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction without being consumed. Chemists define equilibrium as the exact balancing of two processes, one of which is the opposite of the other. A system has reached chemical equilibrium a dynamic state where the concentrations of all reactants and products remain constant. Change in pressure, affects gases only Concentrations of reactants increases, toward products Concentration of products increased, toward reactants Temperature increased exothermic, toward reactants Temperature increased, endothermic, toward products

Adding a catalyst, no impact Volume decreased, pressure increases, fewest number of moles Strong Acids HClO4 HCl03 HNO3 HI Hbr Hcl HSO4 Soluble Group One Ba Sr Ca