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Question 1.

1 Vertical Column: Undergoes 2 types of loadings Axial &/or eccentric loading by the combined effect of the shaft/rotor assembly; & the transverse loading by the action of the wind (aerodynamic thrust). The 1st can result in 3 types of mechanical failure: Buckling, Crushing (compression)& Bending. The 1st 2 types may occur if the axial load is purely compressive; out of which the tendency to undergo catastrophic buckling is high, if the column is too much slender as specified under Euler Theory, whereas Crushing can happen otherwise. If however, the loading is eccentric, which is possible owing to the considerable load distribution away from the vertical axis at the turbine blades, the moment acting on the cross section might lead to a gradual failure by bending. The blowing of wind parallel to the surface of earth can exert a normal force on the column, which can lead to a transverse loading on the column (which in this case can be regarded as a beam). This effect can be considerable since such wind turbine bearing columns are erected to be usually 10-20 meters in height. Thus the blowing of wind can induce bending stresses on the column, which can lead to bending. Turbine blades: Since fixed on 1 end to the shaft, can be considered as a cantilevered beam subject to transverse loading by the blowing of wind which exerts a force normal to the blade. Hence bending stresses can be induced in the blade cross section, which in turn induce bending moments as indicated in the bending formula & thus cause bending. Shaft & turbine rotor assembly: Since the assembly is set such that it can turn about a vertical axis so that the plane of the blades are always perpendicular to the direction of the wind, the chances of a twisting action (torque Mx )in the shaft which induces shear stresses along the shaft surfaces (& other concentric planes), which leads to torsion in the shaft are relatively low. However, it can undergo bending since bending moments act in the direction of the z axis (note that a net moment is possible since blades fixed on 1 side of the shaft are longer than others) again due to the thrusting wind forces acting normal to the blades

Question 1.2 There are essentially two parts to the shoot systems of trees: a rigid trunk and a flexible crown of branches, twigs and leaves. This combination of rigidity and flexibility plays a key part in helping trees stand up & withstanding the wind.

Standing up: The vertical column of the above wind turbine, has a tapered circular cross section. The tapering is done so that the net increases of compressive stress along the height of the column (downwards) is minimal. This is achieved by increasing the cross section (tapering) according to the increase of compressive load due to self weight. (demonstrate diagrammatically) Similar to this scenario, the tree trunk which bears the entire weight of the tree is essentially a tapered column having a circular cross section. This effect is particularly conspicuous in larger trees spread across an area with a lot of branches- the width of the tree trunk gets progressively larger downwards, so that lower cross sections are sufficiently able to withstand the cumulative increase of self weight, making sure that trees never collapse under self weight. Further, this natural shaping of the trunk enables trees to resist bending, especially at its base where the trunk is thickest to withstand the effect of bending forces where they are greatest, & accordingly the trunk gets progressively thinner towards the top. This also helps to minimize the amount of wood. (Analogous to an I beam: the flange withstands bending stresses & the web withstands shear stresses.) Withstanding the wind : Trees use a single trunk rather than many separate stems since one thick rod is better at resisting bending than several thin ones. As a result, a single trunk can support a branched system using minimum of wood. The trunks of mature trees are too rigid to bend far away from the wind. Fortunately, the above mentioned flexibility-rigidity combination has resulted in the branches and twigs being thinner, so that the top portion (crown) of the tree can bend. This bending reduces much more the drag force the crown transmits to the trunk, than it would have, if the entire tree had been rigid. Eg. Palm trees can bend right over in the wind and so withstand even the strongest hurricanes. Despite the above structuring, trees still transmit large wind forces to their trunks and down to their root system. Fortunately the root systems of most trees are welldesigned to anchor them firmly in the soil. Certain roots radiate out sideways from the top of the tap root. Similar to the function of the guy cables supporting the vertical column in the wind turbine, these roots provide stability to the tree under windy conditions where the tree trunk tends to rotate. If a tree is pushed over, a plate of roots and soil is levered upwards about a hinge on the aligned side of the trunk. Some anchorage is provided by the bending resistance of the lateral roots on this side. However the vast majority of the anchorage is provided by the sinker roots on the other side of the trunk; which strongly resist

being pulled upwards out of the soil. This function of roots is similar to the function of the foundation bolts in the wind turbine structure.

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