3.

Internetworking T dza chnologies - An Engineering Perspective (2002)

gt

This 165-page PDF book written by Dr. Rahul Banerjee is available online as a read-only (nonprintable) document. It is designed for networking students, covering video, data compression, TCP/IP, routing, network management and security, and some Internet network programming topics. Suggested Reading nderstanding these fundamental concepts in computer architecture is essential to learning computer networking.

Working with Binary and Hexadecimal Numbers

Network addresses, network masks, and encryption keys all typically utilize binary and hexadecimal numbers. Learning binary and hexadecimal numbering concepts will improve your ability to set up and manage computer networks.

Binary-Decimal Number Conversion Calculator

This interactive form computes binary-to-decimal and decimal-to-binary conversions. Unlike ordinary calculators, this calculator displays step-by-step logic as a helpful teaching aid. Definition: A bit is the smallest unit of data transfer on a computer network. Bits represent the two binary values "on" or "off." Bits are often stored on computers as the digital numbers '1' and '0', but in networking, bits can also be "encoded" by electrical signals and pulses of light. In computer networking, some network protocols send and receive data in the form of bit sequences. These are called bit-oriented protocols. Examples of bit-oriented protocols include PPP. Though sometimes written in decimal or byte form, network addresses like IP addresses and MAC addresses are ultimately represented as bits in network communications. Finally, special digital numbers called "keys" are often used to encrypt data on computer networks. The length of these keys is expressed in terms of number of bits. The greater the number of bits, the relatively more effective that key is in protecting data. In wireless network security, for example, 40-bit WEP keys proved to be relatively insecure but the 128-bit or larger WEP keys used today are much more effective. Also Known As: binary digit Bit - Related Terms Bits are the smallest unit of data transfer in computer networking. Bits represent binary values like "on / off," "yes / no," and "true / false."

Bytes
A byte is a sequence of bits. In computer networking, some network protocols send and receive data in the form of byte sequences. These are called byte-oriented protocols.

What Is the Difference Between Bits and Bytes?

Both "bits" and "bytes" refer to digital data transmitted over a network connection. Both can hold network addresses or port numbers, for example. This page describes the difference between bits and bytes.

Kilobits - Megabits - Gigabits

A kilobit in computer networking represents 1000 bits of data. Much larger amounts of data can also be represented in units of megabits or gigabits. Kilobits, megabits and gigabits traveling over a computer network are typically measured per second.

Addresses
Network addresses uniquely identify the network interface of a computer or similar device. Network addressing differs from memory and other types of addressing in computer architecture.

(Computer) Ports
In computer networking, a port represents a communication channel or endpoint. Computer ports can refer to either physical or virtual connections. P working is the practice of linking computing devices together with hardware and software that supports data communications across these devices.

Visual Index of Computer Networking Topics

This guide presents the essential concepts of computer networks in a sequence of visual illustrations designed to teach networking basics by example.

Networking Basics Quiz / Q&A

Answer this series of common questions about basic computer networking concepts to quickly expand your knowledge of the topic.

Network File Sharing 101

Computer networks allow you to share files with friends, family, coworkers and customers. Learn about the different methods for file sharing including Windows, FTP, P2P and Web based.

Operating Systems and Computer Networks

Computers use low-level software called an operating system to help people build and run their own programs. Operating system software runs not just on laptop computers but also on cell phones, network routers and other gadgets. An O/S normally provides basic networking support for Ethernet, Wi-Fi and sometimes Bluetooth and other wireless protocols.

Connecting Two Computers

The simplest kind of home network contains exactly two computers. You can use this kind of network to share files, a printer or another peripheral device, and even an Internet connection. To connect two computers for sharing network resources, consider these alternatives.

Introduction to Area Networks and Network Types

LAN and WAN are two common types of networks but many others exist.

Basic Network Topologies

One way to classify computer networks is by their topology. Common network topologies include the bus, star, and ring.

What are Networks?

Networks are large distributed systems designed to send information from one location to another. An end point is a place in a network where data transmission either originates or terminates. A node is a point in the network where data travels through without stopping. Nodes are connected by channels, paths that data flows down. Channels can be physical linear objects such as a wire or a fiber optic cable, or it can be less tangible, like a wireless connection at a particular frequency.

[edit] Providers and Consumers

An end point that produces information is known as a "producer" or a "server". An endpoint that receives information is known as a "consumer" or a "client". In many networks, such as bidirectional networks, an endpoint can be both a client and a server.

[edit] Bi-directional Communications

Bi-directional communications means that data is flowing both to and from an end point. An end point can be both a client and a server.

[edit] point-to-point communication

Some channels are point-to-point -- they have only a single producer (at one end), and a single consumer (at the far end). Many networks have "full duplex" communication between nodes, meaning they have 2 separate point-to-point channels (one in each direction) between the nodes (on separate wires or allocated to separate frequencies). Some "mesh" networks are built from point-to-point channels. Since wiring every node to every other node is prohibitively expensive, when one node needs to communicate with a distant node, the "intermediate" nodes must pass through the information.

[edit] Multiple Access

Multiple access networks are networks where multiple clients, multiple servers, or both are attempting to access the network simultaneously. Networks with one server and multiple clients are called "broadcast networks", "multicast networks", or "SIMO networks". "SIMO" stands for "Single Input Multiple Output". Networks with multiple clients and servers are known as "MIMO" or "Multiple Input Multiple Output" networks.

[edit] Data Collisions

In a MIMO network, when multiple servers attempt to send data on a single channel at the same time, a data collision occurs. Because data typically consists of electric or electromagnetic radiation, a data collision causes both pieces of information to become unreadable. Clients on the network will either read meaningless data (garbage data) or will read no data at all. MIMO networks therefore will use some sort of collision avoidance or collision detection mechanisms to prevent data collision problems from affecting the network. Networks with only one fixed sender per channel (point-to-point channels and SIMO channels) never have data collisions on the channel.

DATA COMMUNICATION
Data Communication is Exchange of data between two/more devices via a transmission medium.

COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

Message: It is the Information (data) to be communicated (shared) with others.

Sender: The device that sends the message. Receiver: The device that receives the message. Medium: Physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Protocol: A set of rules that governs the transfer of data.

PERFORMANCE DEPENDS ON
No of users: Large no of users may slow down the response time due to heavy traffic. Transmission medium: Defines the speed at which the data can travel (speed of light is the upper bound). Hardware: A high-speed computer with greater storage facilitates faster data transfer. Software: Efficient mechanisms to transform raw data into transmittable signal, to route the signals, to ensure error-free.

NETWORK CRITERIA
Reliability depends on Frequency of failure: All networks fail occasionally. Recovery time: How long does it takes to restore the service. Catastrophe: Networks should be protected from fire, earthquake, theft, etc. Security depends on Unauthorized access should be prevented. Should be protected from viruses, spy-wares, ad ware, malwares etc.

TOPOLOGY
Topology of a network is the geometric representation of the links and nodes of a physical network.

MESH TOPOLOGY
Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. Every device required to have at least n-1 I/O ports. Eliminates traffic problem as links are not shared. It is robust as breaking one link couldn't dysfunction the network completely.

STAR TOPOLOGY
Each computer has a point-point link only to a central controller called the HUB. HUB acts as an exchange to send data from one device to another. Less expensive than mesh. Switch in place of HUB can make the connection faster.

BUS TOPOLOGY
Multi-point connection between devices. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices. There is a limit on the no of drop lines (tapes) as in each tape some energy is lost. Installation is easy & uses less cabling than star or mesh.

RING TOPOLOGY
Point-to-point. Each device is linked only to its immediate neighbors. To add or remove a device requires moving two connections only. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater to regenerate a signal before passing to neighbor. Easy to install and reconfiguration. Maximum ring length and no of devices are fixed. failure of one device causes network failure if not bypassed. unidirectional data traffic.

CATEGORY OF NETWORK

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

LAN is a privately owned networks within a single building or campus. Size is restricted (10m-1KM). Common LAN topologies are bus, ring, star. Speed is high (100Mbps 1 Gbps). These are designed to share resources (hardware/software) between personal computers or workstations.

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

MAN is designed to extend over an entire city. It may be either private(cable TV, Bank ATMs), or public (Telephone). May be a single network like cable TV or may be a means of connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that the resources may be shared.

WIDE AREA NETWORK

WAN provides long distance transmission of data, voice, image, and video information over large geographical areas. that may comprise a country, a continent or even the whole world.

 It utilizes public, leased or private communication devices entities and contains communication channels and routers. A WAN wholly owned by a single company is called an enterprise network. Speed is less than LANs. The basics of network communication z/OS V1R9.0 XL C/C++ Programming Guide SC09-4765-08

This section takes a look at network communication from a very high level and defines some terms used throughout the information. For more detailed information on z/OS network communication and TCP/IP sockets, see z/OS Communications Server: IP Configuration Guide and z/OS Communications Server: IP Programmer's Guide and Reference. For more detailed information on IPv6 network communication and AF_INET6 sockets, see z/OS Communications Server: IPv6 Network and Application Design Guide. Network communication, or internetworking, defines a set of protocols (that is, rules and standards) that allow application programs to talk with each other without regard to the hardware and operating systems where they are run. Internetworking allows application programs to communicate independently of their physical network connections. The internetworking technology called TCP/IP is named after its two main protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). To understand TCP/IP, you should be familiar with the following terms: client A process that requests services on the network. server A process that responds to a request for service from a client. datagram The basic unit of information, consisting of one or more data packets, which are passed across an Internet at the transport level. packet The unit or block of a data transaction between a computer and its network. A packet usually contains a network header, at least one high-level protocol header, and data blocks. Generally, the format of data blocks does not affect how packets are handled. Packets are the exchange medium used at the Internetwork layer to send data through the network.

Telecommunications network
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Example of how nodes may be interconnected with links to form a telecommunications network

A telecommunications network is a collection of terminals, links and nodes which connect together to enable telecommunication between users of the terminals. Networks may use circuit switching or message switching. Each terminal in the network must have a unique address so messages or connections can be routed to the correct recipients. The collection of addresses in the network is called the address space. The links connect the nodes together and are themselves built upon an underlying transmission network which physically pushes the message across the link. Examples of telecommunications networks are:

computer networks the Internet the telephone network the global Telex network the aeronautical ACARS network

Contents
[hide]

1 Messages and protocols 2 Components 3 Network structure 4 Example: the TCP/IP data network 5 See also 6 References

[edit] Messages and protocols

Messages are generated by a sending terminal, then pass through the network of links and nodes until they arrive at the destination terminal. It is the job of the intermediate nodes to handle the messages and route them down the correct link toward their final destination. The messages consist of control (or signaling) and bearer parts which can be sent together or separately. The bearer part is the actual content that the user wishes to transmit (e.g. some encoded speech, or an email) whereas the control part instructs the nodes where and possibly how the message should be routed through the network. A large number of protocols have been developed over the years to specify how each different type of telecommunication network should handle the control and bearer messages to achieve this efficiently.

[edit] Components
All telecommunication networks are made up of five basic components that are present in each network environment regardless of type or use. These basic components include terminals, telecommunications processors, telecommunications channels, computers, and telecommunications control software.

Terminals are the starting and stopping points in any telecommunication network environment. Any input or output device that is used to transmit or receive data can be classified as a terminal component. [1] Telecommunications processors support data transmission and reception between terminals and computers by providing a variety of control and support functions. (i.e. convert data from digital to analog and back) [1] Telecommunications channels are the way by which data is transmitted and received. Telecommunication channels are created through a variety of media of which the most popular include copper wires and coaxial cables. Fiber-optic cables are increasingly used to bring faster and more robust connections to businesses and homes. [1] In a telecommunication environment computers are connected through media to perform their communication assignments. [1] Telecommunications control software is present on all networked computers and is responsible for controlling network activities and functionality. [1]

Early networks were built without computers, but late in the 20th century their switching centers were computerized or the networks replaced with computer networks.

[edit] Network structure

In general, every telecommunications network conceptually consists of three parts, or planes (so called because they can be thought of as being, and often are, separate overlay networks):

The control plane carries control information (also known as signalling). The data plane or user plane or bearer plane carries the network's users' traffic. The management plane carries the operations and administration traffic required for network management.

[edit] Example: the TCP/IP data network

The data network is used extensively throughout the world to connect individuals and organizations. Data networks can be connected together to allow users seamless access to resources that are hosted outside of the particular provider they are connected to. The Internet is the best example of many data networks from different organizations all operating under a single address space. Terminals attached to TCP/IP networks are addressed using IP addresses. There are different types of IP address, but the most common is IP Version 4. Each unique address consists of 4 integers between 0 and 255, usually separated by dots when written down, e.g. 82.131.34.56. TCP/IP are the fundamental protocols that provide the control and routing of messages across the data network. There are many different network structures that TCP/IP can be used across to efficiently route messages, for example:

wide area networks (WAN) metropolitan area networks (MAN) local area networks (LAN) campus area networks (CAN) virtual private networks (VPN)

There are three features that differentiate MANs from LANs or WANs:
1. The area of the network size is between LANs and WANs. The MAN will have a physical area between 5 and 50 km in diameter.[2] 2. MANs do not generally belong to a single organization. The equipment that interconnects the network, the links, and the MAN itself are often owned by an association or a network provider that provides or leases the service to others.[2] 3. A MAN is a means for sharing resources at high speeds within the network. It often provides connections to WAN networks for access to resources outside the scope of the MAN.[2]

[edit] See also

Active networking Access network Core network Coverage (telecommunication)

Double-ended synchronization Federation (information technology) MVNE MVNO Network node Nanoscale network Network model Optical fiber Submarine communications cable Optical mesh network

[edit] References
1. ^ a b c d e O'Brien, J. A. & Marakas, G. M. (2008). Management Information Systems. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin. 2. ^ a b c http://www.erg.abdn.ac.uk/users/gorry/course/intro-pages/man.html Categories: Telecommunications engineering | Network architecture | Telecommunications infrastructure

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n Introduction to Networking This section provides basic introduction to network, what is computer networkng, ethernet overview, lan/wan technology, internet communication system and basic lan concepts. The term network in computing system means two or more computers connected each other to form a network and networking means two or more computers connected with each other and sharing data and resources. Today every business in the world from banking to airlines offices, corporate organizations, postal services, universities and a even a home where there are two or more computers, need a network to communicate with other people. With the passage of time, the network technology has adopted many new standards and many inventions in this industry are on their way to provide the maximum advantages according to the needs of every business. There are many standards and technologies that are involved to form a computer network and based on these standards, there are several protocols, topologies, cables and devices are also the part of a computer network. I will provide a general overview of the basic networking technology, standards and devices.

Protocols are the agreed upon ways, communication language and a set of rules which both the networking computers understand and communicate with each other. Protocols by default come with the operating systems and computer use them to communicate with each other. The most popular protocol on the internet and LAN is the TCP/IP protocol. TCP/IP basically a suite of the protocols, such as TCP, IP, HTTP, DNS, FTP, PPTP, DHCP, HTTPS, LDAP and many other communication protocols. Ethernet is a LAN standard for the network communication. Ethernet was developed by the Xerox system and it comes in the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) standards of 802.3. Ethernet work with CSMA/CD technology and Hub, switch, twisted pair cables, connectors come in the Ethernet technology. Today fast Ethernet such as Gigabyte Ethernet technology work as the backbone for many LAN and WAN technologies and it works at the speed of 1Mb/Sec. Cables are the integral part of a network especially a local area network. There are different types of cables that are used in the network communication system. Such as twisted pair cables UTP/STP, coaxial cable, copper wire and fiber optic cables. In the LAN technology, the most popular cable is unshielded twisted pair and twisted pair cable. A computer network requires a complete, secure, safe and reliable environment to perform well. There are several network security threats that can damage a whole network. To make your network secure, you should have a updated antivirus program, updated operating system, email monitoring system and many other security measures. Only authorized persons should be allowed to access your network resources. Your gateway computer should be well secure because it is directly exposed to the internet. There are several network devices that are the part of a compute network such as hub, switch, router, NIC adapter, gateway device, modems, wireless access points and many other devices. Every device performs a different function for example a hub is central device and every computer in a network is directly connected with the hub or switch. A router is used to connect the two different logically and physically different networks in a LAN or WAN. The communication on the internet is based on the routers. OSI model layer are the logical layers which are designed to understand the complete communication system. There are several logical layers which were developed by the ISO (International standardization organization). Every layer performs different function and data in a network travels at every layer. The seven layers are 1. Application, 2. Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data link and Physical. You can remember the sequence of the layers by this sentence. All people seems to need data processing There are two basic types of a computer network peer to peer network and client/server network. In a peer to peer network, there is no central serve and every computer in the network is a part of the same workgroup. No centralized management and control is present in this type of networking. In the client/server networking model, a centralized network server or a domain controller is present and every computer in a network is dependent on the server for the services such as logon access, files, printer, internet

access, distributed applications and many other resources. If the server stops working, the communication in a network stops so the server availability and access is very important in client/server communication model. A network can also be categorized in a LAN, MAN, CAN, HANs, SAN and WAN. A network in a room or a building of a office known as a LAN (Local area network) and a network between the two buildings of the same city known as MAN (metropolitan area network) a network in a university is known as (CAN) and a network between the two countries is know as WAN (wide area network). There are different physical and logical topologies of a network. The basic network topologies are star, bus, mesh, tree, ring and hybrid. Topology means the physical design or layout of a network. The most common used topology is a start topology in which a centralized device known as a hub or switch is used and all the other computers are directly connected with the hub. Today every business in the world, need a private network to share data and provide a communication system among the employees of an organization. Big the network of a company more administration is required to manage the day to day problems and troubleshooting. A person who is dedicated to deal with the network administration is known as a network administrator. Different companies like Cisco Systems, Microsoft, Comptia, ISC2 and many others have originated many certification programs such as MCSE, CCNA, CCNP, MCSA, A+, CISSP, Server+, and Security+ to make the network administrators more professional, powerful, knowledgeable and resourceful. Internet is a network of networks and a large number of ISPs around the world, online dedicated servers and even our home computers, when connected with the local ISPs, are the part of the internet. Internet is a broadest shape of a network communication system and the router is the key device that involves in the internet communication system.